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EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION:

A STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS

IN KARNATAKA

ANITHA K.

INSTITUTE FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE ,.··· .. ·r . '.' A"i...:.L'., ~ __ , ' :«--' ':';,.1

BANGALORE - 560072 '-:;T TO r,' L'""":I)

A THESIS SUBMITIED THROUGH THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION,

UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE, FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF

PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION

1997

CERTIFICATE

I hereby certify that I have guided and

supervised the preparation and writing of the Thesls

entitled "EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL

EDUCATION : A STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS IN

KARNATAKA" by Ms Anitha K. who worked on this

topic at the Institute for social and Economic change,

Bangalore, from January 1992 to June 1997.

I also certify that the Thesis has not previously

formed the basis for the award of any Degree, Diploma

or Associate Fellowship of the University of Mysore

or any other University.

Date :)7 ,-. '1+ C·.\_Il~

(c. s. NAGARAJU) Associate Professor

Institute for Social and Economic Change Bangalore - 560072.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the present thesis entitled

"EDUCATIONAL PLANNING FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION: A

STUDY OF THREE DISTRICTS IN KARNATAKA" is the

outcome of the original research work undertaken and

carried out by me under guidance of Dr. C.S. Nagaraju,

Associate Professor, Education Unit, Institute for

social and Economic change, 8angalore 560072. Due

acknowledgments have been made wherever anything has

been borrowed from other sources.

I also declare that the material of this thesis

has not formed, in any way the basis for the award of

any Degree, Diploma or Associate Fellowship previously

of the University of Mysore or any other University.

,I ,Ii,,;;, k

(ANITHA K.)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This thesis is the outcome of the work done at

the Institute for Social and Economic Change,

Nagarbhavi, Bangalore under the supervlslon of

Dr. C.S.Nagaraju. I place on record my profound

grati tude and indebtedness

interest in this particular

to him for provoking my

field. His benevolent

encouragement, valuable insights and enduring support

have all made this endeavor possible.

I thank the Institute for Social and Economic

Change, in particular to the Director, Dr. P.V. Shenoi

and facilities to for providing me an opportuni ty

undertake this pursuit. I have benefited from the

academic interactions wi th the faculty of the

Institute for Social and Economic Change. Mention must

especially be made of Dr. Abdul Aziz, Dr. A.S.

Seetharamu, Mrs Vani and Dr. M.D.Ushadevi, who were

willing to share their wisdom and gave encouragement

needed in this regard.

I like to record my Slncere thanks to the

Department of Education, University of Mysore for

extending their support and encouragement in completing

this study. I am particularly grateful for the

Public Instruction, Officials of Zilla Panchayat,

DDPI's, AEO's, Gram Panchayat, SEC members,

Headmasters, Teachers and Villagers of Chickmaglore,

Mandya and Mysore districts for furnishing the required

information.

I acknowledge with Slncere appreciation the help

of Mrs. Malini Nagaraju, who took pain in editing the

draft of the thesis.

My friends Vibha, Geetanj al i, Dr. Benny,

Puttaswamy, Ramakrishna have been a reassuring presence

and of immense help during the course of my work. My

thanks are due to each one of them.

I am thankful to Mr. Krishna Chandran, for

rendering useful assistance in data processing. I

also thank Mr. K.S. Narayana for word processing and

editing of the thesis.

lowe a special place for my Father and Mother.

They gave me immense support in accomplishing this task

without which I would not have brought the study to

frui tion. I am beholder), to them both for ever .

.. il! ,Jj,:Aj,. (ANITHA K.J

CONTENTS

PAGE NO.

CERTIFICATE

DECLARATION

ACKNOWLEDG1ENTS

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

I

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

II

2.1

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

DPEP in Karnataka

Need for the study

The statement of the problem

Explanation of the terms

Research issues

Scope of the study

Limi ta tions of the study

Overview

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

2.2 Studies in the area of Economics

of education

2.3 Studies on disparities in education

2.4 Studies on a few aspects of planning

and implementation

1-22

1

8

9

12

12

20

23

23

24

25-65

25

26

31

36

2.5 Studies on educational administration 39

CHAPTER

2.5.1 Educational administration related to

universalisation of elementary

education

2.5.2 Status and problems of educational

40

administration at different levels 44

2.5.3 Practices of state educational

department related to specific

aspects of educational administration 48

2.5.4 Role of Zilla Panchayat and educa

tional departments in educational

progress 52

III METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 66-100

3.1 Introduction 66

3.2 Nature of the research study 67

3.3 Objective of the study 68

3.4.1 Qualitative analysis at the state

level 71

3.4.2 Statistical analysis 72

3.4.3 Quantitative analysis at the

district level 73

3.4.4 Qualitative data analysis 73

3.5 Operational definitions 73

3.5.1 Description of indication 76

CHAPTER

3.6 Sources of secondary data

3 . 6. 1 Method of analysis of secondary data

3.7 Sample selection of collecting

primary data

3.8.1 Steps involved during field work

3.8.2 Procedure followed in the collection

of information

83

83

93

94

97

3.8.3 Recording the information 98

3.9 Method of analysis of primary data 99

IV

4.1

4.2

SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS

Introduction

101-204

101

Analysis of State plan document

4.3 Distribution of plan outlays during

Five Year Plans

4.4 Analysis of statistical time series

data

4.5 Influence of plan expenditure on

access, retention and quality input

indicators

4.6 Effect of introduction of ZP on

education

4.7

4.8

Analysis using district as unit

Analysis of literacy rates

102

117

124

151

156

163

188

CHAPTER V

4.8.1 Literacy gains of SC, ST and

General population 189

4.8.2 Gender-wise literacy gains of SC, ST

and General population 193

4.8.3 Literacy gains of SC, ST and

General population ~n urban

and rural areas 196

4.8.4 Literacy changes in D~stricts during

5.1

5.2

5.3

Seventies and Eighties

ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS:

Introduction

Method of qualitative data analysis

Structure of educational planning

5.3.1 Initiation of planning process

5.4 Nature of plans

201

205-276

205

206

211

213

227

5.5 Plan procedure for different programme 229

5.6 Procedure of educational planning 242

5.7 Perception of officials related to UEE 252

5.8 Nature of Information and

Information Flow

5.10 Information base for the development of

the proposal

5.11 Reliability of the information

257

260

270

5.12 Outcomes of the Analysis

CHAPTER VI A VIEW OF PRIMARY EDUCATION AT THE FIELD LEVEL

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Educational planning at

field level functionaries

6.3 Dynamics of expansion of

schooling

6.4 Implementation of the scheme

6.5 Provision of additional teachers

6.6 Perception of local people

CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

APPENDX

BIBLIOGRAPHY

272

277-310

277

279

283

288

297

302

311-346

LIST OF TABLES

Table No Title Page No

3.1

3.2

Location selected for the field work at

the district level

Number of respondents at the state level

and designations

3.3 Number of respondents at the district

3.4

4. 1

4.2

4.3

4.4

level designation

Number of respondents at the block level

and designations

Distribution of outlays under various

categories of interventions under five year

plans starting from IV plan

General enrollment rate during 1971-1994

Comparison of enrollment rate between

SC/ST and non-SC/ST during 1971-1993

Gender equality in enrollment at primary

level during 1971-1994

4.5 Gender equality in SC/ST and non-SC/ST

94

96

96

97

120

127

130

133

enrollment at primary level during 1971-93 135

4.6 Gender wise general retention at lower

primary level during 1971-92 138

4.7

4.8

SC/ST and non-SC/ST retention

at lower primary level during 1971-94

Growth of school from 1971-1994

140

144

4.9 Growth of teachers at primary level from

1971-1994 147

4.10

4.11

4.12

4.13

4.14

4.15

4.16

Annual plan expenditure on Primary education 152

Results of linear regression obtained by

considering plan expenditure as indepen

dent variable

Results of linear regression with correc

tion for autocorrrelation obtained by

considering plan expenditure as indepen

dent variable

Enrollment per ten thousand

population before and after the change

in the educational administration

Gender equality index in

enrollment before and after the change in the

educational administration

Retention before and after the

154

155

157

159

change in the educational administration 160

Provision of schools before and after the


4.17

4.18

4.19

4.20

Quality input before and after the change

in the educational administration

District-wise total lower primary enrollment

rates at different plan periods

District wise Higher primary enrollment

rates at different plan periods

District wise gender equality ratio in

162

166

168

LPS enrollment at different plan periods 170

4.21 District-wise gender equality ratio in HPS

enrollment at di:ferent plan periods

4.22 District-wise LPS boys retention rate at

different plan periods

4.23 District-wise LPS girls retention rate at


4.24 District-wise primary schools per ten

4.25

4.26

4.27

thousand population at different plan

periods

District-wise primary school teachers per

ten thousand population at different plan

periods

District-wise pupil-teacher ratio at


District-wise standard-teacher ratio at


172

174

176

179

182

185

187

4.28

4.29

4.30

4.31

5.1

Comparative picture of Literacy ga1ns

of SC, ST and General population

Comparative picture of Male and Female

Literacy gains of SC, ST and

General population

Comparative picture of Rural and Urban

Literacy gains of SC, ST and

General population

Comparison of growth of literacy rates

190

195

197

in different districts of Karnataka State 202

Grid representing the categorisation of

information from field notes 210

No.

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

•

4.9

4.10

4.11

LIST OF FIGURES

Title

Plan outlays on Primary education

General enrollment rate as percent of

population during 1971-1994

Enrollment of SC/ST and non-SC/ST as

percent of population

Gender equality in enrollment during

1971-94

Gender equality in enrollment of SC/ST

and non-SC/ST at LPS & HPS levels

during 1971-93

General & Gender-wise retention at

lower primary level during 1971-92

Retention of SC/ST and non-SC/ST at

lower primary level during 1971-92

Growth of school as proportion to the

population from 1971-92

Teachers as per ten thousand population

Pupil-teacher ratio at primary level from

1971-94

Standard teacher ratio at primary level

from 1971-94

Page No

121

128

:31

134

136

139

141

145

148

149

150

4.12

4.13

4.14

4.15

4.16

4.17

4.18,

4.18a

5.1

Enrollment before and after the


Gender equality in enrollment

before and after the change in

the educational administration

Retention before and after

the change in the educational

administration

Provision of school before and

after the change In the educational

administration

Quality input indicator before and after

the change in the educational administra

tion

Literacy of population categories

based on the census 1971, 1981, & 1991

Gender-wise literacy gains 71-81 & 81-91

within each population category

Rural & Urban literacy gains 71-81 & 81-91

within each population category

CHART

structure of educational planning for

primary education

159

160

161

163

191

195

198

212

U.K:

UNICEF:

DPEP:

NIEPPI.:

UNESCO:

GDP:

USA:

SC:

ST:

U.E.E. :

ZP:

DEO:

PEl:

LPS:

HPS:

:;:SEC:

SBC:

CPI:

DDPI:

AEO:

ABBREVIATIONS

United Kingdom

United Nations International children's Emergency Fund

Distr~ct Primary Education Programme

National Institute Of Educat~onal Planning and Administration.

United nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organisation

Gross Domestic product

United States of America

Scheduled Castes

Scheduled Tribes

Universalisation of primary Education

Zilla Panchayat

District Educational Officer

Panchayat Raj Institutions

Lower Primary School

Higher Primary School

Institute For Social and Economic Change

School Betterment Committee

Commissioner of Public Administration.

Deputy Director of Public Instruction

Assistant Educational Officer

BEO:

CEO:

MNP:

NFE:

lOS:

FDC:

SDC:

EMs:

MLA:

BDO:

MP:

OBB:

NGDO:

Block Educational Officer

Chief Executive officer

Minimum needs programme

Non-Formal Educatlon

Inspector of Schools.

First divlsion C:erk

Second Division Clerk

Headmasters

Member of Legislative Assembly.

Block Development officer

Member of parliament

Operation Black Board

Non-Governmental Development organisation.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction:

In recent years, a new found interest in planned

development of prlmary education lS prevalent in India.

This new interest originates from the changed policies

of the Government of India to gradually open up the

Indian economy to international market forces. The

opportunity to create a cultivable market has attracted

the attention of industrialised countries.

Even though India has a sizable population living

below poverty levels, the sheer absolute Slze of the

population having some purchasing power is quite large

and the potential size of the market lS promising enough

for the mult:national companies and industrialized

countries to show :nterest in asslsting the creation of

the market. They have realised that the first step in

this direction is to make the society literate and hence

many international agencies and governments of

industrialised west have corne forward to invest in basic

education through soft loans and grants.

1

In fact, the entire country is being parceled out

for the development of basic education to agencies like

World Bank, Overseas Development Agency of UK, European

Commission, GTNICEF, etc. The new strategy adopted in

post liberalisation period for the development of

prlmary education lS through the District Primary

Education Programme (DPEP).

The framers of the Indian constitution had

recognised the Primary education as the fount of energy

to realise the ideals of the new nation. The

Constitution directs the state to provide free and

compulsory primary education for all children below the

age of 14 years within a period of ten years from the

date of the commencement of the constitutional rule.

Since, school education was kept in the State list,

all state governments passed during sixties. Compulsory

prlmary education acts applicable to their respective

regions. At present, the school education is kept in the

concurrent list making the state government and the

central government jointly responsible through the

Constitutional amendment (Forty Second amendment) .

Education at all level has been an integral part of the

planned development right from the commencement of the

2

Constitutional rule in India. But. the progress achieved

in this direction, particularly at the prlmary education

stage is far from satisfactory. One readily available

indicator to come to such a conclusion is the literacy

level. The literacy rate has been crawling up very

slowly and has not caught up with the population growth

rate. Along with the lncrease In nillnber of literates,

the nillnber of illiterates have also increased over the

past four decades.

This failure is closely linked with the performance

of primary education in the constituent states of the

Indian Union. While education sector, particularly the

primary education, has been an aspect covered by all the

Five Year Plans, the disappointing outcomes have

remained under-analysed. National Council of Educational

Research and Training (1991) conducted a study on

achievement levels of students at the primary level In

different states of India. Result of the study reveals

that Karnataka has scored the lowest achievement level

compared to other states (World Bank report 1996). And

the sluggish growth rate of literacy has not attracted

the attention of the planners to identify the issues

which are embedded in the planning process i tsel f. The

failure of education 'system' is seen more as the

problem of economy and society and less as the problem

3

of educational system from within. While the collective

political will 1S un-disputably expressed the

Constitution, the plurality of political wills in real

world 1S working in counter direction. Very little

insight into the processes of educational growth is

available from the point of view of planning. If each of

the successive Five Year Plans had aimed at the

universalisation of primary education, then, Why 1S that

they have simply reiterated the same broad objectives?

Why is it that the disparities across states have

remained more or less similar over the years? Why is

that inspite of the successive Five Year Plans

concentrating on universal access, a large proportion of

the children have remained out of school? Why is it,

even those who enter the school, do not remain in school

and those who remain do not learn at the expected

levels?

A little knowledge that exists in the field of

education begs these questions. For example, poverty has

been blamed as the main cause of the failure of primary

education. But, the very rationale for planned

develcpment emerge out of the context 1n which large

proportion of the population live under poverty ln the

society. Similarly are the inequalities arising out of

gender and caste. Much of the literature in Sociology

4

of Education 1n the Indian context confirms the

persistence of disparities 1n educational indicators

across regional, gender and caste lines. This raises a

ser10US doubt about the role played by educational

planning in the past in changing the status quo as far

as educational disparities are concerned. A pr1me

example in this direction 1S the development of primary

education in Karnataka.

A larger part of present Karnataka was an

independent state of Mysore before independence and

merged with the Indian Union to obtain the status of a

constituent state in 1947. The princely state of Mysore

before independence was considered as a model welfare

state and became a show case example of the British

policy of autonomy to the princely states. Under the

reorganisation of the states of the Indian Union on

linguistic lines, the Mysore state gained territories

from erstwhile Bombay province, Madras Province and the

Hyderabad state ruled by Nizam in 1956 and was later

renamed as Karnataka, meaning the land of Kannada

speaking people. Except for the region added from the

state of Hyderabad, all other territories were under

direct British rule for more than 150 years before

independence. But, these parts formed the periphery of

the respective British provinces. Therefore, at the time

5

of reorganization of the states, many of these districts

were educationally backward. The most backward districts

were the ones added from the erstwhile state of

Hyderabad. The situation of Karnataka as a whole was not

very bad in educationa~ status as compared to other

major states of the Indian Union.

According to the Census of India 1971, literacy

rate of Karnataka was 31.52 per cent as against National

average of 29.45 per cent. During 1971 census, Karnataka

had 11th position in the literacy rate among 23 states,

excluding union territories. The literacy percentage

increased to 55.98 per cent as compared to all India

average of 52.11 per cent. But Karnataka declined to

14th position during 1991 census.

As is evident from the comparison of the inter

census figures of literacy, Karnataka state has declined

in position in relation to the major states and also the

intra-state disparities in literacy has remained more or

less same over the years. This observation raises the

question about the role played by the educational

planning during the past four and half decades.

6

Evaluation of the contribution of planning to the

realisation of the policy objectives 1S practically

absent 1n the context of Karnataka. A recent study

conducted by National Institute of Educational Planning

and Administration :NIEPA) focusing on the educational

administration does not st'Jdy planning as an input. The

policy makers in the Karnataka context have been relying

on educatlonal plans all these years without having any

evidence to indicate the contribution of planning 1n

realising the intended goals. \'lhatever growth is

observed periodically is taken as the indicator of the

effectiveness of planning by default.

There has been no systematic effort to account for

the earmarked outlays during the implementation. It is

suspected that the plans are totally forgotten as soon

as they are approved and sent for implementation. But, a

time has come ln the changed context when, such an

approach would prove dysfunctional. The centrally

sponsored programme of District Primary Education and

Planning (DPEP) expects accountability of both processes

and outcomes of district specific planning. Karnataka

has committed to join the DPEP states on a large scale.

7

1.2 Dl.stnct Pnmary Education and Planninc, (DPEP)

in Karnataka:

This centrally sponsored scheme expec:s each of the

selected district to prepare :he distrlC: specific

medium term perspect:ve plan for unlversalisi:;g ;:;rimary

education In 5 to 7 years keeplng a ce2.2.:ng 0: Rs. 400

million i:or each distri.ct. Any dlstr:et · ... 1 th female

literacy lower than the national average quallfies fo!"

the intervention. The funds for this plan is a!",

additionality to the allocations made by the stat~

government. The participatlon ln ;:ne scheme , c

conditional. The state goverrunent should agree to bear

15 per cent of the cost of the proJect and should agree

to continue financing the primary education at the

current level.

In other words, the funds from the centra':'

government cannot be substituted for state eornrni t:ne:;ts.

The project management .• 1 Wl..L~ be through an autonomous

registered society created f0r the purpose 1:; the state.

The districts are expected to trans2.ate the medlum term

plans into annual plans and i:npleme,.t them. The

implementation is subjec~ periodic superv1s1cn by

teams consisting of the representatlves of the

Government of India and representat:ves of donor

agencies (Ministry of Human Resource Deve:oprr.e:;t, 1995!.

8

Another important feature of this programme is that

the planning has to be done in a particlpative framework

within the district. The perspective plan thus prepared

is accepted for funding after due appraisal process. The

funds earmarked for the project is channelised to the

respectlve district through the registered society.

Currently, 10 districts in Karnataka have been

identified under the DPEP Programme out of 21 districts

which have lower female literacy rates as compared to

the national female literacy level based on 1991 census.

1.3 Need for the study:

The Government of Karnataka passed the Compulsory

Primary Education act in 1961. Each of the five year

plans from the Second Five Year Plan onwards, provided

for development of primary education. The priority In

allocations for prlmary education kept on increasing

through successive Five Year Plans.

The interventions initially took the form of

increasing schooling facilities during seventies. Large

scale efforts were made through varlOUS forms of

incentives to attract families to send their children to

school. Allocation to primary education was around

9

Rs. 9.5 crore fanning 47.7 per cent of the total plan

outlay on education ln Fourth Five Year Plan. This

reached to Rs 137.87 crore ln Eighth Five Year Plan

fonning 42.40 per cent. While educational statistics

reported by the Department of Public Inst.::-uction showed

steady increase in gross enrollment over the years, t~e

data on lite.::-acy from census indicated that the literacy

increased on an average by 0.7 per cent per year during

1971 to 1981 and by 0.82 per cent during 1981 to 1991.

In other words, the reported gross enrollments were not

processed effectively to result ln increased literacy.

This situation raises serlous doubts about the

effectiveness of plan process itself.

Educational planning as an issue for research has

remained neglected. A few studies that are available in

the field of educational administration and management,

more often, have focused on administrative structures

and procedures. Even such studies have not tried to

relate the adminlstrative processes to the objectives

using management perspectives. Instead, they use a

bureaucratic perspective akin to any other fonn of

public administration evolved to maintain social order.

10

Changed context of decentralised educational

planning and management considers primary education as

the foundation for all other development. Intensive

efforts with additional investments are being made

available to primary education. A large proportion of

such investments are in the form of long term loans and

hence a high degree of accountability is expected from

the pianners and managers. There are instances In the

past when considerable allocations went unutilised by

the system. Viewing educational planning and management

In a bureaucratic perspective may become dysfunctional

in those circumstances.

In order to develop necessary attitudes and

competence among the personnel, there exists a need to

understand the current structure and processes of

educational planning and management. There is a need to

take stock of the actual plan expenditure and its

relation to the changes in varlous educational

parameters over the years. The outcomes of such analysis

need to be examined from the point of view of the

objectives of successive Five Year Plans. The successes

and failures thus identified need to be related to the

planning structure and process currently practiced at

different levels of educational system in Karnataka.

11

1.4 Statement of the Problem:

Keeping the above concerns in mind the following

problem has been identified =or the study:

Educational Planning for School Education:

A study of Three Districts in Karnataka.

1.5 Explanation of the terms:

Educa tiona 1 planning: Planning for educational

development exists ln all kinds of states, be it

socialist or capitalist. But the purposes and thrusts

vary from ideology to ideology. In developing countries

like India, during the post independence era planning as

a major intervention by the state to achieve growth and

distribution received highest priority. It was also felt

right from the beginning of the planned development that

education plays a major role in the process of economic

growth and development and hence planned resource

allocation became a part of the Five Year Plans adopted

by the Government. Initially, the first few Five Year

Plans provided for investment in higher levels of

education in line with the policy of the State occupylng

the commanding heights of the economy. The economlC

growth model envisaged large scale direct participation

of the government ln industrial production through

12

public sector undertakings like steel and power. The

industrial path initially entered required trained

manpower and thus education became a variable in the

macro economic model. During sixties, the economists in

the west rediscovered the worth of education in the form

of human capital (Harbison and Myers, :964).

Impetus to educational planning was also given by

the international donor agenc~es like World Bank and

UNESCO when they considered a functional planning

mechanism as a precondition for assistance to developing

countries (Weiler 1990). These organizations joined

hands with the French Government and the Ford

Foundation, to establish the International Institute of

Educational Planning in 1964 in Paris as source of

training and expertise, particularly for planners in

developing countries. Thus the area of educational

planning is relatively a recent one to enter the domain

of the social science and policy disciplines.

The definitions have focused on the technical

aspect of planning. Educational planning is a process of

arriving at a set of decisions for future action

(Anderson, 1956) Coombs (1970) views

planning as "an application of rational,

educational

systematic

analysis to the process of educational development with

13

the aim of making education more effec~:ve and efficient

in responding to the needs and goa2.s sf ::s students and

society". This de finl tion cons ide r s educa t :onal plannlng

a continuous process. It assumes that an ongolng

educational system is already responclng to the needs of

its students and societj. Planning takes off from :he

current situation of educationa: jevelopment and alms at

making the processes more ef:ective and ef:ic:ent. But

Platt (1970) defines educational planning as "Tr:e

process of preparing set of actlons keeping In VleW the

priorities emerglng from the socio-economic goals. By

taking varlOUS constraints such as physica~, financlal

and technical, .. . n. This definition refers to a more

complex side of educational planning. Here educatlonal

planning seeks to relate developments of educatlonal

system to development of society at large. As We:ler

puts it the task of educational planning is to project

the future of educational system in such a way so as to

make it respond optlmally to a certaln set of

condi tions, demands or needs. This view of educatlsnal

planning makes education as an instrument in at :aining

broader socio-economic objectives in the societj.

The bulk of literature on educatior,al plannir.g

deals with the later notion of planning for max:::lisir,g

contribution of Educational systems to the achievement

of certain social objectives. Over the years and across

different countries, including India, various approaches

to planning have been developed. All these approaches

can be classified into five broad categories or models

as follows:

a. The intra-educational extrapolation model

b. Demographic projection model

c. The manpower model

d. The rate of return model

e. The social demand model

The above five models are not mutually exclusive

but each has its own prem1ses, procedural logic and

methodologies.

surfaced.

planning.

This

In recent years, a sixth model has

1S called school mapping or micro

For purposes of this study, which focuses on school

education, the logic procedures and methodology followed

under intra-educational extrapolation model, the social

demand mode I and micro planning model have been

considered as relevant.

, Intra-educational extrapolation model basically

consists of estimating quantitative implications. This

model 1S applied to the system as a whole for setting

1

the target of a particular characteristic in educational

system. Thus, if the target were to be achievement of

UEE upto a certain grade level by certain year, then the

educational planner would extrapolate the supply of

teachers, the construction of school buildings, the

production of text books etc. from this datum to prepare

the schedule to ensure the attainment of the target of

UEE.

The social demand model reflects the fact that

educational policy decisions would tend to be affected

by the expressed interests and needs of a given society.

These interests are necessarily guided by economlC or

manpower considerations. The methodology is eclectic and

depends upon the social context in which planning is

attempted.

Micro-planning model is also refereed as

educational mapplng initially starts from demographic

approach and extends into taklng other variables into

consideration determining optimum location of

schools. Thus approach becomes relevant when educational

planning is carried out to cater the regional and local

needs.

16

In the Indian context NIEPA has come out Wl th a

methodology for 'district educational planning'

consisting of the following stages.

1. Diagnostic Stage,

2. Plan formulation stage, and

3. Implementation stage.

In the Diagnostic Stage, educational development of

the districts is analysed. This helps in assessing the

requirements of the system to fulfill the educational

objectives. Based on this analysis, In the second stage,

educational targets are fixed by considering the

availabili ty of resources. In the third stage the plan

is implemented by constant monitoring and feedback.

In the present study the above methodology is used

as reference point to look into the secondary sources in

the form of plan documents and also while observing the

process of planning. Process of planning refers to

activities of persons performing different roles in the

organisational structure of educational planning and

their perception of their own work.

17

School education: The state 1S directed by the

Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory

education to all children of the age group of 6 to 14

years which corresponds to 7 to 8 years of schooling,

depending upon the educational ladder followed in the

state. Since the Directive Principles of the

Consti tution providing for compulsory primary educatlon

is not justifiable, most of the States of Indian unlon

have enacted compulsory primary education acts to cover

6 to 10 or 11 year old children at present. This

legislation has made it obligatory on the part of

various State Governments to ensure universalisation of

pr1mary education of four or five years in their

territorial jurisdiction. Beyond this level, the role of

Government is to facilitate the spread of education

through appropriate regulatory acts and interventions

for ensuring equality of educational opportunity.

In Karnataka school education spans ten years of

schooling divided into Lower primary (1-4 standards),

Higher primary (5-7 standards) and secondary schools (8-

10 standards). Karnataka compulsory primary education

Act covers 1 to 4 standards. But, administratively there

1S no separation between pr1mary and upper primary

levels. Primary schools have either 1 to 4 or 1 to 7

standards. Educational planning for purposes of

18

providing resources considers prlmary education of 1 to

7 standards as primary level. Keeping the above in focus

the present study confines to the study of plannlng

process at the primary and higher prlmary level of

school education.

District level Planning: Karnataka :s one of the

forerunners in establishing government at the district

level called Panchayat Raj in 1987. Earlier to this,

districts were administrative units. Educational

planning was done at the state level and districts were

considered only at the resource allocation stage. From

1987 onwards district governments were also glven some

autonomy and statutory resource base to plan educational

programmes under a broad framework decided at the state

level.

Recently, the Constitution of India through 73rd

amendment made it obligatory on the part of state

governments to establish district level governments.

Accordingly, the Government of Karnataka passed a

legislation for establishing Zilla Panchayat in 1992.

The responsibility of promoting primary education became

the joint responsibility of all three levels of

government namely center, state and the district.

19

The emphasis 1n the educat10nal planning sh1fted

from the state to the d1strict. Decentralised piann1:1g

at the district level for school education has assumed

greater importance from Seventh Plan onwards. Districts

have been prepar1ng the1r five year plans and annual

plans as a complement to the state and t~e central

educational plans. The present study pr1marL.y fc)Cuses

on the planning process operat1ng at the district level.

1.6 Research Issues of the present study:

In planned development model adopted by the Indian

Government on the Soviet model included education as an

important sector under five year plans. But education

system planted and nurtured by the colonial rule before

independence was allowed to continue even after

independence. The same system was supposed to serve the

diametrically

constitutional

opposite

self-rule.

philosophy

This change

of democratic

1n nor.native

dimension expects policy makers and educational planners

to examine the nature and processes at existential

dimensions of educational practice before workable

educational policies and plans are formulated. Suc~ an

attempt has not been made 1n the past. Educational

planning cannot bring about changes unless it counters

20

the status quo trends entrenched in an ongoing

educational system (Nagaraju 1993). In the light of the

experlences of educational planning In the context of

developing countries Weiler (1978) sumrnarlses the

criticisms leveled against educational planning as

follows:

a) Conservative bias: Educational planning has a tendency

to reproduce, on an expanded scale, the existing

educational system. In other words, a technically

sound educational plan maps out a pattern of linear

expansion of the status quo.

b) Educational planning operates in an hierarchical

process following from top to bottom.

c) Educational plans are pre-occupied with growth as

against educational development characterised by

distribution of educational opportunity and re-

orientation of educational system in both structural

and systematic terms.

d) Educational planning neglects implementation. The

evaluation of planning efforts has received less

21

attention than it deserves, thereby the benefits

gained by monitoring is lost.

e ) Educational

education

functions

planning

linked with

takes the

economic

of education are

narrow view

development.

relegated to

of

The

the

background. Most of the Educational plans assume an

over-simplified casual model of education influencing

individual and collective economic well-being and the

ability of educational systems to respond to the

educational plans.

The present study attempts to focus on the above

criticisms of educational planning in the Indian

context. The study aims at explaining the nature and

thrusts of plan intentions as reflected in documents and

through the analysis of allocations and juxtapose the

same with the actual developments that emerged during

the period in which successive plans were supposed to

have been implemented.

The study also aims at supplementing the secondary

data analysis with primary data on the process of

planning and implementation observed during the field

visits.

22

1.7 Scope of the study:

Firstly, the study covers the Five Year Plans and

annual plans pursued in Karnataka state during 1971 to

1994 using plan documents. Data on different aspects of

educational growth available in census and departmental

records is used to compare and contrast the intentions

of educational plans with outcomes.

Secondly, the study aims at capt'Jring the plan

process pursued by the officials in different roles at

the state, district and sub-district levels. This aspect

of the study employs the qualitative method to capture

the perceptions, the nature of information generated and

its utilisation in planning and implementation ..

1.8 Limitations of the study:

The study lS limited to the educational planning of

primary level and The secondary data analysis covers

Fourth Five Year Plan to Eighth Five year Plan. The

proc~dure followed for educational planning process is

studied in the context of Fourth Annual Plan of the

Eighth Five Year Plan.

23

1.9 OVerv~ew;

In the previous sections, the need and importance

of the study was presented. The review of related

literature is discussed in the second chapter. The third

chapter presents the methodology adopted to carry out

quali ta t: ve and quantitative analyses. The fourth

chapter deals with the analysis of secondary data at the

state and the district levels. Analysis of qualitative

data related to the process of planning at the state,

the district and below the district level is discussed

in the Fifth chapter. The Sixth chapter summarises the

study and discusses the findings in relation to the

policy and further research in the area of educational

planning.

24

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction:

A study cf educational planning in Karnataka was

proposed In the context of changes In socio economlC

policies of the government of India. The meaning of the

terms used in the statement, the scope of the study and

limi tations were discussed in the previous chapter. An

attempt lS made here to survey the available related

literature.

It has been pointed out that systematic researches

on educational planning in terms of its success,

failures and constraints are practically absent (Weiler,

1980). But, a large body of research literature in the

areas of economics of education, education and social

change, and educational administration indirectly shed

light on the issues related to the educational planning

and its outcomes. The review of related literature will

be discussed under the following categories for purposes

of clarity.

25

• Studies In the Area of Economics of Education,

• Studies on disparities in educational distribution,

• Studies on educational administration.

2.2 Studies in the Area of Economics of Education:

Solow (1957) examlned the contribution of human

capital and physical capital to economlC growth in

America. He calculated measurable inputs i. e. physical

capital from 1909 to 1947. He found that gross output

per man-hour doubled during 1909 to 1947. During this

period, 12.5 per cent increase in the economic growth

was due to physical capital and remaining 87.5 percent

was attributed to human capital.

Schultz ( 1960) using inter-temporal correlation

techniques, related GDP with some educational index over

a period of time in USA. He concluded that between 1929-

1957, the increase in education of labour accounted for

16.6 per cent to 32.2 per cent of the growth in income.

26

Denison (1962) using Cobb-Douglas production

function on tlme serles data tried to explain the

National Income of USA using the following equation.

Xt = fret, Kt, At, T]

where X = Nat~onal Income, K = capital, A = land,

T = residues and t = period. He separated capital,

labour and land factors and arrived at the residual

factors using data from 1972 to 1957. Average growth of

national income was found to be 2.92 per cent. The

residual factor accounted for 20 per cent of the

national lncome. He termed the residual factor as

technical improvement.

Harbison and Myers (1964) developed composite index

of human resource on the basis of (1) Educational

indicator, (2) Gross national product of the country and

(3) Percentage of people actively involved In

agriculture related occupations. Educational indicators

lnc1ude, (a) Enrollment ratio at first, second and third

levels. (b) Number of teachers per ten thousand

population at first and second levels. (c) Engineers,

scientists, physicians and dentists per ten thousand

population. Data was compiled from 75 countries which

27

included India also. The findings of the study indicated

slgnificant correlation between the indices of

enrollment and the GDP. These studies compelled policy

makers to shift their focus in development planning away

from physical capital formation and towards investment

In education (Psacharopoulos 1978).

Fur::her, elaborat::.on of human capital approach in

educational planning took the form of rate of returns

approach. Rate of returns approach examines the relative

returns accrued from different sectors of education.

Kothari (1956) calculated the social rate of return

on investment In education at different levels. He

constructed age earning profile for Bombay city with the

help of data available in economic survey of greater

Bombay. He found that technical education had higher

social rate of return of 25 per cent, while secondary

education had 20 per cent and college education had the

lowest social rate of return accounting for 13 per cent.

Mark Blaug, Layard and Woodhall in their study on

'Causes of educated unemployment in India' calculated

social and private rates of return which were adjusted

for wastage, unemployment and abil i ty factor. Findings

28

show that 13.7 per cent soclal rate of return and 16.5

per cent private rate of return are contributed from

prlmary education. ~his also shows that private rate of

returns from primary education lS more compared to

social rate of returns.

Psacharopoulos i 1973) analysed returns to

educat~onal investment us~ng cost-benefi t 22

developing countries. He considered primary, secondary

and higher levels of education to calculate private and

social rate of returns. He found that private rate of

returns were more than social rate of returns at all the

three levels of education namely primary, secondary and

higher education. Rate of prlmary education lS more

compared with secondary and higher education i.e. 29 per

cent (private) and 27 per cent (social). He also

calculated rate of returns from Physical and Human

capital. According to the cost benefit analysis he found

that in developing countries rate of return from human

capital lS 20 per cent and physical capital lS 15 per

cent.

Thus he concluded that the rate of returns to

primary education lS the highest compared to all levels

of education. He also showed that not only education is

29

profitable particularly in developing countries, but the

rate of return to education also exceeds the rate of

return to physical capital.

A World Bank (1983) study of 44 countries which

includes India computed the rates of return to

investment In education. The study revealed that the

rates of return to investment: at: any level of education

in developlng countrles is far above 10 per cent. The

rate of return to investment In primary education is

higher relative to investment In other levels. And

returns to education declines as the educational level

increases. The private returns to education is generally

higher than the social rate of return.

The estimates of rate of return from the investment

In education by Mark Blaug and Kothari showed that the

rate of return to education in India are substantially

higher than the rate of return on physical capital.

These estimates of social rate of returns from different

levels of education and rate of return from human

capital provided a powerful justification for

considering education as an input in economlC growth

(Panchamuki 1991).

30

2.3 Studies on Disparities in Education:

The studies related to the distribution of

educational opportunity with reference to soclal

structure of Indian society reveal that by and large

educatlonal opportunities are mostly open to the hlgher

strata of the society.

A study by Patel (1960) reveals that traditional

social structure is largely responsible for the spread

of secondary education ln Kaira district of GUJarat

State. The political and economic factors, the

traditional social structure like caste, educational

status of the guardian etc. are largely responsible for

the spread of secondary schooling in the district.

Desai (1962) ln his study on secondary school

students ln Baroda points out that though numerically

the upper castes are small in the district to the total

population, their representation in the school is very

high.

Chitms (1974) studied literacy and enrollment

among SCs of Maharastra with the help of data from

31

secondary sources. The author observed that, the

disparities l.n literacy between Scheduled Caste

population and total population, between males and

females were more marked in rural sector.

Pancharnuki (1981) identified the problems of

equali ty in educational opportunities by selecting 1050

students from primary and secondary sc~ools of Dharwad

city. He found that, participation l.n education was

severely constrained by socio-economic environment of

students. Parents' income had a significant positive

influence on the performance

investigation pointed out that

of

the

students.

access

The

and

participation in education was a function of several

SOCl.o-economl.C factors. Hence extension of educational

facilities did not necessarily ensure distributive

justices with respect to educational facilities.

The study conducted by Chitnis (1981) focused on

the concept of evaluating the status of the scheduled

castes through education. The study was conducted on SC

students studying at high school and college levels of

fifteen states of India coverl.ng all regions of the

country. The study observed that girls are relatively

more bacbvard and have much more restricted access to

32

education than boys. There are inter-caste disparities

across the states in access to educational facilities.

The study by Chitra (1982) pointed out that the

individuals from the upper strata of Mysore society had

greater opportunities compared to lower strata. Further,

~t was found that caste plays a dominant role and

Brahmins have access to better facilities for education.

Kundu and Rao (1985) conducted a study to measure

the dispan ties in educational development using

literacy as an indicator on a regional dimension.

Sopher's index was modified by the researchers and

disparities were studied across population sectors like

male/female, rural/urban, SCs and non-SCs etc. The data

was collected from census sources covering sixties. They

found that, the disparities in literacy rates between

SCs and non-SCs were higher in urban than in rural

areas. The under-privileged sections of the society,

such as female, the rural and SC/ST population in the

backward regions were having

deprivation as compared to those

regions.

relatively greater

in the advanced

33

Tilak

individuals

(1986)

with

explained income variations among

the help of their education,

experience and earning, eternal triangle of 3 Es. The

study was based on socio-economic sample survey of West

Godavari district in Andhra Pradesh. He explained the

var1ations in individual earnings of backward castes and

non-backward castes separately. The study revealed that

:mprovement in human capital enhanced the earning levels

of both backward and non-backward castes. while

relatively, the human capital enhanced the earnings more

in the case of backward cas:es. Hence he argues that for

economlC equality there 1S need for improving the

educational level of backward castes at a much higher

rate of improvement than non-backward castes.

Hemalatha (1986) studied educational disparities

across regions. She analyzed inter-taluk disparities

with the help of educational development indicator based

on the educational development. Taluks were grouped 1n

different categories rang1ng from extreme backward to

exceptionally highly developed taluks. She concluded

that educational opportunities to the children are

lesser in educationally backward regions. Hence there is

a need to promote educational development of backward

areas.

34

3'? I· Q U-"; oc,)s A,. -,

A!'·· .T

Aggarwal and Murlidhar (1986) analyzed disparity ~n

levels of literacy between SC and non-SC population In

Maharashtra. The study was concerned with the problem of

identification and measurement of disparity in literacy

rates between the scheduled castes and non scheduled

castes In 1971. It has been observed that the

dispari ties are high when the levels of literacy are

low. This analys~s shows persisting disparities in the

literacy levels between urban-rural areas, male and

female and scheduled caste and non scheduled castes.

Likewise, regional disparities have also continued.

Nagaraju and Ushadevi (1989) , examined the

development of literacy among school going age children

in Karnataka during sixties and seventies uSlng census

data. The literacy gains of the cohort of 5-14 age group

in two successive censuses were focused. Results showed

that disparities between male and female literacy were ,

ah.ays lower In urban than In rural areas. The urban

females have shown more literacy galns than rural

females. Similarly the urban males have shown more

literacy gains than rural males.

" , ,. G ' l ,)R E

.. - .. ,~, .- ..... I ,

35

2.4 StudQes on a few aspects of plann~ng and Lmplementat~on:

Some of the studies show that educat':'onal

backwardness 1S due to lack of appropr1ate method of

financing education.

Padmanabhan (19861 explained the inter and :ntra

state disparities in educational development ~n selected

states of India. According to him financial mechan:sm is

responsible, to a significant extent, in creating and

perpetuating these disparities. He complains that no

rational criteria is followed in financing ed'clcation in

different regions of the country and argues that certain

criteria like costs of educational development of the

region and fiscal capacity of the region etc., should

guide the formulation of financial policies. He

recommends that a critical minimum level should be

identified for per student expenditure. This

expenditure, in no region, should be allowed to fall.

Padmanabhan points out that so far 1n educational

planning, concern was given to macro data and the micro

level data was neglected. And the result is huge

backlogs 1n critical inputs for good quality education

like buildings, class rooms and equipment. The problems

36

related to education at the bottom level l.e. at the

district level have not come into purview of national

planners. This is due to major weakness of planning

process which lS top heavy.

Zaidi (1986) focusing on inter-state disparities in

educational development observed that economically

backward states are also backward with respect to

educational development. Therefore he argues that

inadequacy for finances forms an important constraint In

the development of educational levels of the people. He

comments that educational planners both at national and

state levels have not made efforts to reduce regional

disparities. Thus, backward regions have not received

proper attention for educational development and

remained backward even with the economic planning in the

country.

Josephine (1984) points out the drawbacks in the

procedure of planning In correcting reglon, community,

gender inequalities. She feels it can be corrected by

taking the field realities into consideration in the

planning process. These studies emphasise the role of

educa t,ion as an economlC and social equalizer.

37

Epstein et al. (1983) have examined how a few

political decisions have been translated into action and

also investigated how the poor are struggling to

surVlve. They interviewed politicians, government offi

cials and others who influence the formulation of

policy. They later collected abstracts from newspapers.

Finally they studied the ways In which some of ~he

specific programmes designed to help the weaker sections

of the society were implemented at the sub-district and

village level and then interviewed villagers to know

their living conditions. The investigation was carried

out with the help of structured and unstructured

interview schedules and questionnaires.

In the second part of the study, view from the

below' detailed description of the Chakrabhavi village

in terms of caste composition, land ownership, regional-

setting, village scene, administrative organisation,

credit availability In practice, educational facility

and politics of the caste has been provided. Eleven

profiles of the villagers were developed using the

respondents from small farmers, marginal farmers and

land-less labourers. These stUdies captured the living

condi t~ons of villagers and the inferences were drawn

based on the insights of the field work. The researchers

38

pointed out that the polIcies related to m':':1.:.mum needs

regard the poor as target groups for whom things have to

be done, instead of actively invclvIng them lD the

programmes. Based on the insights received from the

field, poor managed to surVIve under theIr

overwhelmIngly difficult circumstances '",ho can Improve

if the major obstacles in their path are removed.

On the basis of available eVIdence, they argued

that much of the funds meant for the poor never reached

them and that the taluk level polIticians stand to gaIn

the most, both poEtically and economically. In this

process, the dominant classes manage to survive, if not

to get rich. Thus, this study shows that for the success

of minimum needs programme (education being one of the

important need.) local participation and just resource

distribution without the interference of dominant groups

is necessary.

2.5 Studies on Educational AdnUnistration:

A few studies related to educational administration

deal with the aspects related to primarj education and

factor~ hindering the smooth functioning of primarj

39

education. Existing literature on educational

administration are classified into four categories.

1. Educational administration related to universalisation

of elementary education,

2. Status and problems of educational administration at

different levels,

3. Practices of state educational deparG~ents related

to specific aspects of educational administratlon, and

4. Role of Zilla Panchayat (ZP) and educational

departments in educational progress.

2.5.1 Educational administration related to universalisation

of elementary education.

The National Institute of Educational Planning and

Administration conducted a study of administration in

relation to universalisation of elementary education.

This study was conducted in a few states of India

namely, Andhra Pradesh (1979), Assam (1979), Bihar

(1979), Orissa (1979), Uttar Pradesh (1979), Jammu and

Kashmir (1978), Madhya Pradesh (1979), Rajasthan (1979),

and West Bengal (1979).

40

The objectives of the study was to examine the

adequacy of the present administrative system of

elementary education with a view to suggest ways and

means of strengthening, streamlining and coordinating

the efforts of education department with other

development agencies for achieving UEE, and finally to

suggest a framework for the decentralisation of

administration to involve the community and to take spot

decisions.

Findings of the study reflected the present status

of the primary education. The study highlighted various

aspects hindering the achievement of UEE. The study

first focused on the procedure adopted to conduct census

to enroll children. In Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan

and West Bengal officials failed to conduct regular

census of children belonging to 6-14 age group. In Jammu

and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh

incomplete information was collected and therefore the

accurate information about the enrolled and non enrolled

children were not recorded.

It is also observed that the girls' enrollment was

poor 'compared with boys' enrollment in Assam, Bihar, and

Jammu and Kashmir. Further, planned efforts to bring

41

non-enrolled children to schools were inadequate.

Teachers and officials were not concerned about the

organized and sustained effort for additional enrollment

and regular attendance.

In Assam, and Uttar Pradesh quality of school

building was found inadequate and maintenance was poor.

Facilities available in school were far from

satisfactory.

Incentives were distributed regularly and found

adequate in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya

Pradesh, West Bengal and Orissa but in Assam, Bihar and

Rajasthan, incentives were found inadequate and did not

reach the needy students.

Rigid school timings added to the problem of UEE in

Jammu and Kashmir, Assam and Bihar because parents found

it difficult to spare children for the entire day.

Inspection was found ineffective in Assam, Bihar,

Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Inspection was a routine

work and offered little professional guidance. In Madhya

Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir officers couldn't inspect

42

all the schools in their jurisdiction due to excessive

administrative work.

These studies also looked into the administration

of primary education. Findings reveal that, in Assam ZP

authorities did not participate in the administration of

elementary education, because they were not glven any

responsibility for the implementation of l~E. Hence

there was no involvement of district level people in the

process of planning. In Bihar, Directorate of Primary

Education functioned separately but did not play any

role in planning. In Madhya Pradesh Directorate of

Public Instruction controlled the education. It was

suggested to delegate financial powers to Panchayats for

the development of education. In Orissa, there was no

coordination between education department and other

development departments. This led to the delay in

sanctioning of grants. Hence developmental activities of

the school got delayed. In Rajasthan there was no

coordination among the departments including DEO at

Zilla Panchayat level to achieve UEE. It was also found

that the secretariat was ill-equipped for the

development of programs in relation to universal

elementary education.

43

These studies examined the existing administrative

system in relation to the programmes of universalisation

of elementary education, suggested ways and means of

strengthening and streamlining the administrative system

and coordinating the efforts of the education department

with other developmental agencies. Gaps in the

administrative structure were identified by comparing

the functions performed by admlnistrat~ve personnel

with the job chart of administrative functionaries. The

studies suggested a framework for decentralised

educational administration.

2.5.2 Status and Problems of Educational AdDdnistration

at Different Levels:

Studies in this category deal with the educational

administration at the center, state and local bodies

and the nature of administration practiced.

Shah

problems

Australia.

(1951) made a comparative study of the

of educational administration in India and

The information was collected from books on

history and administration of education, government

reports on progress of education etc. The researcher

44

has reported the resultant advantages of centralised

administrat:on in Australia and the opposite results

ln India. The disastrous results of the centralised

approach in India led to the failure in the formation

of national system of education. Instead it led to

intolera~ce of criticism and demoralisation of teachers.

Sharma (1964) , aimed at analysing the present

practlces in educatlonal administration in the state of

Madhya Pradesh. Sample consisted of 1396 officers from

educational directorate, educational officers at the

district level inspectors of schools, Heads of the

insti tutions, lecturers and teachers. Questionnaire was

used as a tool to collect information. Investigation

revealed existence of centralisation of authority which

caused delay in decision-making process. Lack of

coordination was observed between the Head of the

department and secretariat. And uneven size of districts

caused disparity lD

officers.

Sinha (1976)

the work of the divisional

conducted descriptive-cum-critical

study of education system in Andhra Pradesh. The

objectives of the study were to describe and identify

the strengths of the existing educational administration

45

as well as the critical areas of concern at state,

district and Panchayat levels. The study was conducted

in three districts of Andhra Pradesh. Information was

collected from personnel engaged in various strata of

administration. Information collected uSlng

questionnaire and interview techniques.

According to the results of the study, more time

was spent ln the Directorate on issues of personnel

administration. Very little attention was paid to

planning, budgeting, financial control and academic

administration. Districts and block level offices faced

problems at the time of planning and budgeting due to

lack of pertinent information from the field level.

The deputy secretaries ln ZP and the extension officers

ln Panchayat Samitis had not been able to identify

themsel ves with the local bodies. The local bodies

also viewed them as just another level for doing a

routine work. Inspection as a controlling device faced

a major setback when

transferred to local

the administrative powers were

bodies. The state educational

administration system was concerned with the expansion

of education.

46

( 1976) ln Punjab examl~ed the existing Gupta

educational administratlon with a v:ew to mirrorlng

aspects such as administrative ro':'es, functions,

rigidi ties, indi vidua':' idiosyncrasies, hold-ups, which

tend to slow down,

affect the process

deteriorate or ln any way adverse':'y

of ",ducation. The st'Jdy also tried

to dig out the factors which underl:ne the

existing educational administration.

naivete of

The sample consisted of Heads of higher secondary

schools, divisional/district officers, assistant/deputy

directors of education, trained teachers and lecturers.

According to the findings of the study, educational

administration was not distinct from the general

administration. The study observed that the educational

administration was bureaucratic nature and

communication was from top to bottom. There was no

communication from teacher to the administration.

Normal process of educational administration hampered by

political influence and the administration failed to

serve the emerging social order.

47

2.5.3 Practices of state educational department related

to specific aspects of educational administration.

Rao (1981) attempted to find alternate

to lmprove the educational management with

organisation, decision-making processes,

solutions

regard to

budgetary

al~ocation, planning of resources and control. The study

team visited four districts, Tumkur, Shimoga, Mangalore

and Bangalore. Interviews were conducted with various

officials of the

on the relevant

education department and institutions

lssues. According to the study, the

office of the Commissioner for Public Instruction was

responsible for policy formulation, planning,

implementation and monitoring and control of educational

administration in Karnataka. Rao observes that there is

no separate planning cell, there is lack of

decentralisation within the existing structure and

faulty approach followed in decision making.

Trivedi (1974) studied the dynamics of pressures

on certain practices in educational administration. The

study was conducted in Banswar and Udaipur districts of

Rajasthan. The study involved a total stratified sample

48

of 123 persons which included administrators such as

officers, Head Masters, inspectors of schools and

teachers working at various levels. Findings of the

study revealed that transfers, postings, deputations,

appointments and selection of personnel, opening of

schools, introducing new subjects, examinations and

tests were affected by pressures. The top level officers

of the administra~ive hierarchy and top leaders of

poll tical party in power also got involved in

pressurising vulnerable sections of administrative

machinery and schools.

Govindaraj (1970) conducted a study to examine

administrative procedure followed in the DEO's office in

Bangalore City, with the main objective of identifying

administrati ve problems. Questionnaire and interviews

were used as tools to collect data from the offices and

officials. The sample for the study consisted of 10 to

20 case workers and 40 randomly selected case files.

The study revealed some of the administrative problems

such as slow movements of the papers in the office,

heavy work load, lack of power to take action, lack of

quick two-way communication, and non-availability of

trained officials.

49

Ramashesha (1972) examined the declsion making

process in the offices of the Joint Director of Public

Instruction, Bangalore Division, to identify the

bottlenecks in the decision making process and to find

out the extent of delegation of powers utilised by the

concerned officers. The study revealed the prevailing

bottlenecks at various stages of decision making process

such as locating the problems, locating and contacting

the sources of information and getting the required

information, processing the information and finding out

the solution. The researcher found that the final

decision was not always taken by the top officers. The

recommendations of lower offices also played a very

important role in decision making process.

Ushadevi (1989) studied communication process in

relation to decision making in the offices of the

department of education in Karnataka. Important

objectives of the study were (1) to examine the decision

making process in the context of delegated power, (2) to

examine the volume of communication and the pattern of

behaviour both wi thin the offices and between offices.

Information was collected from official files available

In the education department. Some of the important

findings of the study were: (1) The pattern of message

50

flow during decision making

complicated and inefficient with

trends become more

the increase in level

of hierarchy for decision making. (2) The cases

relating to prlmary education were found to be more

complicated in terms of generating higher quantum of

messages during the process of decision making.

3aldev Maha]an and others (1994 ) studied

educatlonal administration In Karnataka. The objectives

of the study were: (1) to understand the present status

of educational administration in terms of its

structures, systems and processes at various levels;

(2) to study the experiments, innovation and changes;

and (3) to identify the major issues and future tasks of

educational planning and management.

Methodology of the survey included collection of

information from the state education department, its

different directorates and divisional, regional,

district, block and institutional organisations on the

basis of a representative sample. Two districts, four

blocks and 161 institutions were selected for intensive

study. The study presented an elaborate picture of

educat·ional administration with special reference to its

structure, organisation, processes and functions. It

51

also included the system of personnel management,

planning, finance, information and inspection and

supervision. The section related to educational planning

dealt with the admlnlstrati ve set up and the planning

process.

According to the authors, decentralised system of

planning in the state is working well and there is scope

for involving the grassroots level functionaries like

Head Masters in the planning process.

2.5.4 Role of Zilla Panchayat and educational departments in

educational progress.

Vartak (1971 ) studied educational organisation,

administration and problems in the state of Maharastra.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the

educational administration of local authorities and

revlew whether the democratic decentralisation of

educational administration, as envisaged by Balvantrai

Mehta Committee has come to stay and whether it has

helped rural educational development In the state of

Maharastra. 23 districts of Maharastra were selected for

the study. Information was collected from government

52

educational authorities, officers, elected representa-

tives and teachers and also from other related

documents. Results revealed that decentralisation of

educational administration helped in the spread of

education 1n rural areas and this type of administrative

set up 1S beneficial to the state. Education has become

common man's interest and because of thlS, it has

gained momentum. Number of elected members in education

committees of ZP 1S inadequate to undertake the

educational responsibilities of the whole district.

Local authorities were successful in spreading education

but solving the educational problems through local

participation was limited. The young local leadership

proved to be useful for the education ln the rural

areas.

The administration of primary education at block or

taluk level helped to avoid delay in the administrative

procedure to some extent. Long term planning was not

undertaken in districts of Maharastra. The participation

of people's representatives in the administration

improved and lessened the lethargy in educational

administration. Due to the present structural

limitations of educational administration, it is found

53

that education has not reached people to the

level.

expected

Inamdar (1971) studied educational administration

In Maharastra. He examined the effects of ZP on

education particularly on primary education by assessing

the role of rural leadershlp in promoting the cause of

primary educa~ion. The study was conducted In Haveli

taluk of Poona district. This district represents

average type of ZP in relation to educational

performance. Data was gathered through questionnaire,

interview schedule, pro forma and also by attending the

meetings. Information was collected from primary school

teachers, block development officers, assistant deputy

educational inspectors, chief

education officers and members

executive

of ZP.

officer,

Informal

discussions and visits to few schools were also carried

out to

Official

understand local situation and problems.

records, Annual reports of ZP and relevant

government resolutions and directives were also used to

test the hypotheses.

Findings revealed that there was expansion of

primary education. But the quality of education had

suffered. Elected office bearers and other popular

54

elements In educational administration influenced

matters like teachers I transfer etc. The ZP was found

to be slack with regard to the inspection and

supervision arrangements. The identity of educational

officials was completely lost due to the dominance of

the elected members. Financially ZP was found to be

solely dependent on r:he state government. The author

concluded that the pattern of educational administration

under the control of ZP IS defective and researcher

suggested that radical change should be brought about

In the pattern to improve the quality of primary

education in the rural areas.

Joshi (1973) has studied problems of administration

and finance in primary education with special reference

to the role of Panchayat Raj bodies in southern Gujarat.

The main objective of the study was to find out the

extent to which democratic decentralised administration

of primary education has been realised SInce the

operation of Panchayat Act 1961. The maJor findings of

the study indicate lack of proper training for Panchayat

leaders to involve the local community to participate in

educational activities. The administration of primary

educat'ion had not improved to any significant extent.

Village leadership was based on consideration of caste

55

and/or political affiliation. The administration of

prlmary education was becoming increasingly complex.

Iqbal Narain, et a1. (1974) conducted a study on

management of prlmary schools under Panchayat Raj

administration ln Rajasthan. The study focused on

aspects related to direction of change ln terms of

improvement or deterioration of teaching standards and

functloning of schools. The promotional role of

Panchayat Raj functionaries helped in specific areas

like provision of school buildings and other facilities,

and overcoming the reluctance of the rural people ln

sending their children to primary schools and the extent

of politicization of management of prlmary schools.

Sample was drawn from five districts which consisted of

teachers, Panchayat Raj functionaries, parents and

government officials. Questionnaire, observation and

interview

from this,

buildings,

schedules were the tools of research. Apart

study records, general conditions of school

cleanliness, attendance etc. Results of the

study show that, under the management of Panchayat Raj

leaders quantitative aspects such as school building,

students going to school and regular functioning of the

school. improved. Qualitative aspects like discipline,

56

morale of teachers and teaching methods failed to

improve.

Patel (1975) studied impact of Panchayat Raj on

administration of primary education. The main objective

of the study was to find out how far the introduction

of Panchayat Raj succeeded in expanding and improving

the programme of primary education. The total sample

covered ten per cent of total Gram Panchayats in Mehsana

district of West Gujarat. Information was collected

from government documents, official and non-official

members of PR bodies. The data was collected from pro

forma, rating scales, opinionnaire and data sheets. The

study revealed that the Panchayat Raj was working

fairly well in the case of advanced, progressive and

effective Panchayats.

democratic ways and

benevolent leadership

Service minded, committed to

means, less politicised and

proved to be successful. The

weaker sections of the people boosted up by government

and politicians played a dominant role in the decision

making process The factors of caste and economic status

had an impact on the decision making of leaders at

village, block and district levels. The PR appeared to

have impact on the expansion of primary education while

57

much appeared to be desirable in

school quality, expanding schools.

terms of improving

Bhouraskar (1964) has recommended a new approach to

the philosophy of educational administration. He

analysed the policies and practices of educational

administration and assessed their democratic nature of

functioning at different levels. The study was

conducted in the state of Madhya Pradesh. Questionnaire

and interviews were carried out to have a clear picture

of the philosophy of educational administration and to

know how administrators

established conventions

interpreted the policies and

for the development of

democratic setup. Findings revealed that the majority of

the administrators were dissatisfied as they were not

involved in decision making. Administrators believed

that the institution runs smoothly if they were endowed

with more powers. All were favourable towards the

democratic decentralisation of the power structure. They

believed that mutual discussions and sharing of opinions

on certain matters was good for efficient

administration. Administrators, in many respects, had

not yet adopted the democratic way of approach to the

problems.

58

Krishnarnurthy (1968) studied reforms in educational

administration In Andhra Pradesh to present a

comprehensi ve picture about the reforms and to suggest

varlOUS measures for the future educational

administration. Information was collected from the

proceedings

published

acts and

of the Directorate of Public Instruction,

government literature containing policies,

vlews expressed by educationists.

Questionnaire, information inventories, score cards and

opinionnaire

officers of

were used to collect information from the

education department, teachers and the

legislators. Findings of the study revealed that the

reforms were aimed at bringing efficiency In

administration, economy in finance and development and

spread of education.

progressl ve measures as

the latest thinking In

The reforms introduced were

they were In accordance wi th

the field of educational

administration. Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) failed

to improve the quality of teaching.

In the light of these findings researcher suggested

that there was a need to define clearly the powers of

education In Zilla Panchayats. Education secretary of

Zilla, Panchayats should be trained graduate with

teaching experience. Experienced educationists and

59

retired educational administrators should be associated

wi th education under Panchayat Raj by taking them into

study committees and other bodies connected with

education. There should be special inspection under the

control of department to inspect schools in Zilla

Panchayats. An evaluation officer should be attached to

strengthen the examination system in each district.

Kaul (1969) studied the role of local authorities

in Indian education in all historical perspectives with

particular reference to the cause of education. The

objective was to find out how democratic

power helped decentralisation of

educational patterns and growth. The

to shape the

state of Uttar

Pradesh was taken as the sample of the study as it

represented all shades of cultural and economic

patterns. Nature of the study being historical normative

survey, information was collected from documents in

government and local bodies. Besides this, officials

connected with local bodies were interviewed. Researcher

has concluded that local bodies worked more efficiently

and profitably than other agencies in India.

Shinde (1975) studied role of the Panchayat Raj

leadership ln expansion and improvement of prlmary

60

education. One of the objectives of the investigation

was to find out the relationship between Panchayat Raj

leadership and the success achieved in the development

of primary education. The sample consists of hundred

Panchayats of eleven taluks of Panchmahals district of

Gujarat. Tools employed In the investigation were

questionnaire, rating scale and data sheet. According

to findings of the investigation, Panchayat Raj bodies

did not achieve expected level of improvement In

primary education. Gram Panchayat education committees

were relatively more effective than taluk Panchayat

education committees.

Dabholkar and Gadgil (1982) enquired into the

nature of integration of educational plan with overall

plan and studied formulation, methods and techniques of

evaluation of educational plans at the district level.

Based on the level of economic and educational

development four districts namely Bhir, Wardha,

Ratnagiri and Pune were selected. Findings of the study

revealed that there had hardly been any integration of

educational plan with overall plan at the district

levels. The data available was not strong enough for any

detail~d overall integrated plan at the district or the

block levels. Expertise required for planning was not

61

readily ava1lable at the local leve:. There ~as no

decentral1sat1on of adm1nlstrat1on

integrated plan to be effec~lve.

required fer ~he

Radhakrishan (1984 ) studied educatlona1

administration in the state of Tami~ Nadu with reference

to decentralisation. One ef the ob~ectlves ~as to

present a comprehensive picture of decentrallsat1cr. sc

as to effect other changes better suited to the present

trend in education and to suggest various measures f::n

future educational admin1stration. Quest1onna1re and

interview schedules were used to collect infermation

from district educational officers, inspectors of

schools, Head Masters and teachers. The study suggested

that the District education officers should have powers

to frame curriculum, enter into contracts and

for transactions within the educational agreements

district. Chief educational officers should have powers

to approve the location of the school. Every head of

office 1ncluding Head Masters, should have the power to

sanction contingent expenditure without the

countersignature of higher authorities.

The review of studies indicates the functior.ing of

educational system 1n a given socio-economic and

62

polltical contexts, especially in India. And the st~dies

have also emphasised on public administration Vls-a-'llS

educational system. They perceive educatlonal str'..lcture

as a department In Government and focus on the

procedural and power dimensions of the departmental

functioning. Very few studies have taken the frame'Nork

of management which emphasizes the achie~lement of tr~e

objectives. In other words, education was viewed as

administration like any other government department and

not as an enterprise. Such an approach looks at various

developments and interventions in isolation with one

another. It does not look inside the structures to see

what is happening in institutions

procedural dimensions.

to capture the

From the review it appears that though notionally

education was considered as a sector included under five

year plans in India right from the inception of planned

development by the state, educational Planning remained

marginal. Educational growth/development took place by

default. This may be because education was viewed as an

input to economlC growth In the models adopted in

earlier plans, and the constitutional model of

democratic, secular and socialist society which accords

an independent causal role to education was often

63

relegated to low priority area and at the most the

Constitutional theme made a parallel noise In plan

theories.

Only in recent years mass education has assumed

greater importance for varlous politico-economic

reasons, mostly emerglng from the inter:1ational scene.

This scenario lS the result of new policies sweeplng

the developing countries under the structural adjustment

policy. Basic education has assumed greater importance

from mid eighties onwards in India. There is greater

need for studies focusing on the past performance of

education and the capacity to plan both long term

perspective plans and short term action plans. The

present study lS one such attempt to address the

following issues:

• What are the effects of plan investments made in the

past on varlOUS parameters of educational development

at primary educational level?

• What is the nature of the process of educational

planning pursued by the state apparatus?

64

Fourth All India Educational Survey (1988) reports

that the research is too meager to generate any

subs tan ti ve lear:ling regarding the proces s of planning

of education at macro, micro and :..nsti t'Jt:..onal levels.

Besides, none of the studies deal wi t!l the process of

educational plan formulation at the district level.

The effectiveness of district level planning for

development of education also depends on the procedure

of plan formulation.

district educational

Hence to validate the approach of

planning in relation to the

objectives of the such plans. It is necessary to study

the procedure of educational plan formulation practiced

at the district level. Keeping this researc!l gap in

view, the present study has been proposed.

6S

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

3.1 Introduction:

Discussion in the previous chapters dealt with the

need for studying educational planning focusing on

primary education and review of related literature. It

was pointed out that the primary education has assumed

a greater importance in the context of changes in socio

economJ.c and political spheres. It was envisaged that

educational planning under five year plans in Karnataka

state J.n the past might have been too general,

centralized and weak in its foundations.

In the present chapter, first the methodology for

analyzing the performance of the past plans starting

from 1971 to 1994 spanning roughly the duration of

twenty four years from the Fourth Five Year Plan to

Eighth Five Year Plan is discussed. Secondly, this

chapter also discusses the methodology for studying the

process of educational planning

districts.

J.n three selected

66

3.2 Nature of the research study

The study has three dimensions. The first dimension

concentrates on the analysis of the changes in the

educational parameters and the effect of plan

expenditure on each of the parameters represented by

indicators.

The second dimension concentrates on the changes of

educational parameters at the district level over the

intervening plan periods during 1971-1994.

The third dimension looks into the understanding,

functions and activities that are taking place in the

planning processes at the state, the district and below

district levels and the processes of implementation.

Thus the study lS partly analytical and partly

descriptive In nature. In the analytical part, the

secondary data collected from published and unpublished

sources is utilised. This is used to describe the

educational progress and relate the same with the plan

intentions and implementations at the state level. The

descriptive part deals with the planning process as

67

unraveled '::hrougn seml strClctured ir.terviews and

observation of '::he meet~ngs that were taking place

during the field VlSltS.

3.3 Objectives of the Study:

I The obJectives for the State level analysis are,

1. ~o examlne the Karnataka State Plan documents to

ascertain the methodology and priorities of

educational sectoral plans ~n IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII

Five Year Plans.

2. To develop indicators of educationa::' parameters and

exam~ne the changes in those indicators over the

period of time from 1971-1994.

3. To compare the distribution of educational access,

retention and quality input indicators (educational

parameters) across different population segments over

twenty four years.

68

4. To understand the changes ln the above indicators

during each successive Five Year Plans starting from

IV to VIII.

5. To compare the performance of prlmary education as

reflected in the values of various indicators before

and after the introduction of Panchayat Raj system in

1987.

6. To Examine the effect of plan expenditure on selected

educational indicators.

7. To examine the changes of educational indicators ln

the light of changes in literacy as indicated in

census of 1971, 1981 and 1991.

II The objectives proposed for district level analysis

are,

1. To compare the changes inter-district disparities

through educational indicators after each

successive Five Year Plans.

69

III The objectives for the study of the planning

process are:

1. To identify the functional linkages wi thin the

bureaucratlc structure of the department of public

instruction with respect to educational planning at

state, district sub-district levels.

2. To study the roles played by various personnel in the

process of planning.

3. To obtain the qualitative aspects of planning like

information flow, information analysis during the

preparation of educational plans.

4. To understand the perceptions involved in educational

planning at various levels.

5. To Know the perceptions of people at the grass roots

level related to primary education.

70

3.4.1 Quantitative analysis at the state level:

Hypotheses: The maJor hypotheses formulated for the

study are,

1. The plan investment has no significant determining

ef:ect on the performance of prlmary education in

Kar:1ataka.

The above general hypothesis lS tested for each of the

seven variables at the state level as follows:

a) The plan investment has no significant determining

effect on the enrollment per ten thousand population

of primary education in Karnataka.

b) The plan investment has no significant determining

effect on the annual retention rate at lower primary

of LPS level in Karnataka.

c) The plan investment has no significant determining

effect on the gender equality in enrollment of

primary education in Karnataka.

71

d) The plan investment has no significant determining

effec~ on the primary schools per ten thousand

population in Karnataka.

el The plan investment has no significant determining

effect on the teachers per ten thousand population in

primary schools in Karnataka.

f) The plan investment has no significant determining

effect on pupil-teacher ratio at primary school level

in Karnataka.

g! The plan investment has no significant determining

effect on standard-teacher ratio at prlmary school

level in Karnataka.

3.4.2 Statistical analyses

Both descriptive and inferential statistics are

utllised at the state level analysis. The descriptive

statistics are given in the form of tables and graphs to

obtain the trend of changes ln the indicator values.

Inferential statistics are used to test the following

hypotheses.

72

3.4.3 Quantitative analysis at the district level:

Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard

deviation and coefficient of variation are used to

compare the changes in the indicators of educational

growth across districts, at different points of time

coterminous with the ending of Five Year Plans during

the period under consideration.

3.4.4 Qualitative data analysis:

A detailed description of the method of qualitative

data analysis is given in the Chapter V along with the

analysis and findings. The method adopted for

qualitative plan process follows the procedures of

content analysis of the notes recorded during

interviews, observations and encounters.

3.5 Operational definitions:

Plan expenditure: This term refers to the annual

plan expenditure on primary education by the state in

Karnataka. The variable is measured In the form of plan

expenditure at constant prlces.

73

Indicators of primary Education Performance The

term refers to the aspects which indicate the status of

access, retention and quality aspects of primary

education. These aspects are measured by defining the

indicators as mentioned below.

I Access indicators :

1. Enrollment In ~PS per ten thousand population,

2. Enrollment In HPS per ten thousand population,

3. Enrollment in Primary stage per ten thousand

population,

5. SC/ST enrollment in LPS per ten thousand population

of SC/ST,

6. SC/ST enrollment In HPS per ten thousand population

of SC/ST,

7. SC/ST enrollment In Primary stage per ten thousand

population of SC/ST,

8. Non-SC/ST enrollment in LPS per ten thousand

population of Non-SC/ST,

9. Non-SC/ST enrollment in HPS per ten thousand

population of Non-SC/ST,

10. Non-SC/ST enrollment in primary stage per ten

thousand population of Non-SC/ST,

11.' Gender equality in enrollment at LPS stage,

74

12. Gender equality in enrollment at HPS stage,

13. Gender equality in enrollment at Primary school

stage,

14. SC/ST gender equallty in enrollment at LPS stage,

15. SC/ST gender equality ln enrollment at HPS stage,

16. SC/ST gender equality in enrollment at Primary

school stage,

17. Non-SC/ST gender equality in enrollment at LPS

stage,

18. Non-SC/ST gender equality in enrollment at HPS

stage and

19. Non-SC/ST gender equality in enrollment Primary

school stage.

II Annual retention :

20. Annual Retention at LPS level,

21. Annual Retention of SC/ST at LPS level and

22. Annual Retention of Non SC/ST at LPS level.

III Quality input indicators:

23. Lower primary schools per ten thousand population,

24. Higher primary schools per ten thousand population,

25. Primary schools per ten thousand population,

75

26. Primary school teachers per ten thousand population,

27. Pupil-teacher ratio and

28. Standard-teacher ratio.

3.5.1 Description of indicators:

A. ~ Access to Pr~mary education: (Enrollment)

This variable refers to the demand met by providing

the access or creating demand through supply. Most of

the plans have had schemes for providing incentives and

subsidies in addition to opening of schools to attract

children to the schools. These measures are expected to

increase the enrollments of children. Ideally the

measure to indicate the school enrollment rate would be

to compute Net Enrollment Ratio, i.e. the proportion of

relevant age group population enrolled in school. Such

information lS being gathered through All India

Educational surveys in the past. But, the base

population of the relevant age group needs to be

projected for inter census years. When such exercise lS

done at the district and below, the estimated age

76

population may not be accurate as the age structure

varies from place to place.

Another variable normally used while reporting the

progress of education is Gross Enrollment Ratio. But

this requires the same base figures of the relevant age

population. In order to avoid such errors arising out of

estimates of the age population both on time dimensions

and across districts, the enrollment rate was obtained

as proportion enrolled to total population of the

relevant categories like males, females, persons etc.

However the population figures for the inter census

years were estimated by using the actual compound growth

rates observed during the decades of seventies,

eighties and nineties. For spill-over years beyond

nineties same growth rate' observed during eighties.

ii Access to Primary education:

enrollment)

(Gender equality in

Gender

proportion

equality in

of representation

enrollment

of girls

measures the

and boys in

primary schools to their respective population groups.

In 'other words this indicator measures the gap between

77

girls and boys enrollment. This 1S computed with the

help of the formula given below,

( AE I AP

Gender equality in enrollment = ------ X 100 - 100

BEl BP )

whe!:e,

AE = Enrollment of A category, A stands for General

glrls, SC/ST Girls and Non SC/ST girls.

AP = Female population of respective categories.

BE = Enrollment of B category, B stands for General

boys, SC/ST boys and Non SC/ST boys.

BP Male population of respective categories.

B. Annual retention rate.

Annual retention rate measures the number of

students continuing their studies after LPS level.

Annual retention of students enrolled

obtained by using the formula,

at LPS stage is

(X1+X2+X3+X4) - (y2+Y3+Y4+Y5)

Annual Retention rate = 100 - X 100

( X1+X2+X3+X4)

Where Xl, X2, X3, X4 represent I, II, II, IV standards

of'LPS in a given year and Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5 represent II,

III, IV, V standards of subsequent year.

78

c. Inputs for Quality of primary education:

Three parameters have been utilised for assessing

the changes in the quality of primary education. They

are,

1) Availability of schools,

2) Availability of teachers and

3) Teaching learning context.

1) Availability of schools are measured by using three

indicators. This indicator refers to the provision of

lower primary schools having classes I to IV standards

in relation to population and calculated by finding

number of lower primary schools per ten thousand

population. The second indicator denotes access to

primary education beyond IV standards. It is measured by

calculating higher primary schools per ten thousand

population. In Karnataka all higher primary schools have

I to VIr standards. Therefore increase in higher primary

schools also contributes to the increase in access to

lower level of education. This has been captured by the

third indicator by calculating

ten thousand population.

primary schools per

79

in active instruction. This is measured by finding out·

the average ~umber of standards taught by a teacher.

(Number of LPS x 4) + (Number of HPS x 7)

Standard-teacher ratio at primary schools = ------------

Number of teachers in pnmary schools

The above indicator also represents the degree of

multi-grade teaching prevalent In the region under

consideration. Further this indicator calculated at the

desegregated levels like districts represents the

disparities in the teaching learning context.

Educational outcome: This term refers to the aspect

which indicate the achievement of educational efforts.

This is measured by literacy levels. Literacy rate

indicators are measured by considering the proportion of

literate to the respective population groups. The

indicators computed are,

1. Total literacy rates,

2. SC literacy rates,

3.' ST literacy rates,

4. Male literacy rates,

81

5. Female literacy rates,

6. Urban literacy rates and

7. Rural literacy rates.

These literacy rates are computed by taking total

population of respective groups as denominator in order

to ~ake ~t comparable across census years.

Number of literate in a segment of population

Literacy rates :: X 100

Population of that segment

Educational planning processes: This term refers

to the activities carried out during the preparation of

educational plans. This involves the basis for arriving

at developmental programmes, rationale for allotting the

financial and phys ical targets and the procedure

followed to arrive at the educational plan.

Structure of educational planning processes: The

preparation of the educational plan involves different

departments at the state, the district and below

district levels. The Structure of educational planning

processes describes the different departments involved

82

In the planning process at all levels with their key

roles.

The source of data, sampling procedure and analysis

of data are given separately for secondary and primary

data.

3.6 Source of secondary data:

Year wise data starting from 1971 to 1994 related

to standard wise enrollment, primary school teachers and

prlmary schools were collected from the office of

Commissioner of Public Instruction, Government of

Karnataka. This data was collected using district as a

unit in addition to State level information. PopUlation

figures of 1971, 1981, 1991 were collected from census

reports namely primary census abstract, socio-cul tural

tables and Special tables for SC/ST. 1995 estimated

figure was collected from the report 'Population

Estimates' (ISEC, Population Research Center) .

3.6.1 Method of Analysis of secondary data:

Based on the nature of data and the purpose of

analysis descriptive and quantitative techniques were

83

adopted to analyse secondary data. The details of the

analyses are as follows:

A. Estimation of population figures:

Population for the years other than 1971, 1981,

1991 and 1995 were estimated by using compound growth

rate formula using the actual growth of population

between two successive censuses of 1971, 1981 and 1991.

In the case of growt~ beyond 1991, popUlation projection

made by ISEC Population Researc~ center was used for the

year 1995. Compound growth rate was used to arrive at

year wise population. This exercise was done separately

for state and the districts. Formula of Compound growth

rate is given below,

1 It

Compound growth rate (r) = {[ ( y I a) 1 -1} X 100

where ,

y = Final year's value,

a = Initial year value,

t = Number of years.

Year-wise population was estimated by using the formula

given below,

Estimated population of each subsequent year = P [ 1 + r]

84

where,

P = Population of the previous year,

r = compound growth rate,

B. Analysis of Five year plan documents:

The nature of educational planning was inferred by

analysing Five Year Plan documents of Karnataka state.

Five-Year plan documents from Fourth Five year plan to

Eighth Five year plan were analysed to collect the

information related to the educational objectives,

programmes selected and norms followed to fix the

physical target were noted.

C. Distribution of plan outlays:

Financial allocation for varlOUS programs In the

Five year plans were analysed to know the plan

priorities. Programmes related to prlmary education

sector under different departments namely general

education, 5C welfare, 5T welfare, Other Backward Castes

welfare, women and child welfare etc. were noted and

cor~esponding financial allotment in each Five year plan

from Fourth to Eighth Five year plan were also noted.

85

Various programs were grouped into different categories

based on the nature of intervention and the allocations

for different progranunes under each category were added

to obtain the relative priority under each plan.

D. Analysis of time series data of educational

indicators:

Time series data was computed from 1971 to 1994 to

know the trend in the changes of the indicator values.

Indicators considered for this purpose are,

1. Total enrollment as percent of population at LPS, HPS

and Primary stage,

2. SC/ST enrollment as percent of SC/ST population at

LPS, HPS and Primary stage,

3. Gender wise enrollment as percent of population at

LPS, HPS and Primary Stage,

4. Gender wise SC/ST and Non-SC/ST enrollment as percent

of SC/ST and non-SC/ST population,

S. Gender equality in general enrollment at LPS, HPS and

primary schools,

6. Retention of boys and girls at LPS stage,

7. LPS schools per ten thousand population,

86

8. HPS schools per ten thousand population,


10. Teacher of prlmary schools per ten thousand

population,

11. Pupil-teacher ratio at prlmary schools and

12. Standard-teacher ratio at primary schools.

E. Progress of educational indicators across Five Year

plans:

The above mentioned indicators which were computed

from 1971-1994, covers various plan periods starting

from 1971-1994. These years were grouped under different

plan periods. Thus three years of IV Five Year Plan and

five years of V, VI, VII plan periods were considered

for obtalning average. Only initial three years were

considered for VIII plan. In between there were three

annual plans, not forming part of Five Year plans. Hence

these years were excluded. The average values of the

indicators thus obtained at different plan periods were

considered to compare the progress of indicators during

five year plans.

87

F. Influence of plan expenditure on various educational

indicators.

Plan expenditure on primary education was regressed

on educational progress indicators to know the effect of

plan expenditure. Dependent variables considered for

th~s purpose are,

(a) Enrollment per ten thousand population at primary

school,

(b) Annual retention rate at lower primary state,

(c) Gender equality index of enrollment at primary

stage,

(d) Primary schools per ten thousand population,

(e) Teacher of primary schools per ten thousand

population,

(fl Pupil-teacher ratio at prlmary schools and

(g) Standard-teacher ratio at primary schools.

Plan expenditure on prlmary education was

considered as independent variable. Plan expenditure on

primary education from 1971-1993 was obtained from

central government documents 'Expenditure on Education'

and 'Economic Survey of Karnataka'. The information

88

available on expenditure was in current prices which

were converted to constant prices which GDP deflators,

wi th 1990 as the base year. Thus, plan expenditure at

constant prices for a period of 24 years from 1971 to

1994 was obtained. Indicator values of other dependent

variables were computed for each year from 1971 to 1994.

The value thus obtained, is used for regression analysis

based on the followi~g equation separately for each

dependent variable.

y= a+bX+Ut

where,

Y = depended variable as mentioned above,

x = Plan expenditure at constant prices,

a = Constant,

b = Regression coefficient.

Ut = Error term.

Maximum likely-hood estimation was used to correct

for the presence of auto-correlation in the time series

analysis carried out under the present study.

89

G. Comparl.son in the progress of educational indicators

during pre-Zilla Panchayat and post-Zilla Panchayat

scenarl.o.

In the year 1987 district level insti tutions were

established In Karnataka and were glven powers to

administer primary education. The study intends to see

whether there was any change In primary education after

the introduction of the new structure. In order to do

this comparative study, average values of some selected

indicators for seven years before 1987 and after 1987

',.;ere calculated separately and compared.

considered are as follows,

Indicators

1. Total enrollment as percent of population at LPS, HPS

and Primary stage,

2. Gender equality in general enrollment at LPS, HPS and

primary schools,



S. Teacher of primary schools per ten thousand

population,

6. Pupil-teacher ratio at primary schools and


90

H. Analysis of educational indicators using district as

the unit:

District wise analysis was carried out with the

help of indicators mentioned below.

1. Total ~nroll~ent as percent of population at LPS, HPS

and Pr:mary stage,

2. Gender equallty :n general enrollment at LPS, HPS and

primary schools,



5. Teacher of primary schools per ten thousand

population,

6. Pupil-teacher ratio at primary schools, and


The values of these indicators were grouped under

IV, V, VI, VII and VIII Five Year Plans. The Mean values

of the lndicators thus obtained to analyse district wise

progress of indicators during five year plans. These

scores were considered to group the districts into Good,

Average and Poor districts. Before computing the

educational i!1dicators, the year wise data was

smoothened by using three years moving averages from

91

second year onwards for each variables. The new ser1es

thus arrived was used to compute the indicator value

for each year. The analysis used the mean values of each

indicator arrived by averaging the individual value for

different years under different Five Year Plans for each

district. The districts were grouped as Good, Average

and Poor using Mean (X) and Standard dev:'ation (lS"") of the

scores. The details of the analysis are elaborated in

the chapter presenting the secondary data analysis.

I. Analysis of Literacy rates of Karnataka State and

Districts:

Literacy rates for the census years namely 1961,

1971, 1981, 1991 were computed for males and females of

rural and urban areas. These rates were calculated for

general, SC and ST categories. For the calculation of

literacy rates, population and literacy numbers of the

above categories were collected. At the district level

only general and SC categories were considered. Because

ST population in the state was very small and 1S

concentrated in few districts. Intra-district variation

was computed with the help of coefficient of variation.

92

3.7 Sample Selection for collecting Primary data:

Since different regions of Karnataka had different

history, it was decided to concentrate on the districts

of the same region. Hence, districts of old Mysore area

were selected. Three districts were proposed for the

study of planning process. The districts identified for

the study were Chickffiagalore, Mysore and Mandya.

Chickffiagalore was selected from malnad hilly region,

Myso~e was selected from maidan plane region and Mandya

was selected to study the changes In the planning

processes due to the intervention of District Primary

Educational Planning (DPEP). These districts share the

common historical past. Two taluks, one backward and

advanced from each of the four blocks were selected

based on DDPIs and EOs suggestions. Two villages having

concentration of scheduled castes/scheduled tribes or

more number of dropouts were selected from each taluk.

Selection of taluks and villages depended upon the

suggestion of block level officer. The places selected

and the period of visit are mentioned below:

93

Table 3.1 Location selected for the field work at the

district level:

District Taluk Village

Chickmagalur Kadur Tangalitandya l( .n.oondanahali

Mudigere Lokavali Herernangalore

\1vsore Heggada Devana Kote Lakshmipura Mahadevnagar

Nanjangudu Sindhuvalipura A1ambur

Mandva Maddur Soligarakaloni Athgur

Srirangapattana Ganiam Mogarhalli

3.8.1 Steps involved In field work:

Field work commenced form June 1993 and extended

till August 1995. And elected members were interviewed

in august 1996. Data collection involved three steps.

In the first step offices and personnel involved in

the planning of primary education were identified at the

state, the district, the taluk and the village levels.

In the second step, state officers, district

officers, and other personnel involved in the planning

94

were interviewed. Plan related meetings were observed.

Factual information, opinions and the information from

events were collected to understand the procedure

practiced for the progress of primary education.

In the third step Block level offices were visited

and officials were interviewed. Villages were visited to

know the reflections of the people at grassroot level.

Teachers, villagers, SBC members and Gram Panchayat

members were interviewed to know the success of planning

efforts.

Following sources of information were used,

• Issues based unstructured discussion focused with the

personnel involved in the planning and implementation

at all levels,

• Proceedings of the plan related meeting through non

participant observation,

• Interaction of officials with the public and

representatives of the people In the offices during

the visits, and

• Informal discussion with the officials accompanying

the investigator in the villages.

95

Tables 2,3 and 4 provide details of the offices and

personnel identified at different levels who formed the

sample for collecting qualitative data.

Table 3.2 : Number of respondents at the state level and

des~gnat~ons.

Office Desienation Number

State Planning Board Charroerson One

Education Department Deputy Secretary One Section Officer Two Senior Assistant Three

CPfs office DDPI (Planning) One Asst. Director of Planning One

Case Worker (statistics) One

Table 3.3 : Number of respondents at the district level and designations.

Level Office Desienation Number

District Zilla Panchayat Chief Executive Officer Three (3) ( 3) Asst. Secretary Development Three

Chief Planning Officer Two Asst. Statistical Officer One Asst. Planning Officer One

DDPI's office DDPI Three (3 ) Educational Officer Five

Subiect Inspector Five First Division Clerk Four Second Division Ten

ZP Members Six (3)

Figures in parenthesis represent number of offices.

96

Table 3.4 : Number of respondents at the block level and designations.

Level Office Designation Number

Block AEO's office" AEO Six (6) (6) Inspector of school Thirteen

First Division clerk Five Second Division Ten

Vilhw:e School Teacher Sixteen (12) ( I I ) Parents Fifty

SBe member Twenty four SBe president Ten GP President Four GP members N'me

Figures in parenthesis represent number of offices. *AEO's office is renamed as BEO's office at present.

3.8.2 Procedure followed in Collecting the information:

Permission for collecting the information was

obtained from officials by posting bonafide certificate,

a letter containing the details of the research topic,

nature of data required with an assumption that the

information collected will be kept confidential. In the

ZP office, CEO was informed about the purpose of visit

and requested permission to carry out interviews. DDPI

was requested to inform other officials of DDPI's office

and BEOs about the purpose of the visit and sought

permission to collect the information.

97

3.B.3 Recording the Information:

Interviews were unstructured but focused on the

specific plan/implementation related lssues.

Interviewees were allowed to talk freely and express

what they felt was relevant. During the interview,

factual information given by the respondent was taken

down. Respondents expressed their oplnions related to

the functioning of planning mechanism. And there were

few incidental discussions with other officials and

visitors which also threw light on few planning

practices. In such a situation researcher recorded only

key words and phrases, with the help which detailed

notes were prepared later. This approach reduced

inference in the nature of flow of events.

Researcher also attended meeting at ZP and DDPI' s

offices and draft plan preparation meeting. Here

researcher adopted non-participant observer's role to

collect the information and recorded detailed notes of

the proceedings of the meetings, topics debated and the

consensus arrived at by the officials.

98

3.9 Method of Analysis of Primary data:

Once the information from the field was collected,

each encounter was entered on computer. Each paragraph

was read and coded based on the themes. Later paragraphs

were grouped into different categories such as planning,

perception, information and feedback. The printouts were

read and re-read several times to identify the recurrent

themes related to educational planning. The field notes

were deconstructed to obtain the picture of following

aspects.

1. Planning procedure and methodology at the state, the

district and the block level,

2. Information flow and processing,

3. Implementation administration, monitoring and

feedback aspects, and

4. Perception of officials, elected members of Panchayat

institutions, teachers, SBC members and parents.

At the next stage, each encounter recorded were

grouped under the above themes. Since the field notes

were based on the discussion and observation that were

99

taking place ln real world, same encounter often

contained several themes and such instances were

repeated under each of the related classifications.

After obtaining different categories of the

observations and notes, they were further ordered

according ~o the level from which they emerged. At the

third stage, the data classified under each theme was

read and reconstructed to answer the following

questions:

1 What is the meaning of planning?

2 What are the perceptions of the individuals

involved?

3 What 1S the methodology/technique used ln

educational planning?

Using these questions an attempt was made to

construct various aspects of planning process observed

in the field. The abstracted answers are presented on

different aspects and illustrated by the facts obtained

from observations and interview responses etc.

100

CHAPTER IV

Secondary Data Analysis

4.1 Introduction:

A methodology to analyse the secondary data with

a view to infer the influence of planning on education

was presented in the previous chapter. It also dealt

with the methodology of the analysis of qualitative

data to understand the planning process and

implementation.

In the present chapter, the results of the

analysis of secondary data are presented under the

following headlines:

• Analysis of Five year plan and distribution of

Plan outlays.

• Analysis of State-level time-series data.

• Influence of Plan expenditure on access,

retention and quality input indicators.

• Change in the trend of educational indicators

after the change in administrative system.

101

• District-wise and plan-wise analysis of

educational indicators.

• Li teracy rates of various categories

Karnataka.

4.2 Analysis of the State plan documents

:n ::his section an attempt 1S made to identify

the rationale followed in selecting the progranunes,

fixing the physical and financial targets through the

analysis of Five Year Plan documents of Karnataka

state (Fourth Five Year Plan through Eighth Five Year

Plan) .

Fourth Plan : In the Fourth plan, an attempt was

made to identify backward districts using two sets of

criteria: (1) per capita income; (2) composite index

developed based on indicators arrived at by uS1ng mean

weighted ranking of a set of variables. The purpose

behind the development of index was to identify

backward districts with a view to formulate district

specific plans. But the rationale for the selection of

variables for ranking weights, and mean ranking is not

clear. The variables include literacy, technology,

training, hospitals, corrununication and transportation

102

on one hand and on the other, a set of variables

related to agricultural production. It 1S not clear

whether the values like percentage of workers in

agriculture to total workers is considered as negative

or posit::.ve variable in relation to the development.

The first set of variables ment10ned above relate to

urban::.sation and industrial development. It is nor:

clear whether these variables are weighted positively

or negatively in the development of the index.

The document does claim that education is a

causal factor in bringing about social change but this

statement remains at the rhetoric level and it has not

been followed up by working out the details of such

linkages.

As far as primary education is concerned, the

Fourth plan uses gross enrollment ratio for fixing up

the target. It appears that the concept of net

enrollment ratio is not either understood or utilised

for examining past achievements and projecting future

targets. The plan proposes to reach cent per cent

enrollment at the lower primary standard i.e. those in

the age group of 6-11 years in school and also

estimate requirements of teachers as 20,000 during the

103

Fourth Plan. However, due to financial limitations,

the plan proposed an addition of 4000 teachers. The

plan proposes investments and improvement of secondary

education and university education in order to produce

good teachers for primary and secondary level.

Thus, the plan emphasises qualitative

improvement both at higher and lower levels of

education. In other words, a sort of trickle down

approach has been adopted for prlmary education

flowlng from improved quality at higher levels.

Notwi ths tanding rhetorics used in the plan, actual

achievements at the end of the Fourth Plan were, the

number of primary schools having Lower Primary classes

rose from 32090 to 32222 showing an increase of only

132 schools. Higher primary schools rose from 10,422

to 11,200 registering an up gradation of 778 schools

and in the case of secondary schools the number

increased from 1838 to 2180 registering an increase of

342 schools.

The gross enrollment ratio at the lower primary

level actually declined from 107 per cent to 97 per

cent and almost stagnated at HPS(Higher primary level)

level.

104

In the case of teachers, there was negligible

increase from 33917 to 33932 at the end of the plan

period ln LPS. The teachers appointed during the plan

period at senlor prlmary or HPS level showed an

increase from 58804 to 66030, registering an increase

of 7226 ~eachers.

Fifth Plan: The overall objective of the Fifth

Plan was to provide maximum nutritious food, housing

for the poor, drinking water, prlmary education and

medical facilities to lmprove the quality of life

(Minimum needs programme). The sectoral chapter, on

education reiterated some of the objectives of the

Fourth Plan. For the first time, the Fifth Plan

specified the need for improving access to vulnerable

sections like girls, SC/ST and other weaker sections.

The Fifth Plan proposed to achieve gross enrollment

ratio of 113 at LPS. During the Plan periods,

educational enrollment of 7.57 lakhs of children at

LPS level was expected and 3.28 lakhs at HPS level.

It is interesting to note that the estimation of

the' required number of teachers for educational

enrollment was arithmetically calculated as 18925

105

In the case of teachers, there was negligible

increase from 33917 to 33932 at the end of the plan

period in LPS. The teachers appointed during the plan

period at senior primary or HPS level showed an

increase from 58804 to 66030, registering an increase

of 7226 teachers.

Fifth Plan: The overall objective of the Fifth

Plan was to provide maximum nutritious food, housing

for the poor, drinking water, primary education and

medical facilities to improve the quality of life

(Minimum needs programme). The sectoral chapter, on

education reiterated some of the objectives of the

Fourth Plan. For the first time, the Fifth Plan

specified the need for improving access to vulnerable

sections like girls, SC/ST and other weaker sections.

The Fifth Plan proposed to achieve gross enrollment

ratio of 113 at LPS. During the Plan periods,

educat;.onal enrollment of 7.57 lakhs of children at

LPS level was expected and 3.28 lakhs at HPS level.

It is interesting to note that the estimation of

the' required nwnber of teachers for educational

enrollment was arithmetically calculated as 18925

105

teachers by dividing additional enrollment by 40

keeping the norm of pupil-teacher ratio at 40:1.

Similar calculation was made to arrive at additional

teacher requirement of 8200 for HPS.

The plan also recognised the fact that most of

the children enrolled drop out before completing

primary stage. The plan proposed to develop continuing

and part time education for the benefit of school

dropouts. But surprisingly, teachers' requirement for

the above scheme was worked out by using teacher-pupil

ratio as 1:15 and thus proposed 1240 full time

teachers.

The Plan recognised the fact that due attention

should be glven to weaker sections of the society

namely SC, ST and girls to accelerate their

enrollment. It was estimated that 40 per cent of the

students belonged to backward sections of the society.

Hence the plan decided to give incentives to 40 per

cent of the children in the school which would cover

SC, ST and girls. Text books and attendance

scholarship were proposed as incentives to LPS and HPS

children to facilitate the retention of children in

school and help in reducing the wastage.

106

It was argued that the problem of accommodation

comes ln the way of females taking up the job ln

interior places. Therefore, quarters for women

teachers ln rural areas were proposed. Instead of

conducting need based assessment of required number of

quarters, plan document assumed that 40 Der cent of

teachers recruited during the Fifth Plan would be

female teachers and 20 per cent of them would require

quarters. Hence money was provided to construct the

quarters for 20 per cent of the female teachers.

At the end of Fourth Plan around 10,000 schools

were without proper accommodation. And it had proposed

to appoint 27,125 teachers though only a few teachers

were appointed. Because of these factors, the Fifth

Plan proposed construction of 13,550 class rooms. In

the Fifth Plan number of teachers appointed formed the

rationale for construction of class rooms but not the

number of schools which decided the provlslon of

additional teachers. ThUS, planning was ad hoc.

In the beginning of the Fifth Plan the number of

primary schools were 32,840 and by the end of the plan

it increased to 34,431 showing an increase of 1591

107

schools. The number of secondary schools increased by

294 from 2203 to 2497 during the plan period. Thus,

the efforts made during the Fifth Plan did not reach

the expected level of the achievement.

Enrol:ment at prlmary level ln the beginning of

the plan was 42.12 lakhs and it increased to 48.6 by

the end of the plan period. This accounts to an

increase by 6.48 lakhs. In the case of secondary

school, the enrollment increased from 5.36 to 6.56

lakhs showing an increase of 1.2 lakhs.

Sixth Plan: While the Fifth Plan emphasized on

Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) which included primary

educat::'on as one of the components, the Sixth Plan

mentions a 20-point programme which includes

elementary and adult education. The primary objective

of these two educational approaches are to improve

literacj status of the population. The MNP adopted in

the 6th plan stipulates that by the end of the plan

the targeted coverage of the age group 6-13 would be

82 per cent.

108

For the first time net enrollment target was

fixed. While reiterating importance of education in

economic growth and social trans formation, the

rationale for improving primary education followed the

same footsteps as that of the prevlous plans.

Resources were allocated to the same kinds of

programmes as pursued In t~e previous plans :or e.g.

the plan proposed to concentrate on selected HPS

schools to improve retention at the lower primary

school. The logic behind such an approach is unclear

especially in the case of expansion of teaching staff.

Aggregate additional enrollment of 4.01 lakhs was

considered to ·propose 10,000 primary school teachers

in the ratio of 1:40.

Incentive schemes in the form of free text

books, attendance scholarships and mid day meals took

away a large portion of plan outlays. An attempt was

made in the Plan to regulate school supervision. The

preamble of the draft plan dealt with the approach of

the plan In which the importance of projection of

populatlon and demographic distribution was

recognised. But the educational plan did not indicate

taking inputs from such analysis.

109

Seventh P.lan: Even after observing such

inadequacies of data base used in the past, Seventh

Plan did not env1.sage any effort to develop reliable

and robust data base which is s~ne qua non for

ratlonal

expressed

enrollment

planning. Instead, the plan document

helplessness and arbitrar:ly fixed

targets and additional teacher

requirements. During the Seventh plan period Karnataka

saw the emergence of ZP structure.

The plan documents provided lists of schemes and

programmes to be implemented separately by the state

and district level administration. The rhetorics of

Seventh Plan talks much about decentralisation of

development planning which includs education also. But

there was no mention of the role of district level

machinery in the planning process itself. What lS

explained In the plan is decentralised educational

administratio~ and not decentralised planning. The

pursue of the plan document did not reveal the inter

and intra sectoral linkages with other developmental

issues.

110

The plan did not envisage any sort of mechanism

to coordinate the efforts of various departments

incl~ding the mainstay of education namely Department

of Public Instruction. The Seventh Plan continued

with its demand for resources for ed~cation uSlng

premlses of addltlonal enrollments and reduction of

wastage w:thout working out the ratlonale and details.

Inspite of the technical sophistication of the overall

Seventh plan as compared to earlier planning, the

educational sector plans remained crude in their

methodologies.

The weakness of the Seventh Plan came up when

the Eighth plan document was reviewed. It indicated

that the achievements of enrollment target at lower

prlmary level fell short by more than 5 lakh children

and the net enrollment ratio attained was only 70 per

cent. The proposed target was achieved at higher

primary stage ·.vi th a net enrollment ratio of 80 per

cent. But such estimations were based on unreliable

calculations as the age distribution of children in

school was not utilised in assessing the achievement.

In the case of appointment of teachers, the increase

ln teachers' strength was a mere 2000 in the entire

111

state as against the targeted 13,500 teachers at

primary school. The increased number included the

addition of 1611 primary school teachers under

centrally sponsored scheme initiated in the middle of

the Seventh Plan at LPS and also 1000 Hindi teachers

appointed under another centrally sponsored scheme at

HPS.

Eighth Plan: Eighth plan draft document provided

much more technical sophistication as far as overall

planning was concerned. But the planning of

educational sectors suffered from old malady of crude

arithmetical manipulation and crude targeting. The

plan rhetoric gave more importance to

decentralisation.

However, the understanding of decentralisation

in planning and development was limited to mere

transfer of centrally decided programmes to be

administered by district official machinery. The

Eighth Plan document admitted the failure of the Non

Formal Education during Seventh Plan but again reposed

its confidence on Non Formal Education. The HPS level

was 'targeted for improvement and expansion ostensibly

to improve the retention power at LPS stage in earlier

112

Plans. Further, more and more incentive schemes were

proposed to augment the retention power at LPS stage.

But successive plan documents have noted the inability

of such programmes in improvlng enrollment and

retention of children at Lower Primary stage during

the previous plans. The Eighth plan is no exception to

this. The only difference In the Eighth Plan was that

the development of Lower Primary Schools was left to

the centrally sponsored schemes and the state schemes

concentrated on Higher Primary Schools. The Eighth

Plan emphasised more on the construction of class

rooms In addition to the conventional emphasis on

enrollment and creation of teaching positions.

For the first time, there was a mention of the

need for systematic and scientific evaluation of

programmes, importance of educational performance and

use of school mapping as a device to locate new

institutions. A small amount was earmarked for school

mapping.

During the eighth

development at the national

plan period another

level took place in the

form of district primary education programme (DPEP).

It is interesting to note that the proposed centrally

113

sponsored scheme was an experiment in decentralised

planning to be undertaken by the districts identified

as backward using the criteria of female literacy.

This educational planning exercise runs parallel to

the educational planning at the state level, under the

Five Year Plans. In other words, the districts where

DPEP is proposed, ~he state government is required to

continue its own plan interventions to speed up the

growth and distribution of primary education at lower

primary level.

It is clear, however, that enrollment captures

inadequately the extent to which there is

participation in elementary education. It is difficult

to reliably estimate the magnitude of drop outs from

the formal schooling system, but on an impressionistic

basis this is known to be high. Indeed, the department

of education estimated an average wastage and

stagnation rate of 44 per cent for children between 6

to 13 years. Wastage and stagnation are particularly

high for girls in the age group of 11 to 13 years. It

is a matter of surprise that MNP targets for

elementary education have always been phrased by the

Gove'rnment of India in terms of enrollment coverage

rather than attendance coverage. With enrollment

114

determined at the beginning of the academic year,

there is at present a procedural bias inherent in the

existing reporting system which needs to be removed.

Attendance for two-thirds of the academic year may,

for instance, be taken as an indicator of a child's

partic~pation In schooling. Data on the number of

such children in schools is not available. As a

consequence, Karnataka's Eighth Plan continued to set

its objectives in terms of enrollment coverage.

The Eighth five Year plan was under

implementation at the time of the present study. In

order to realise decentralised decision making in

planning and development and to ensure effective

participation of the local people the development

activities under social sectors have been transferred

to Zilla Parishads and MandaI Panchayats for planning

and implementation of the same. But the plan

strategies with component programmes are decided at

the state level for uniform application in all the

districts.

In the Eighth Plan Rs. 2060 crore has been

provided for the district sector programmes and the

amount has been distributed among the districts based

11S

on an objective criteria 1n which backwardness 1S

strongly built into. Thus, the backward districts are

allocated with larger plan outlay. The Zilla Parishads

and Mandai Panchayats work out the details of their

programme wi thin the amount provided. At the state

level, Annual Plan emerge out of the compilation of

all district proposals.

The programmes pertaining to rural development,

primary and secondary education, rural roads, rural

water supply, housing etc. which are the basic needs

of the local people, have received high investment

priorities under the district plan. Further,

decentralisation is also to be realised by involvement

of large number of voluntary organisations at various

levels. This is possible largely in the social sectors

like education, health, youth services, art, culture

etc. Similarly local organisations will also be

encouraged to take up a variety of services in the

sectors like education, health, family welfare,

ecology, environment etc. The extent to which these

proposals have been implemented is to be learned only

after the term of the current Five Year Plan comes to

an end. The brief outlining of strategies and

programmes proposed under each Five Year Plan staring

116

from the Fourth and the assessment of programmes

during each of these Five Year Plans upto the Seventh

Five Year Plans indicates the following:

• A high priority objective of all Five Year Plar.s

under consideration was improvement of access and

second was to ~mprove the retention capac:. ty of

formal schools. A very low prior~ty is accorded to

educational processes leading to measurable

educational outcomes.

• Succeeding plans starting from the Fourth claims

Plan considerable achievement in the form of gross

enrollment ratio achieved through improving

physical access. These claims will be further

analysed in the succeeding sections.

4.3 Distribution of plan outlays during Five Year Plans:

The nature of interventions and priority areas

can be ascertained when the outlays are analysed in

terms of their components. An attempt is made here

to analyse the

Five Year Plan

plan outlays

through Eighth

starting from Fourth

Fi ve Year Plan by

117

categorising

intervention.

them according to the nature of

These outlays include allocations under General

education, Women and child welfare and Social

welfare sectors which are directly or indirectly

facultative of primary education.

The following categories were derived to

combine allocations under various programmes:

Civil works: This category includes all

construction activities related to school buildings,

hostels, additional rooms to existing schools,

Ashram schools and repairs.

Maintenance of Hostels: This category includes

the outlays for maintaining government hostels for

various special focused groups like girls, SC, ST,

Denotified Tribes, Nomadic and Semi-nomadic Tribes,

Other Backward classes and also grants given to

private agencies to maintain hostels for the same.

Ashram School: This includes all types of

residential schools run by government. Any

118

allocations for constructing ~es~dential schools a~e

not included in this category. 'Chey are accounted

unde~ civ~l works.

Salaries of teachers: Salary component of all

the proposed additional teachers and up-gradation of

teacher's posts to that of Head masters, new posts

of Headmasters, Hindi teachers etc. are included in

this category

Incentives: This category includes mid-day

meals, scholarships, free supply of textbooks and

stationary, uniforms and monitory incentives for

attendance.

Equipment and Library: Allocations made for

the supply of library books, teaching aids,

furniture etc. are included under this label.

Administration: This includes allocations made

for expansion and streamlining of administrative

machinery.

119

In-service training of teachers: Allocation

made for in-service training and supply of teacher

support materials are included under this category.

Others: Residuals wh:ch could not be classified

under any of the above groups corne under this

category.

Table 4.1 provides the distribution of the

outlays (in per cent) across different categories

and the total plan outlays for Fourth, Fifth, Sixth,

Seventh and Eighth Five Year Plans.

Table 4.1 Distribution of outlays under various categories of interventions

under Five Year Plans starting from IV Plan:

120

Fig.4.1 Plan Outlays on Primary Education: Foc.rth f\ot. '!'ear Plan

0In •• 3.88

Tr Trg ~ee

Inotrnh .. " 0.e7

Hottol t12

SlxII FM ' ..... Ptan o.:..t II'1I01Ia\ III> e

.....,1gII.o.e

T .. o ..... SalarV T.44 EqU"""" 0.13

In","", r-... 2Q 7

Karnataka

A ....... F1w .... Plan

II108f'It StS4

Tr TrUllng 0.2Q

0INr. :/..1

Flfth Flve Year Plan

OIlIftII'tr ... ,

0ItI .... \7'1 Tt' "It'III.--'1'" ~,..tAt

"""'* .... tt01

EIgh1h FI \1& Year Plan

000".7161

Other, 0.3

rnalna_ SQ24

It may be noted from Table 4.1 that the dominating

categories of allocations in most of the Plans are

Incentives, Construction and Salaries.

Incentives category was accorded the highest

priority in the Fifth (52%), the Seventh (31%) and

the Eighth (39 96) Plans. It was accorded the second

priority in the Sixth Plan (30%)

Construction was accorded first priority in the

Fourth (30%) and the Sixth (51%) Plans while it was

given the third place in the Seventh and Eight Plan.

This category receded to the fourth place in Fifth

Five Year Plan.

Salaries have been accorded with the second

priority claiming around quarter to one fifth of the

total allocation in all the Plans except the Sixth

Plan.

Pre-school category has gained higher

importance in recent plans. An allocation of around

122

2 per cent ln the Fourth plan increased to 19 per

cent in Eighth Plan. The focus under the pre-school

programme is more on feeding.

Ashram School category had an allocation of

around 9 per cent ln the Fourth plan. But its

priori ty came down drastically from the Fifth Plan

onwards.

Thus, a lions share of allocations has gone for

incentives, construction and teacher's salary from

the Fifth Plan onwards and the fourth category was

added in the form of the Pre School category of

intervention in the Seventh and Eighth

(graph 4.1) .

Plans

The strategic plan at the state-level as

reflected ln the plan document indicates more or

less unchanging character from plan to plan.

Compulsions of electoral politics is reflected in

outlays for incentives in all the plans excepting

the Fourth Five Year Plan. Outlays on incentives

have ranged from 30 per cent to 51 per cent. Effects

of such a strategy on educational parameters are

examined ln the subsequent paragraphs.

123

4.4 Analysis of the State level time series data:

For the purpose of examining the effor:s of plan

outlays, three sets of indicators representing access

retention and quali ty inputs are computed for each year

and the trend in changes in their values are observed.

Access indicators considered are 1. enrollment rate

representing enrollment as per cent of total population.

2. Gender equality in enrollment which explains the gap

in the coverage of boys and girls. These two indicators

are computed for general population and separately for

SC/ST and non SC/ST population.

Retention rates are calculated for each year from

1971 to 1993 for boys and girls at LPS, and also for

SC/ST and non SC/ST groups. Retention rate is computed

by considering enrollment of I-IV standard of first year

and II-V standard of subsequent year. Hence it is called

Annual retention rate.

124

Quality iDput indicators

follows,

considered are as

1. Schools per ten thousand population. Changes in

this indicator represents the provision of schools

in response to the population increase.

2. Teacher per ten thousand population. Changes in the

index reflects the supply of teachers.

3. Pupil-teacher ratio, a negative indicator affects

the quality of education.

4. Standard-teacher ratio also a negative indicator

indicates the number of standards taught by the

teacher simultaneously. In other words, it

represents multi-grade teaching.

Tables 4.2 to 4.9 deal with the trend in the

progress of these indicators.

125

Enrollment: Annual changes in enrollment rates

from 1971 to 1994 at lower primary level, Higher

primary level and at the entire primary stage are

presented in the table 4.2 along with the

corresponding graph 4.2 shows almost constant

enrollment rate during 1971 to 1986 at lower primary

stage.

In 1987 there is a sudden spurt in the enrollment

almost by 1.per cent. This jump coincides with the

devolution of developmental responsibilities to the

District level.

The National policy on education 1986 supported

the decentralization of educational administration.

Accordingly,

educational

Government of

administration

Karnataka transferred

to Panchayat Raj

Insti tutions. But after a spurt by 1 per cent, the

enrollment rate remained stable after 1987 at slightly

above 11 percent.

126

On the other hand, enrollment rate at HPS stage showed

improvement by increasing from 2.94 per cent in 1971

to 5.25 per cent (graph 4.2). The increase In the

enrollment rate at the primary stage was due to the

performance at HPS level.

Tables 4.2 General enrollment rate· during 1971-1994:

Year LPS HPS Primary Per cent Number Per cent Number Percent Number

1971 10.46 3065806 2.94 860003 13.4 3925809 1972 10.54 3161111 3.06 917830 13.6 4078941 1973 10.58 3250229 3.13 962188 13.71 4212417 1974 10.34 3251558 3.04 956722 13.38 4208280 1975 10.38 3343341 3.14 1012657 13.52 4355998 1976 10.5 3464003 3.23 1066744 13.74 4530747 1977 10.59 3575524 3.24 1093767 13.82 4669291 1978 10.56 3651725 3.35 1160211 13.91 4811936 1979 10.61 3759246 3.36 1190029 13.97 4949275 1980 10.37 3761504 3.37 1223113 13.74 4984617 1981 10.45 3880719 3.48 1292907 13.93 5173626 1982 10.35 3916996 3.56 1346501 13.9 5263497 1983 10.59 4086591 3.63 1400934 14.22 5487525 1984 10.38 4081470 3.72 1464530 14.1 5546000 1985 10.34 4144537 3.77 1512454 14.11 5656991 1986 10.4 4249197 4.05 1653259 14.44 5902456 1987 1l. 22 4675961 4.39 1830410 15.62 6506371 1988 11.38 4832880 4.19 1777723 15.57 6610603 1989 1l.16 4832094 4.46 1932024 15.63 6764118 1990 11.27 4974629 4.49 1980100 15.76 6954729 1991 11. 26 5064304 4.73 2126659 15.99 7190963 1992 11 . 14 5117081 5.14 2361309 16.28 7478390 1993 11.38 5340973 5.14 2411541 16.52 7752514 1994 11.18 5361451 5.25 2515298 16.43 7876749

* Enrollment as percent of population

127

0 1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

19n

1978

1979

1~~ 1961

(""I ;>J 1963

I 1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1900 '

1931

1E132

1933

1994

IV

I

\ I

I , t I

...

I

\ I

I I

\ I

I I I , \ \ \ \ , , I J I , \ I I

\ \ \ \ \ I I I I I ,

0>

PERCENT

a> o

m I I 1"'tJ :r: r I -. "'tI 11 I, ~ (JJ ((J I 1.:1 I

'" ... f I , i t , t r

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~ -I 5 z c c ~ z C) -'" ..... -, -'" '" ....

G'l iil "0 :::T

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Table 4.3 along with the corresponding graph 4.3

reveals some interesting information about the growth

of enrollment of SC/ST population as compared to

others. Enrollment rate has increased and overtaken

the rate of Non-SC/ST over the period under

consideration. At lower primary level, the coverage of

SCI ST increased from 6.04 per cent to 13.4 per cent

whereas it was 11 per cent initially and remained more

or less constant through out for non SC/ST. At the

HPS stage, non SC/ST enrollment rate was higher than

the SC/ST enrollment rate during 1971. Both the

categories showed increase in the coverage but the

coverage of SC/ST accelerated to catch-up with the

non- SC/ST enrollment rate by 1988 and surpassed the

non- SC/ST enrollment rate afterwards. This has

resulted in the increase of enrollment rate at primary

stage. This shows that SC/ST category was lagging

behind non SC/ST during 1971 but coverage accelerated

from 1975 onwards as compared to non SC/ST category.

The analysis of the plan documents in terms of

the priority In investments showed that a greater

attention was given to access increasing measures in

the form of incentives for SC/ST children. Such

efforts have worked favorably.

129

Table 4 3 Comparison of enrollment rate between SCIST and Non SCIST During 1971 to 1993

I I I I I I LPS sclst LPS nonsclst HPS sclot HPS nonocl.t Primary Iclot Primary nonoelot

Year Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Numbef Per cent Number Per cenl Number 1971 604 246553 11 18 2780663 1.32 54009 3.2 805994 731 298491 1438 3627318 1972 6.34 265147 11.21 2854464 1.43 59554 332 858276 773 323238 1454 3755703 1973 666 285143 11.21 2912996 1.53 65668 3.39 896570 818 350037 1461 38623BO 1974 7 306647 1066 2806367 1.65 72410 327 884312 865 379057 1414 3829223 1975 7.52 337233 1064 2864576 1.74 77970 3.37 934687 925 415203 14.21 3940795 1976 9.69 445191 10.63 2868317 1.99 91645 3.43 975099 1147 527177 14.1 4003570 1977 10.18 478765 10.65 3032437 2.1 98682 3.42 995085 12.27 577447 1408 4091844 1978 954 595686 1078 3026999 1.91 119083 3.67 1041128 11.45 714769 14.46 4097167 1979 8.5 543087 11.08 3138944 2.06 131545 3.65 1058484 10.55 674632 14.73 4274843 1980 658 624726 1082 3049745 2.07 150781 37 1072332 1066 775507 1452 4209110 1981 6.36 620302 10.97 3168867 2.19 162450 3.8 113Q.457 1055 782752 1478 4390874 1982 941 711759 10.58 3157998 22 166580 39 1179941 11.61 878319 1448 4385178 1983 9.23 712052 10.93 3301362 222 170915 39B 1230019 11.45 882987 1491 4604558 1984 9.66 758998 10.56 3286347 2.4 188543 405 1275987 1206 947541 1461 4598459 1985 9.8 785209 1047 3284761 304 243486 398 1268968 12.84 1028595 14.43 4628296 1986 9.74 795123 10.56 3300620 304 248459 43 1404800 12.78 1043582 1488 4858874 1987 10.33 859776 1145 3649258 322 268142 4.69 1562268 13.55 1127918 1613 5378453 1988 11.18 948577 11.43 3775999 3.43 290806 4.38 1486917 14.61 1239383 1581 5371220 1989 11.87 1026703 1099 3711671 3.69 319037 4.86 1612987 15.56 1345740 1584 5418378 1990 1199 1056881 111 3832962 431 380272 4.53 1599828 163 1437153 1563 5517576 1991 1207 1120423 1105 3766500 4.23 392779 488 1733880 163 1513202 1591 5677761 1992 12.04 1141667 10.9 5117081 5.25 497774 5.11 1863535 17.29 1639441 1601 5838949 1993 13.4 1297804 1066 5340973 5.03 487250 5.17 1924291 1842 1785054 1602 5967460

130

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Gender equality: A similar presentation of

equality index is presented in the table 4.4.

The gender equality index of enrollment at lower

and hlgher primary levels of education. The trend in

the equali ty index shows improvement reflecting the

reduction in the gap between boys I

enrollment.

and girls I

The equality ratio of enrollment at LPS stage was

77.85 In 1971 and it increased to 93.27 in 1994.

Similarly at HPS, the value shows improvement from

57.48 in 1971 to 89.79 in 1994.

Plan efforts appear to be successful In reducing

the gap between enrollment of girls and boys though

they failed to remove the disparity that exists

between the sexes completely. The inequality lS more

at HPS level as compared to LPS. From the graph 4.4 it

is evident that the equality index lS increasing

constantly throughout the period under consideration.

132

The difference in equality indicators at LPS and HPS lS

also narrowing down over the years.

Table 4.4 Gender equality in enrollment at primary level during

1971-1994:

Year LPS HPS Primary

1971 77.85 57.43 72.94 1972 78.18 58.48 73.34 1973 78.12 58.78 73.31 1974 79.5 59.98 74.67 1975 79.47 61. 4 74.93 1976 79.71 61. 49 75.07 1977 80.23 62.52 75.75 1978 81.18 63 76.44 1979 81. 44 63.35 76.74 1980 83.79 65.99 79.09 1981 87.06 63.5 80.57 1982 86.5 64.91 80.47 1983 84.5 67.63 79.88 1984 83.08 69.9 79.41 1985 83.81 68.35 79.41 1986 85.73 73.37 82.1 1987 87.56 73.62 83.42 1988 87.85 74.82 84.16 1989 90.53 76.08 86.18 1990 88.23 75.69 84.48 1991 93.06 80.65 89.22 1992 88.18 76.37 84.29 1993 90.52 82.97 88.ll 1994 93.21 89.79 92.1

133

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Table 4.5 compares the gender equality In

enrollment in SC/ST and Non SC/ST groups. At LPS

stage, the value for SC/ST was 63.03 and non SC/ST was

79.27 during 1971. In 1993 the values for SC/ST and

Non SC/ST were 85.32 and 92.24 respectively.

Table 4.5 Gender equality in SC/ST and Non SC/ST enrollment at level

primary level during 1971-1993 :

LPS HPS Primary Year

SC/ST non SC/ST non SC/ST non SC/ST SC/ST SC/ST

1971 63.03 79.27 47.17 58.01 57.66 74.08 1972 63.85 79.62 47.9 59.1 58.43 74.49 1973 64.68 79.53 48.64 59.4 59.21 74.43 1974 65.53 81.09 49.39 60.7 60 75.95 1975 65.76 81.15 49.61 62.25 60.26 76.29 1976 69.04 81.4 48.23 62.62 63.19 76.34 1977 69.94 81.94 48.44 63.8 63.47 77.18 1978 73.26 82.8 51 64.19 66.62 77.73 1979 72 .16 83.11 51.48 64.62 65.33 78.2 1980 70.53 86.73 55 67.46 65.54 81.43 1981 73.04 90.02 59.4 63.86 68.26 82.54 1982 75.55 89.13 59.33 65.49 70.36 82.14 1983 69.16 88.11 52.03 69.81 63.86 82.86 1984 77.95 84.31 55.78 71. 93 71.18 80.7 1985 78.52 85.1 56.77 70.38 71.07 80.82 1986 79.59 87.21 56.77 76.31 71.79 83.92 1987 82.29 88.8 58.76 76.09 74.23 84.93 1988 82.5 89.2 64.43 76.56 76.02 85.53 1989 86.28 91.71 61.59 78.81 77.83 87.68 1990 83.62 89.5 78.13 74.55 80.22 84.91 1991 83.7 95.89 67.67 83.17 76.99 91.83 1992 86.18 88.76 72.85 76.54 79.72 84.68 1993 85.32 92.24 70.77 85.51 78.84 90.02

135

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1961

-< ~19B2 ;%)

1983

1964

1965

1 EllS

1967

1968

1~

1900

1991

15Q2

1993

0 o ~ ~ &

PERCENT

11) B

. I I

\ \ . \ I

I I

I \

C!

. \

g;

I

I , I \

\

I

I I

\ , \ t

\

8

\ \

1( i \

\

\ I

I

f \

'. \

, I I I

\ \

I

I

\ I

\. I l (

\ \ + \ \ '----.' ) ~ I

/ ' -- \

8

j " "

\ . I

.. _ .. --_ .•.. _ ... _ .... - (,. // -""-"-'''--''- ". \ -- --_ ... _' \ __ ,.-.J

r~ t .- .-I:r"'U"'tJ "'U"'O(f)(n cn(()~m

I:::J ., 0 0 o 0 :::J ii"" :::Jiir~_ 1: - <> ;~ !l i_

G') m z c m ;U

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The trend shows that the Non SC/ST group has

higher gender equality than SC/ST group (Graph 4.5).

This result lS reflected at all levels of primary

education. In both the groups inequality of enrollment

lS found to exist at both lower and higher primary

levels.

The lower values of the index at HPS level as

compared to LPS level imply that girls tend to

discontinue their schooling after lower primary stage.

The gender gap in the case of SC/ST is getting bridged

at a higher rate at the LPS. But the gender gap in the

case of non SC/ST is getting bridged at higher rate at

HPS level.

Annual Retention Rate:

According to the table 4.6 annual retention rate

at LPS shows improvement over 24 years. Both girls and

boys retention rates show improvement. The retention

rate of boys was higher than girls in 1971. This

dif~erence has been reduced and the retention rates of

137

both boys and girls became almost equal 1992 (graph

4 . 6 ).

Table 4.6 General and gender wise retention

at lower primary level during 1971-1992

Year Total Boys Girls

1971 75.59 77.94 72.43 1972 75.45 77.94 72 .12 1973 73.61 75.7 70.82 1974 75.95 78.51 72.57 1975 75.82 78.49 72.3 1976 76.79 79.47 73.28 1977 78.76 81.18 75.62 1978 79.98 82.69 76.49 1979 78.85 80.11 77.23 1980 80.75 83.22 77.66 1981 79.3 83.48 74.32 1982 83.26 88.38 77.11 1983 82.65 85.24 79.47 1984 84.68 86.74 82.11 1985 86.27 87.68 84.53 1986 92.28 93.56 90.73 1987 86.97 89.33 84.18 1988 85.51 85.89 85.07 1989 88.12 90.5 85.38 1990 89.28 88.97 89.65 1991 90.86 94.95 86.27 1992 92.81 92.86 92.76

138

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In table 4.7 SC/ST and Non SC/ST retention rates

are compared. In 1971, Non SC/ST retention was more than

SC/ST. There was more fluctuation in the retention rate

of SC/ST as compared to non SC/ST during 1970' s. The

situation got stabilised during 1980's for SC/ST. In

recent years the retention rates of both SC/ST and non

SC/ST are tending towards the same level (Graph 4.7).

Table 4.7 SC-ST & Non-SC/ST retention at lower

pr1mary level during 1971-1992 :

Year SC/ST Non-SC/ST 1971 72.22 75.88 1972 72.45 75.72 1973 72.68 73.70 1974 73.34 76.22 1975 86.96 74.57 1976 71. 07 77.64 1977 83.68 78.00 1978 64.87 82.93 1979 83.56 78.05 1980 74.04 82.09 1981 80.75 79.02 1982 70.87 86.01 1983 79.65 83.28 1984 80.85 85.55 1985 78.97 87.98 1986 84.32 94.11 1987 86.49 87.08 1988 84.32 85.81 1989 83.28 89.42 1990 86.88 89.93 1991 88.96 91.40 1992 96.13 91.85

140

Growth of schools

Number of schools per ten thousand population

indicates the basic facility for quality education. The

changes in this indicator from 1971 to 1994 are examined

in this section. In Karnataka all primary schools have

Lower Primary classes. Whether they are called Lower

Primary school or Higher Primary schools. Classes V, VI

and VII are taught In addition to I to IV classes in

Higher Primary schools.

From table 4.8 it is found that schools with lower

primary stage per ten thousand population has been

decreasing over a period of time. The index value of

primary schools decreased by 2.6. But the index value of

HPS remained almost constant during the period under

consideration.

In absolute number schools with lower primary

classes is increasing but the growth of such schools in

relation to the growth of population is found to be

142

inadequate. But the HPS school per ten thousand

population is found to be constant(Graph 4.8).

This shows that HPS schools have kept pace with

increasing population throughout the perlod. It lS

interesting to note that at HPS level the enrollment

rate has kept pace wlth the increase in population

through out (table 4.2) .

The demand for HPS by the population has been met.

The provision of LPS and its expansion is a supply issue

on the part of the State Government, whereas the

provision of HPS is a demand issue which the State has

to respond. The demand has been positively responded by

the State while the supply side has been lacking at LPS

level. While the Primary schools per ten thousand

popUlation has slowly declined through-out the period

under consideration, nwnber of HPS per ten thousand

population has been increasing.

It lS also likely that the opening of schools in

viable localities has been saturated reSUlting in very

143

few new schools opened. During the period the existing

lower primary schools are increasingly being expanded

to higher primary schools. In other words schools with

only one to fourth standards are being up-graded to

include Fifth to Seventh standards also.

Table 4.8 GROWTH OF SCHOOLS FROM 1971-1994:

Year HPS per HPS Schools per Schools ten ten

thousand thousand population population

1971 3.76 llO06 11.16 32692 1972 3.71 lll32 10.95 32840 1973 3.62 lll32 10.69 32840 1974 3.52 ll069 10.44 32840 1975 3.51 ll300 10.26 33054 1976 3.49 ll497 10.15 33474 1977 3.45 ll666 10.01 33826 1978 3.44 ll914 9.96 34442 1979 3.44 12174 9.8 34706 1980 3.5 12704 9.69 35143 1981 3.47 12897 9.57 35549 1982 3.43 12997 9.6 36353 1983 3.58 13821 9.75 37634 1984 3.54 13933 9.6 37776 1985 3.68 14747 9.69 38855 1986 3.61 14747 9.53 38933 1987 3.77 15725 9.32 38831 1988 3.75 15905 9.18 38983 1989 3.77 16318 9.21 39857 1990 3.74 16512 9.ll 40207 1991 3.79 17062 9.06 40768 1992 3.76 17268 8.82 40540 1993 4.03 18916 8.69 40776 1994 3.97 19038 8.69 41684

144

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Indicators of quality inputs:

Table 4.9 gives the indicators representing quality

inputs. Supply of teachers has exhibited fluctuating

trend over the plan periods. Graph 4.9 reflects a

cyclical trend in the provision of teachers in relation

to population. The initial peak in 1971 decreased and

reached a lowest level in 1979 and suddenly picked up

to touch another peak in 1984. Immediately there was a

steep fall and touched another low between 1984 and

1989. The situation is improving from 1989 onwards. By

and large, the position has not changed drastically as a

whole. Enrollment has, however, been showing increasing

trend at HPS. This has resulted In the gradual increase

in pupil-teacher ratio during the period under study

(Graph 4.10).

Finally, the standard-teacher ratio has marginally

decreased but one teacher handling more than one class

at a time persists (Graph 4.11). In other words, the

situation has worsened as far as quality inputs are

considered during the period under study. The change in

the Pupil-teacher ratio indicates that the supply of

146

teachers has not been adequate in relation to changes

in enrollment. There has been a sudden jump In

enrollment at LPS stage in 1987. The enrollment rate lS

constantly increasing at HPS stage through out. But the

supply of teachers is lagging behind.

Table 4.9 Growth of teachers at primary level from 1971-1994:

Year Teachers Teachers per Pupil- Standard-Teacher ten thousand Teacher ratio

population ratio

1971 103612 35.36 37.89 1. 58 1972 99022 33.01 41.19 1. 66 1973 100222 32.62 42.03 1. 64 1974 99261 31. 55 42.4 1. 66 1975 100778 31. 29 43.22 1. 65 1976 102648 31.12 44.14 1. 64 1977 104105 30.82 44.85 1. 64 1978 106601 30.82 45.14 1. 63 1979 108360 30.6 45.67 1. 62 1980 112839 31.11 44.17 1. 58 1981 117686 31.69 43.96 1. 54 1982 126234 33.35 41. 7 1. 46 1983 127682 33.09 42.98 1.5 1984 135075 34.34 41.06 1. 43 1985 135362 33.76 41.79 1. 48 1986 135362 33.12 43.6 1. 48 1987 127699 30.65 50.95 1. 59 1988 131093 30.87 50.43 1. 55 1989 132311 30.57 51.12 1. 57 1990 135724 30.76 51. 24 1. 55 1991 140530 31. 24 51.17 1. 52 1992 142921 31.11 52.33 1.5 1993 147921 31.52 52.41 1. 49 1994 162795 33.96 48.38 1. 39

147

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4.5 Influence of plan expenditure on access, retention

and quality input indicators.

In the previous exercise, the trend in the

progress of access, retention and quality input

indicators were examined. In this section, the

influence of plan expenditure on these

indicators are analyzed from 1971 to 1993.

selected

Table 4.10 shows that Plan expenditure on Primary

education from 1971-1993. The expenditure collected

from the Government Documents was in current prices. To

account for the changes in the inflation of prices,

these expenditure values were converted to constant

prlces by using GDP (Gross domestic product) deflators.

It is clear that expenditure on education has increased

from 1971 to 1993 both at constant and current prices.

The expenditure has increased by 8923.1 lakh during

1993 from the initial expenditure 562.44 lakh. It is

observed that

distributed to

the

all

expenditure

the Annual

is not uniformly

Plans, there is

fluctuation in the expenditure of Annual plans which

151

account under same five Year Plan. But it lS eVlde:1t

that the expenditure on Primary education has increased

during successive plan periods. Thls lncrease In

expenditure is expected to influence the development of

primary education.

Table 4.10 Annual plan expenditure on Pr~mary Educat~on

in constant and current prices. (fig. l.n LUthI

Plan Expenditure Year Current prices Constant prices 1971 115.3 562.44 1972 211.54 931.89 1973 154.92 580.22 1974 132.13 419.46 1975 167.22 542.92 1976 377.47 115434 1977 449.41 131406 1978 620.21 1782.21 1979 440.42 1095.57 1980 277.27 617.53 1981 373.23 754.00 1982 684.64 1289.34 1983 1116.13 1934.37 1984 1588.61 2562.27 1985 889.57 1335.69 1986 701.37 989.24 1987 1686.23 2189.91 1988 1326.8 1594.71 1989 1893.53 2101.59 1990 3335.77 3335.77 1991 5789.8 5056.59 1992 13515.2 10820.82 1993 12805.48 9485.54

152

The variation in access, retention, quality input

indicators are likely to be influenced by plan

expenditure. Hence to know the influence of plan

expenditure if any, on the above selected indicators,

linear regression technique was adopted. The Plan

expenditure was considered as independent variable and

selected access, retention and quality input indicators

were considered as dependent variables.

The access indicators namely total enrollment at

primary level and gender equality in enrollment, Annual

retention rate and quality input indicators such as

school per ten thousand population, teachers per ten

thousand population, pupil-teacher ratio and standard

teacher ratio were considered. To know the influence of

Expenditure on development of Primary Education Linear

regression technique. Table 4.11 shows the values of

constant, slope coefficient, Durbin-watson (D.W) and

centered R-square values.

153

Table 4.11 Results of Linear regression obtained by considering

plan expenditure as Independent Variable:

Dependent Variables

1 Total enrollment at primary level

2 Retention at LPS

3 Gender equality in enrollment

4 Schools pre ten thousand Ipopulation

5 Teachers pre ten thousand population

6 Pupi I-teacher ratio

7 Standard-teacher ratio

* 1% level of significance **5% level of significance

Constant slope coefficient

13.79 0.00029

(7845)* 1591 )**

79411 0.0014 (6237)* (403)* 77.11 -0.001 ;(7335)* 113.82)* 10.11 -0.0001

1(74.69)* 11-4.08)* 32.17 -00001

(85 78)* (-0.32) 42.96 0.001 .(48.07)* (-4.26) 1.58 -00001 1(8705)* (-2.17)

D.W

0.467

0417

0.698

0.233

0.503

049

0.493

Centere dR2 0.625

0436

0411

0.44

0.045

0453

0.184

From the Table 4.11 it lS found that in linear

regression, Durbin-Watson(D.W) values show the presence

of auto-correlation in all the cases. In the presence

of auto-correlation, variance of coefficient value will

te biased. And to obtain an unbiased variance of

154

coeffic1ent values, correction for the presence of

auto-correlation 1S required. Hence, the 'Maximum

likelyhood' estimation was used to correct for the

presence of auto correlation. The corrected results are

glven in the table 4.12

Table 4.12 Results of Linear regression with correction for autocorrelation. obtained by considering plan expenditure as Independent Variable:

I Dependent Variables Constant slope RHO Center coeffi cient edR2

1 Total enrollment at 1441 0.000092 0.957 0.915 Ipnmary level

1(1603) 1(203) "10401 )* 2 Retention at LPS 8115 0.00047 0.889 0.839

1(2095) 1(-130) 1/8128)* 3 Gender equality in 82.87 -0.00055 0.979 0.854

enrollment 11945) 1(-193) 1'11439)*

4 Schools pre ten 10.07 -0.000035 0.989 0.946 thousand Ipopulatlon

1(984) )(-153) 1/24743)* 5 Teachers pre ten 32.53 -0.00007 0791 0.542

thousand loooulation

1(3507) 1(-057) 115961 )*

6 PUOII-teacher ratio 43.76 0.00046 0.882 0.799 [(1472) -1.58 1/7.369)*

7 Standard-teacher 1.57 -00000057 0.754 0.661 ratio

1142.35621 ) 1/-097146) 1(528363)*

• 1\ level of signlficance,

155

The results reveal that the coefficient of

regression lS positive and significant at 0.5% level

for total enrollment per ten thousand population. And

equality indicator of enrollment with respect of gender

shows negative results but it lS not significant.

Further, the retention of primary school children shows

positlve value but the result is not significant.

Results obtalned with respect to quality input

indicators such as schools per ten thousand population,

teachers per ten thousand population, show negative

results but they are also not significant.

If at all the plan investment has worked, it has

resulted In overcrowding of schools. But the

corresponding requirement of teachers and schools have

not been taken care. This situation would result in

the decline in quality of education.

4.6 Effect of the introduction of ZP on education:

Since the responsibility for primary education was

transferred to the district government from 1987

onwards In Karnataka, an attempt is made here to

156

compare the performance of education during seven years

after the change with the performance during seven

years prior to it. Towards this end, mean values of all

the indicators were calculated separately for the

period before and after the introduction of Zilla

Panchayat system and compared.

Table 4.13 shows the mean enrollment rate. The

average enrollment rate at primary level both at LPS

and HPS markedly increased after the introduction of ZP

(Graph 4.12).

Table 4.13 Enrollment per ten thousand population before and after the

change in the educational administration:

YEARS LPS HPS

Before ZP 10.4358 3.61789 (1979-1986)

AfterZP 11.2505 4J23 (1987 -1994)

157

Graph 4.12 Enrollment before and after the change

12

10

8

!Z III U S II:

~ 4

2

o

in the educational administration.

LPS

YEARS

liPS

iii Before ZP (1171-1.) o An. zp (1 .. 7-1 .... )

Table 4.14 shows the gender equality index both at

LPS and HPS reflecting an increasing the

representat:on of girls at both the levels of primary

school (Graph 4.13)

158

Table 4.14 Gender equality index in enrollment before and after the


Years LPS HPS

Before ZP 84.48 67.12 (1979-1986)

AfterZP 89.89 78.74 (1987-1994)

Graph 4.13 Gender equality index in enrollment before and after the


90

80

70

I- 60 z

50 w (J

II: 40 w "- 30

20

10

0 LPS HPS

YEAR

El Before ZP 11979-1986)

_After ZP 11987-1994)

159

Mean values of Annual re~ention :ndicators of boys

and girls are shown in the table 4.15 The annual

retention rate for both boys and girls :ncreased after

the introduction of the change in the administration of

education. (Graph 4.14)

Table 4.15 Retention indicators before and after the change in the

educational administration:

Years Total Boys Girts

Before ZP 89.09 90.27 87.74 (1979-1986)

After ZP 98.68 101.72 94.69 (1987 -1994)

Graph 4.14 Retention indicators before and after the change in the


105

100

... Z95 w u 0:: 90 w Cl.

85

80 Total Boys Girls

YEAR

m Before ZP 11979-1986)

• Aller ZP 11987-1994)

160

Mean values of LPS, HPS and total schools per ten

thousand population are represented in the table 4.16

Primary schools per ten thousand population decreased

mainly because of the decrease in lower prlmary

schools. Provision of HPS slightly increased after the

introduction of ZP. (Graph 4.15)

Table 4.16 Provision of Schools before and after the change in the


Year LPS per ten HPS per ten Schools per thousand thousand ten thousand

population population population

Before ZP 6.12 3.53 9.66 11979-1986)

After ZP 5.21 3.82 9.01 11987-1994)

Table 4.15 Provision of Schools before and after the change in the


10 9~----------------------8~----------------------7~----------------------o 6 +--,---1-----------

~ ! 3 2 1 0+--...1--

LPS per ten thousand

population

HPS per ten thousand population

YEARS

Schools per ten thousand population

Ell Before ZP (1979-1986)

gAller ZP (1987-1994)

161

The quality indicators such as teachers per ten

thousand population, pupil-teacher ratio and standard-

teacher ratio are represented in table 4.17 The

proportion of teachers in the population has decreased

during the new system of educational administration.

The pupil-teacher ratio increased while Standard-

teacher ratio remained same (Graph 4.16).

The above analysis shows that the introduction of

ZP did not make any marked difference to the provision

of quality education, while it improved access and

retention of children in schools.

Table 4.17 Quality input indicators before and after the change in the


Year Teachers per ten Pupil- Standard thousand teacher -teacher

population

Before ZP 32.63 43.12 1.51 (1979-1986)

AfterZP 31.33 51.00 1.52 (1987 -1 994)

162

Graph 4.16 Quality input indicators before and after the change in

the educational administration:

60

60

40 Q f- lO ~

20

10

0

Teacher Pupil- Slandar a per teacher d-ten teacher

thousan

YEAR

4.7 Analysis using District as unit

Educational planning aims

II Before ZP (1979-1986)

_After ZP (1987-1914)

at reducing the

dispari ties across districts on educational parameters.

One way of looking at the effectiveness of planning is

to see whether such thing has occurred on each of the

parameters in Karnataka by using the secondary data on

different parameters and the distribution of the Average

values of the indicators at the end of each plan. By

grouping the years under plans, Average and standard •

163

deviation of the districts were obtained at the end of

each plan. The districts were classified as Poor,

Average and Good as follows.

Poor = Values below standard deviation - mean

Average = Values between standard deviation + mean

and standard deviation - mean

Good = Values above standard deviation + mean.

The parameters considered for the analysis are.

• Lower Primary Enrollment,

• Higher Primary Enrollment,

• Gender Equality at Lower Primary stage,

• Gender Equality at Higher Primary Stage,

• Primary Retention Rate of Boys at LPS,

• Primary Retention Rate of Girls at LPS,

• Total primary schools per ten thousand population,

• Primary teachers per ten thousand population,

• Pupil-teacher ratio and

• Standard-Teacher ratio.

I. Lower Primary Enrollment:

The indicator used for lower primary enrollment is

lower primary children as per cent of popUlation. Total

population was taken as denominator to overcome the

problem of variations in the school going population in

164

the districts. Table 4.18 glves the placement of

districts at the end of each plan period with the

indicator value. The mean value of the indicator has

increased through out. Among the eighteen districts,

fourteen were placed as Average and Raichur, Gulbarga

and Bidar (all in Hyderabad-Karnataka region) were under

the Poor category at the end of IV Plan. Dakshinakannada

remained in Good category :n all the Plan periods. And

the other districts remained in the Average category

Kodagu and chickamaglore. Kodagu was in Good category

till VI Plan periods and declined its position and moved

to Average category in the VIII Plan and Chickmagalore

showed erratic movement. Among them, Raichur district

stayed under the Poor category at the end of each Plan

period. Bidar which was placed as Poor at the end of the

IV Plan shifted to the category of Good district at the

end of the VI Plan and continues to show highest

enrollment rate through out. Shimoga was the only

district which was classified as Good at the end of IV

Plan. The coefficient of variation at the end of each

Plan has gradually decreased till VII Plan period

indicating the narrowlng down of inter-district

variation. Only during the VIII Plan period coefficient

of variation has slightly increased.

165

Table 4.18 DISTRICTWISE TOTAL LOWER PRIMARY ENROLMENT RATES AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

Category IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score

POOR RAICHUR 7.41 RAICHUR 7.59 KODAGU 7.85 RAiCHUR 8.35 RAiCHUR 9.87 GULBARGA 7.71 GULBARGA 8.80 RAlCHUR 8.53 BIDAR 8.55 MYSORE 9.42 MYSORE 9.39

AVERAGE MYSORE 9.41 KODAGU 9.71 GULBARGA 10.01 KODAGU 1007 TUMKUR 10.34 BELLARY 9.88 BELLARY 10.27 MANDYA 10.17 GULBARGA 10 11 KODAGU 10.35 KODAGU 10.23 BIDAR 10.57 BELLARY 10.21 MYSORE 10.15 MYSORE 10.36 MANDYA 10.68 MANDYA 10.58 SOUTHKANARA 10.28 KOLAR 10.25 MANDYA 10.53 KOLAR 11.08 BIJAPUR 10.70 DHARWAD 10.35 CHITRADURGA 10.46 CHITRADURGA 10.88 BELGAUM 11.17 CHITRADURGA 10.73 NORTH KANARA 10.38 BELGAUM 10.72 BELGAUM 11.11 BIJAPUR 11.20 TUMKUR 10.77 CHITRADURGA 10.45 TUMKUR 10.85 GULBARGA 11.16 CHITRADURGA 11.25 KOLAR 10.83 SHIMOGA 10.69 MANDYA 10.87 SHIMOGA 11.29 TUMKUR 11.42 NORTH KANARA 11.01 BIJAPUR 10.77 DHARWAD 11.13 NORTH KANARA 11.37 CHICKMAGLORE 11.44 BELGAUM 11.03 BELGAUM 10.81 NORTH KANARA 11.18 HASSAN 11.41 HASSAN 11.50 DHARWAD 11.09 CHICKMAGLORE 10.95 SHIMOGA 11.24 SOUTHKANARA 11.80 NORTH KANARA 11.70 CHICKMAGLORE 11.31 HASSAN 11.14 BELLARY 11.38 BELLARY 11.88 SOUTHKANARA 11.73 TUMKUR 11.32 CHICKMAGLORE 11.62 BIJAPUR 12.18 DHARWAD 11.92 BIJAPUR 11.75 KOLAR 12.29

HASSAN 11.87 CHICKMAGLORE 12.49

GOOD SHIMOGA 12.12 SOUTHKANARA 11.67 KOLAR 12.27 SOUTHKANARA 12.42 DHARWAD 12.95 HASSAN 11.76 BIDAR 12.78 BIDAR 13.45 BIDAR 15.56 SHIMOGA 12.16

IV Plan VPlan ------- V1Plim VII Plan VIII Plan Mean 10.49 10.56 10.46 10.99 11.54 Standared deviation 1.42 1.10 1.15 1.09 1.31 Coefficient of variation 13.56 10.46 10.98 9.95 11.33 Mean+Standard deviation 11.91 11.66 11.61 12.09 12.85 Mean-Standard deviation 9.06 9.45 9.31 9.90 1024

II. Higher Primary Enrollment:

This indicator is also calculated by taking higher

primary enrollment as per cent of population. According

to the ~able 4.19, the mean

considerably from Plan to Plan.

Gulbarga occupied Poor category

value has increased

Ini tially Raichur and

and continued through

out the period under consideration. Dakshinakannada and

Kodagu obtained the classification as Good district out

of which Dakshinakannada continued to occupy the same

position through out.

The Average of all districts increased through out

from Plan to Plan. The standard deviation came down at

the end of V Plan and increased at the end of VII Plan

and came down at the end of VIII Plan.

Most of the districts have remained Average through

out in the HPS enrollment. Bidar which showed abnormal

movement from Poor category to Good with respect to

lower primary enrollment, remained steady at the Average

category through out in the HPS enrollment.

167

Table 4.19 DISTRICTWISE TOTAL HIGHER PRIMARY ENROLMENT RATES AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(1971·1973) V Plan(1974·1978) VI Plan( 1980·1984) VII Plan(1985·1989) VIII Plan(1992·1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 1.52 RAICHUR 1.63 RAICHUR 1 86 RAICHUR 2.27 RAICHUR 284

GULBARGA 1.70 GULBARGA 1.82 GULBARGA 2.38 GULBARGA 2.74 GULBARGA 4.03 BIJAPUR 4.06

AVERAGE BIDAR 2.10 BIDAR 2.33 BIJAPUR 2.80 BELLARY 3.16 BELLARY 4.41 BIJAPUR 2.42 BIJAPUR 2.37 BELLARY 2.86 BELGAUM 3.28 BELGAUM 479 BELLARY 2.46 BELLARY 2.38 MYSORE 303 BIJAPUR 3.36 DHARWAD 5.05 MYSORE 2.47 MYSORE 2.55 BIDAR 3.24 KOLAR 3.42 CHITRADURGA 5.12 MANDYA 2.82 MANDYA 2.98 DHARWAD 3.28 MYSORE 3.54 MYSORE 5.37 KOLAR 2.90 DHARWAD 3.04 BELGAUM 339 BIDAR 3.74 BIDAR 5.47 BELGAUM 2.93 BELGAUM 3.10 CHITRADURGA 3.53 DHARWAD 4.07 MANDYA 5A9 DHARWAD 3.02 CHITRADURGA 3.19 KOLAR 3.68 HASSAN 4.24 NORTH KANARA 5.50 CHITRADURGA 3.07 KOLAR 3.28 MANDYA 3.87 NORTH KANARA 4.41 KODAGU 5.62 HASSAN 3.18 HASSAN 3.40 HASSAN 3.94 CHITRADURGA 4.42 HASSAN 5.73 CHICKMAGLORE 3.29 TUMKUR 3.46 NORTH KANARA 4.13 MANDYA 4.65 TUMKUR 5.73 TUMKUR 3.31 CHICKMAGLORE 3.89 SHIMOGA 4.28 TUMKUR 4.79 SHIMOGA 5.85 SHIMOGA 3.63 SHIMOGA 3.91 TUMKUR 4.35 SHIMOGA 4.88 KOLAR 6.04 NORTH KANARA 3.90 NORTH KANARA 4.01 CHICKMAGLORE 4.91 CHICKMAGLORE 6.10

KODAGU 5.11

GOOD SOUTHKANARA 5.14 KODAGU 5.09 KODAGU 4.50 SOUTHKANARA 7.59 SOUTHKANARA 7 13 KODAGU 5.48 SOUTHKANARA 5.37 CHICKMAGLORE 465

SOUTHKANARA 483

IVPI VPL VI PL VII PL VIII PL Mean 3.08 3.21 3.59 4.14 5.24 Standared deviation 1.02 1.00 0.81 118 0.96 Coefficient of variation 33.17 31.19 22.65 28.45 18.33 Mean+Standard deviation 4.10 4.21 4.40 5.32 6.20 Mean·Standard deviation 2.06 221 278 296 428

III Gender Equality at Lower Primary Stage:

The mean value Gender Equality Index at LPS

decreased from 81.85 at the end of Fourth Plan to 80.13

at the end of Fi~th Plan (Table 4.20). The indicator

shows considerable variation with respect to Shimoga,

Raichur and Kodagu during different Plan periods.

Initially, Raichur, Gulbarga and Bellary were classified

as Poor districts and Shimoga, Chitradurga and Kodagu

were placed as Good districts at the end of IV Plan.

The coefficient of variation at different points

under consideration shows reduction of inter district

variation at the end of VI Plan and increased from the

VIr Plan onwards. What is to be noted here is that

Raichur and Gulbarga remain Poor districts throughout

the period. Shimoga and Kodagu carne down to Average

category and while most of the other districts remained

under Average category through out.

169

Table 4.20 DISTRICTWISE GENDER EQUALITY RATIO IN LPS ENROLLMENT AT DiffERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-197B) VI Plan(19BO-19B4) VII Plan(19B5-19B9) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score Dlslrlc1 Score Dlstrlc1 Score District Score District Score POOR RAlCHUR 58.66 RAiCHUR 56.12 SHIMOGA 74.22 SHIMOGA 66.22 RAICHUR 66.95

GULBARGA 68.88 GULBARGA 56.43 GULBARGA 77.79 GULBARGA 66.79 GULBARGA 7508 BELLARY 70.78 KODAGU 78.91 BELLARY 72.97

~ BIJAPUR 79.14 BIDAR 73.12

AVERAGE BIDAR 71.97 BELLARY 70.12 BELLARY 81.34 BIJAPUR 78.79 DHMWM 82.29 BIJAPUR 75.34 BIJAPUR 72.46 MANDYA 84.32 KODAGU 84.17 BELLARY 83.10 KOLAR 77.44 BELGAUM 77.61 BELGAUM 84.34 BELGAUM 87.48 BIJAPUR 83.51 BELGAUM 80.51 MANDYA 78.22 MYSORE 84.86 MANDYA 88.12 SOUTH KANARA 87.38 SOUTH KANARA 83.57 KOLAR 79.30 HASSAN 85.43 CHITRADURGA 89.25 BIDM 87.43 MYSORE 84.21 SOUTH KANARA 82.66 NORTH KANARA 85.60 NORTH KANARA 89.31 BELGAUM 87.71 DHMWAR 84.90 BIDM 83.91 TUMKUR 86.50 MYSORE 89.93 KOLAR 90.37 HASSAN 87.36 DHARWM 84.60 BIDM 86.64 CHIKMAGALUR 90.89 MYSORE 91.21 CHIKMAGALUR 87.37 MYSORE 85.02 DHARWAR 86.78 DHARWAR 91.10 KODAGU 91.34 NORTH KANARA 88.37 CHITRADURGA 85.55 RAICHUR 86.86 HASSAN 91.82 SHIMOGA 93.27 TUMKUR 88.54 TUMKUR 86.40 CHITRADURGA 86.86 RAICHUR 93.00 MANDYA 94.54 MANDYA 89.03 HASSAN 86.83 SOUTH KANARA 87.74 TUMKUR 93.31 HASSAN 94.75

NORTH KANARA 88.69 KOLAR 88.05 KOLAR 94.28 CHITRADURGA 95.46 CHIKMAGALUR 88.75 NORTH KANARA 96.04 SHIMOGA 88.83

GOOD SHIMOGA 91.73 KODAGU 90.90 CHIKMAGALUR 89.62 SOUTH KANARA 95.47 CHIKMAGALUR 96.94 CHITRADURGA 92.14 TUMKUR 97.23 KODAGU 92.43

IVPI VPL VIPL vwpr-- VIII PL Mean 81.85 80.13 84.17 85.33 88.59 Standared deviation 9.46 10.36 4.17 9.49 8.08 Coefficient of variation 11.56 12.93 4.95 11.12 9.12 Mean+Standard deviation 91.31 90.50 88.33 94.83 96.67 Mean-Standard devlallon 72.38 69.77 80.00 75.84 80.51

IV Gender Equali ty at Higher Primary Stage:

In table 4.21 mean value of gender equality index

at Higher Primary stage decreased from 65.46 at the end

of Fourth Plan to 58.27 at the end of Fifth Plan. Later

on, the mean value has increased throughout to reach

79.46 at the end of the three years of Eighth Plan. It

:luctuates with respect to Dakshinakannada and Bidar

districts. Gulbarga and Raichur districts have remained

the Poor category in all the Plan periods.

Dakshinakannada in the initial periods was classified in

Average category but declined to Poor category during V

Plan, and gained the initial position during the

subsequent Plan periods. Kodagu remained in the Good

category in all the Plan periods except during VII Plan.

Chickmagalore which was grouped in Good category in

the V, VI, VII Plans, moved to Average category during

VIII Plan. Uttarakannada and Chitradurga have moved from

Average to Good category in the VIII Plan.

Rest of the districts remained grouped under the

Average category. The coefficient of variation shows

reduct:ion in the inter district variation across

districts after VI Plan onwards till VIII Plan.

171

Table 4.21 DISTRICTWISE GENDER EQUALITY RATIO IN HPS ENROLLMENT AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan( 1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score Dlstrlc1 Score Di>trlct Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 39.25 RAICHUR 32.97 RAICHUR 44.88 GULBARGA 5103 RAICHUR 6201

BIJAPUR 46.65 GULBARGA 33.71 GULBARGA 46.48 RAtCHUR 51.91 GULBARGA 63.32 BIDAR 47.32 BIJAPUR 42.69 BIJAPUR 48.84 BIJAPUR 56.71 BIJAPUR 66.50

BIDAR 52.28 BIDAR 57.11 BELLARY 67.16 DHARWAR 67.85

AVERAGE GULBARGA 53.58 BIDAR 45.19 BELLARY 56.12 BELLARY 59.82 BELGAUM 7405 KOLAR 55.89 BELLARY 47.06 TUMKUR 60.98 HASSAN 67.86 BIDAR 76.05 BELLARY 56.76 MANDYA 51.24 MANDYA 62.20 MYSORE 69.23 SOUTH KANARA 81.07 BELGAUM 65.89 TUMKUR 54.50 HASSAN 62.51 SOUTH KANARA 69.39 KOLAR 81.12 DHARWAR 66.20 BELGAUM 56.07 BELGAUM 62.52 MANDYA 69.77 MYSORE 81.15 MYSORE 66.95 KOLAR 56.41 KOLAR 63.02 TUMKUR 70.57 MANDYA 84.79 CHITRADURGA 68.37 HASSAN 56.77 CHITRADURGA 64.96 CHITRADURGA 72.44 SHIMOGA 85.34 TUMKUR 71.46 CHITRADURGA 58.72 DHARWAR 65.33 KOLAR 72.61 TUMKUR 86.60 CHIKMAGALUR 72.33 DHARWAR 60.20 SOUTH KANARA 65.95 BELGAUM 72.89 CHITRADURGA 87.36 NORTH KANARA 72.47 MYSORE 68.17 MYSORE 66.87 DHARWAR 74.02 KODAGU 88.51 MANDYA 74.97 CHIKMAGALUR 72.14 SHIMOGA 71.68 HASSAN 76.55 SHIMOGA 72.41 SOUTH KANARA 77.27 SHIMOGA 77.69

GOOD KODAGU 88.64 NORTH KANARA 74.46 NORTH KANARA 73.35 NORTH KANARA 80.83 NORTH KANARA 90.44 SOUTH KANARA 75.64 CHIKMAGALUR 74.37 CHIKMAGALUR 84.87 HASSAN 91.88 KODAGU 90.46 KODAGU 82.71 SHIMOGA 85.05 CHIKMAGALUR 95.12

KODAGU 8643 --------

IVPI - -- ----_.

VPL VI PL --VII PL VIIIPL Mean 65.46 58.27 62.50 69.59 79.46 Standared deviation 12.98 15.25 9.99 10.87 10.42 Coefficient of variation 19.82 26.16 15.99 15.62 13.12 Mean+Standard deviation 78.43 73.51 72.50 80.45 89.88 Mean-Standard deviation 5248 4302 5251 5872 6904

V Primary Retention Rate of Boys at LPS:

The mean retention rate of boys increased from Plan

to Plan. The lncrease was greater during the Fourth

Plan. (Table 4.22) Disparities across districts

represented by the coefficient of variation initially at

8.01 during Seventh Plan decreased to 7.89 during Fifth

Plan, increased to 8.77 during Sixth Plan drastically

decreased during the next two Five Year Plans to reach

4.56 during Eighth Plan. This indicates that inter

district differences have narrowed down over the Plan

periods. Relatively speaking, Bidar has shown low

retention, amongst the districts at the end of each Plan

period. Similarly, Gulbarga remained Poor till VII Plan

and improved to move up one step during VIII Plan.

At the other end Dakshinakannada remained under

Good category followed by Kodagu which was categorised

as Good district till VII Plan and became Average during

VIII Plan. Raichur district after remaining under the

Average category for most of the period shifted to Good

category during Eighth Plan. Most of the other districts

remaln clustered under Average category through out.

Both Kodagu and Dakshinakannada show the annual

retehtion rate above 100 per cent at the end of VI Plan

indicating high rate of grade repetition.

173

Table 4.22 DISTRICTWISE LPS BOYS RETENTION RATE OF AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score

POOR GULBARGA 64.03 BIDAR 65.75 GULBARGA 74.04 GULBARGA 77.33 BElGAUM 83.54 BIDAR 65.15 GULBARGA 66.05 BIDAR 74.21 BIDAR 80.85 BELLARY 84.63

BIDAR 86.13

AVERAGE RAICHUR 73.12 RAlCHUR 74.14 RAICHUR 79.88 RAICHUR 84.73 BIJAPUR 87.93 MYSORE 73.89 MYSORE 76.48 KOLAR 81.30 BELGAUM 8720 CHICKMAGLORE 88.08 MANDYA 73.92 MANDYA 76.53 CHITRADURGA 82.62 KOLAR 87.26 CHITRADURGA 88.96 HASSAN 75.94 SHIMOGA 77.01 BELLARY 83.99 BIJAPUR 88.53 KODAGU 89.93 CHITRADURGA 76.45 BIJAPUR 77.25 TUMKUR 83.99 NORTH KANARA 89.05 DHARWAD 91.14 TUMKUR 76.48 CHITRADURGA 77.68 HASSAN 84.48 MYSORE 89.17 GULBARGA 92.28 CHICKMAGLORE 76.50 TUMKUR 78.33 MYSORE 84.58 TUMKUR 89.96 HASSAN 92.74 DHARWAD 76.72 HASSAN 79.98 BIJAPUR 85.05 SHIMOGA 90.14 KOLAR 92.93 KOLAR 77.75 CHICKMAGLORE 80.11 CHICKMAGLORE 85.16 HASSAN 90.43 MANDYA 93.16 BIJAPUR 78.15 DHARWAD 80.85 BELGAUM 85.23 DHARWAD 90.61 MYSORE 93.29 SHIMOGA 78.53 BELLARY 81.10 SHIMOGA 87.06 BELLARY 90.76 NORTH KANARA 95.50 BELGAUM 78.54 BELGAUM 81.15 MANDYA 88.14 MANDYA 91.34 NORTH KANARA 78.57 KOLAR 82.17 DHARWAD 88.82 CHITRADURGA 94.16 BELLARY 82.35 NORTH KANARA 83.88 NORTH KANARA 89.49 CHICKMAGLORE 94.46

GOOD KODAGU 85.05 KODAGU 85.71 SOUTHKANARA 101.39 KODAGU 95.08 RAICHUR 95.78 SOUTHKANARA 91.01 SOUTHKANARA 92.23 KODAGU 104.21 SOUTHKANARA 98.96 SHIMOGA 96.22

SOUTHKANARA 9662 TUMKUR 96.92

IVPI -- -- -------

VPL - - -- -- -\.lfF'L VII PL VIII Pl Mean 76.79 78.69 85.76 89,45 91.43 Standared deviation 6.15 6.21 7.52 5.04 4.17 Coefficient of variation 8.01 7.89 8.77 5.63 4.56 Mean+Standard deviation 82.94 84.90 93.28 94,49 95.60 Mean-Standard deviation 70.64 7248 7824 84.41 8726

VI Pr~ Retention Rate of girls at LPS:

The mean retention rate of girls shows constant

increase from IV Plan to VIII Plan and decreased in the

value of the coefficient of variation (table 4.23) .

This indicates that the inter district disparities

are reducing. Gulbarga from the Poor category moved to

Average category in the VIII Plan.

Shimoga and Dharwad shifted from Average category

to Good category and Hassan receded to Poor category

from Average during Eighth Plan.

Kodagu stayed under the Good category till Seventh

Plan but declined to Average category ln the Eighth

Plan. Dakshinakannada stayed in the Good category in all

the Plan periods under consideration.

175

Table 4.23 DISTRICTWISE LPS GIRLS RETENTION RATE OF AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan( 1974-197B) VI Plan{19BO-1984) VII Plan{1985-1989) VIII Plan{1992-1994) Cate ory District Score District Score District Score Dlslrlct Score District Score POOR BIDAR 53.88 BIDAR 55.17 BIDAR 62.57 GULBARGA 73.68 CHICKMAGLORE 76.50

GULBARGA 54.71 GULBARGA 57.29 GULBARGA 65.45 HASSAN 82.57 BIDAR 8260

AVERAGE MANDYA 63.78 TUMKUR 67.20 RAlCHUR 71.23 BIDAR 81.73 RAlCHUR 8579 RAlCHUR 65.07 MANDYA 68.33 CHITRADURGA 75.01 RAICHUR 82.88 NORTH KANARA 86.43 TUMKUR 65.61 RAiCHUR 68.64 KOLAIR 75.41 BIJAPUR 8295 BELGAUM 86.46 HASSAN 6592 HASSAN 70.01 TUMKUR 76.21 TUMKUR 83.43 BIJAPUR 87.75 CHITRADURGA 68.35 BIJAPUR 70.05 HASSAN 76.46 MYSORE 84.02 BELLARY 88.19 BIJAPUR 70.30 CHITRADURGA 70.17 BIJAPUR 76.69 BELGAUM 84.16 TUMKUR 89.59 BELGAUM 70.99 MYSORE 71.39 BELLARY 76.70 KOLAR 84.60 GULBARGA 9006 MYSORE 71.00 SHIMOGA 72.50 MYSORE 78.09 HASSAN 84.69 CHITRADURGA 90.48 KOLAIR 72.04 DHARWAD 74.47 BELGAUM 78.67 NORTH KANARA 85.73 KOLAR 91.59 CHICKMAGLORE 72.18 KOLAR 74.90 CHICKMAGLORE 79.14 BELLARY 86.13 MANDYA 91.71 SHIMOGA 73.04 CHICKMAGLORE 75.08 SHIMOGA 79.30 DHARWAD 87.33 MYSORE 94.53 DHARWAD 73.43 BELGAUM 75.94 MANDYA 79.59 MANDYA 8803 KODAGU 94.87 NORTH KANARA 74.19 BELLAIRY 76.54 NORTH KANARA 82.35 SHIMOGA 89.39 BELLARY 78.49 NORTH KANARA 77.46 DHARWAD 82.46 CHITRADURGA 9105

GOOD KODAGU 83_95 KODAGU 85.17 SOUTHKANARA 95.55 CHICKMAGLORE 92.51 SHIMOGA 94.94 SOUTHKANARA 89.80 SOUTHKANARA 90.28 KODAGU 99.82 KODAGU 9492 SOUTHKANARA 96.93

SOUTHKANARA 9780 DHARWAD 9765 ------------------ ---- ------------

IVPI VPL VI PL VII PL VIII PL Mean 70.37 72.25 78.37 86.39 89.37 Standared deviation 8.75 8.24 8.72 5.47 5.52 Coefficient of variation 12.43 11.41 1113 6.33 6.17 Mean+Standard deviation 79.12 BO.50 87.09 91.86 94.89 Mean-Standard deviation 6163 64.01 6965 8092 8385

VII Pr1mary schools per ten thousand population:

In the table 4.24, The prov1sion of school has

steadily decreased from 11.62 to schools per ten

thousand populatlon In Four-:l1 Plan to 9.95 1n Eighth

Plan. Pattern of distribution of the districts on the

variables under each of the Plans indicate that the

supply of schools is closely associated with the Average

size of population of rural habitations and the number

of rural habitations.

For example according to Second All India Survey,

Belagum district has relatively fewer

habitation i.e. 1628 as compared

number of

to 3458

rural

rural

habitation 1n Tumkur. Belagum district has higher

population than Tumkur. Population of Belgaum was

1904630 and that of Tumkur was 1413093. Since the norm

followed to open new schools 1S the population size and

walk-able distance of one kilometer, districts like

Belgaum and Dharwad obtain schools in each village at an

early date compared to districts like Tumkur, Hassan

Which have larger number of small habitations gradually

becoming eligible for schools at a later date.

177

The gradual decline of the number of schools per

ten thousand population indicates that all districts had

attained the normative criterion for physical access by

the end of Fourth Plan. Therefore opening of new schools

were few and the population served by each of the old

schools increased resulting In fewer schools per ten

thousand popu:ation.

There is a marginal and gradual increase in coefficient

of variation value from Fourth Plan to Eighth Plan. By

and large, most of the districts have retained their

initial classifications of Poor, Average and Good.

Dakshinakannada and Dharwad have Poor position of

prlmary education whereas Tumkur, Hassan and

Uttarakannada have had Good position through out.

Belgaum district moved from Poor category to

Average category at the end of VI Plan. Raichur moved

down from Average to Poor category at the end of VIn

Plan. Kolar improved its position from Average to Good

at the end of VII Plan and continued in the same

category.

178

Table 4.24 DISTRICTWISE PRIMARY SCHOOLS PER TEN THOUSAND POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(I9.71-1973) V Plan(1974-197B) VI Plan(19BO-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992- 994) Cal ory District Score District Score District Score Dlslrlct Score Dlslricl Score POOR SOUTHKANARA 7.30 DHARWAD 7.34 DHARWAD 6.68 DHARWAD 6.53 DHARWAD 6.18

DHARWAD 7.7B SOUTHKANARA 7.73 SOUTHKANARA 7.29 SOUTHKANARA 7.16 RAICHUR 6.57 BELGAUM 8.07 BELGAUM 7.86 SOUTHKANARA 6.81

AVERAGE BIDAR 8.53 BIDAR 8.04 BELGAUM 7.49 BELGAUM 7.21 BELLARY 7.01 GULBARGA 8.82 GULBARGA 8.29 BIDAR 8.06 RAlCHUR 7.50 BELGAUM 7.09 KODAGU 9.46 KODAGU 8.82 RAICHUR B.16 BELLARY 7.82 BIDAR 7.35 BIJAPUR 9.67 RAlCHUR 903 BIJAPUR B.25 BIDAR 7.99 GULBARGA 7.60 RAICHUR 9.80 BIJAPUR 9.08 KODAGU 8.39 BIJAPUR 8.14 BIJAPUR 7.71 BELLARY 10.44 BELLARY 9.45 BELLARY 8.42 GULBARGA 8.27 KODAGU 9.12 MYSORE 10.52 MYSORE 9.73 GULBARGA 8.52 KODAGU 8.69 CHITRADURGA 10.11 CHITRADURGA 11.68 CHITRADURGA 10.94 MYSORE 9.44 MYSORE 9.14 MYSORE 10.84 MANDYA 12.74 MANDYA 11.97 CHITRADURGA 10.82 CHITRADURGA 10.22 MANDYA 11.10 KOLAR 14.09 SHIMOGA 1306 MANDYA 11.50 MANDYA 11.28 SHIMOGA 12.08 SHIMOGA 14.11 KOLAR 13.44 SHIMOGA 1219 SHIMOGA 12.28

KOLAR 13.42

GOOD TUMKUR 15.69 TUMKUR 14.69 TUMKUR 13.78 KOLAR 13.56 TUMKUR 13.23 HASSAN 16.56 CHICKMAGLORE 15.39 CHICKMAGLORE 14.45 TUMKUR 13.62 KOLAR 13.43 CHICKMAGLORE 16.71 HASSAN 15.79 NORTH KANARA 15.06 CHICKMAGLORE • 14.04 CHICKMAGLORE 13.59 NORTH KANARA 17.19 NORTH KANARA 16.26 HASSAN 16.29 NORTH KANARA 14.21 NORTH KANARA 14.17

HASSAN 15 97 HASSAN 15.1B

IVPI VPL VIPL VIIPC-- VIII PL Mean 11.62 10.94 10.46 10.20 9.95 Siandared devlallon 3.34 3.0B 3.04 3.00 3.05 Coefficient of variation 28.71 28.13 29.10 29.44 30.66 Mean+Slandard deviation 14.96 14.01 13.50 13.21 13.01 Mean-Standard deviation 8.28 7.86 741 7.20 690

~II Primary teachers per ten thousand population:

The mean value of teachers per ten thousand . population has fluctuated In an narrow range form Plan

to Plan (Table 4.25), it was 33.78 in the Fourth Plan

and came down to 31.19 in the Fifth Plan and increased

to 33.34 in the Sixth Plan and again decreased to 32.72

in the Seventh Plan and finally increased to the 33.84

in Eighth Plan. the coefficient of variation remained

constant at 18 from Sixth Plan onwards.

Districts were distributed in an narrow range

though out. Uttarakannada remained in the Good category

through out the period under consideration. Chickamglore

was In Good category in IV and V Plans and moved to

Average category In VI and VII Plan and again moved back

to Good category In VIII Plan.

Kodagu was categorised as Good in IV Plan and moved

back to Average in V and VI Plan and again became Good

category district in VII Plan and became Average

180

district l.n VIII Plan. Hassan moved to Good category

from Average category in VIII Plan.

Among the districts at the lower end Raichur

remained as Poor district throughout. Bidar which was

classified as Poor till V Plan moved to Average category

from VII Plan onwards.

Gulbarga moved to Average from Poor category agal.n

moved back to Poor category in VIII Plan. Mysore stayed

l.n Average category till V Plan and moved to Poor

category l.n VI and VII Plan and again moved to Average

category in the VII Plan. Dharwad was in Average

category till VII Plan and became Poor in VIII Plan.

All other districts which were not mentioned

remained l.n Average category through out. As far as

supply of teachers is concerned there is not much

variation across districts and it has caught up with

increase in enrollment over a period of time this gets

confirmed when the changing pupil-teacher ratio from

pla~ to plan are examined.

181

Table 4.25 DISTRICYWISE PRIMARY TEACHERS PER TEN THOUSAND POPULATION AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan( 1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Cale 0 Dlslrlcl Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR RAICHUR 21.56 RAICHUR 19.26 BELGAUM 33.86 RAICHUR 2050 RAICHUR 22.45

GULBARGA 22.07 GULBARGA 23.08 MYSORE 2402 DHARWAD 2721 BIDAR 25.88 BIDAR 25.80 GULBARGA 2753

AVERAGE SHIMOGA 29.59 MYSORE 26.81 BELLARY 28.00 BELLARY 27.31 BELLARY 2806 MYSORE 31.25 BELLARY 27.05 BIDAR 34.76 GULBARGA 27.62 MYSORE 2884 BELLARY 32.02 DHARWAD 29.76 BIJAPUR 32.36 DHARWAD 29.22 BIJAPUR 29.43 BELGAUM 32.04 CHITRADURGA 30.14 CHICKMAGLORE 38.94 BELGAUM 29.58 BELGAUM 29.57 DHARWAD 32.15 MANDYA 31.15 CHITRADURGA 31.81 MANDYA 30.43 BIDAR 32.63 MANDYA 32.86 BELGAUM 31.44 SOURH KANARA 36.56 BIJAPUR 30.88 CHITRADURGA 3308 CHITRADURGA 33.57 BIJAPUR 31.90 DHARWAD 30.51 CHITRADURGA 32 13 MANDYA 33.19 SOURH KANARA 35.95 KOLAR 32.32 GULBARGA 29.41 SHIMOGA 3394 KODAGU 3606 KOLAR 35.09 SOURH KANARA 32.20 HASSAN 37.19 BIDAR 34.54 SOURH KANARA 36.08 BIJAPUR 36.64 HASSAN 34.25 KODAGU 39.80 KOLAR 3605 TUMKUR 3753 TUMKUR 38.19 TUMKUR 34.88 KOLAR 36.57 SOURH KANARA 3651 KOLAR 3876

KODAGU 35.39 MANDYA 31.28 CHICKMAGIORE 37.50 SHIMOGA 3937 MYSORE 2007 HASSAN 37.52 RAICHUR 21.46 TUMKUR 38.26 SHIMOGA 36.18 TUMKUR 3778

GOOD CHICKMAGLORE 40.45 SHIMOGA 37.59 NORTHKANARA 43.6 KODAGU 40.03 CHICKMAGLORE 4069 KODAGU 41.36 CHICKMAGLORE 37.85 NORTHKANARA 4288 NORTHKANARA 4253 NORTHKANARA 42.88 NORTHKANARA 40.33 HASSAN 46 16 HASSAN 45.41

IVPI VPL VIPL VIIPL VIII PI Mean 33.78 31.18 3334 32.20 3384 Standared deviation 6.156 5.36 6.04 5.81 6250 Coefficient of variation 19.44 17.20 18.12 17 71 1847 Mean+Standard devlallon 4035 36.55 3938 3853 4009 Mean-SIandard devlallon 27 21 2581 2729 2690 U ~8

IX Pupil-teacher ratio:

Table 4.26 shows an ~ncrease In pupil-teacher

ratio over plan and also inter-district variation was

relatively very high during VI Plan.

Considerable fluctuations is observed in the

relative positions of the district under different

plans. Initially Dharwad classified as Poor had high

pupil-teacher ratio till fifth plan and showed

improvement improved in the VI and VII Plan to shift to

the Average category and again came back to the Poor

category at the end of VIII Plan.

Similar thing has happened in the case of Raichur

and Bidar. In the case of Mysore, the pupil-teacher

ratio became unfavorable during VI and VII Plan

resulting in the district moving from Average to Poor.

Dakshinakannada was showing unfavorable pupil

teacher ratio at the end of IV Plan and improved till

183

the end of V Plan to be placed under Average category

and declined to Poor category in the VI Plan and aga~n

moved back to Average category in the VIII Plan.

In the case of Bijapur the teacher-pupil ratio was

favourable and district was classified as Good category

at the end of IV Plan. It moved down to Average category

at the end of V Plan and it further moved down to Poor

category at the end of VI Plan. Its position improved

under VII Plan and remained so in VIII Plan.

Chickmagalore classified in Good category at the

end of VI Plan and stayed in the same category through

out.

Tumkur and Kodagu has fluctuated between Average

and Good under different Plan periods.

Uttarakannada was the only district to remain in

the Good category throughout the Plan periods.

184

Table 4.26 DISTRICTWISE PUPIL-TEACHER RATIO AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(1974-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Cate ory District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR DHARWAD 4657 BIDAR 49.77 BIJAPUR 83.29 MYSORE 55.50 DHARWAD 6618

SOUTHKANARA 44.08 DHARWAD 47.34 MYSORE 62.14 SOUTHKANARA 54.03 RAICHUR 6542 BELGAUM 43.86 RAICHUR 47.14 BIDAR 6338

AVERAGE SHIMOGA 42.84 SHIMOGA 46.86 RAICHUR 48.33 DHARWAD 52.17 BELLARY 59.26 GULBARGA 42.81 BELLARY 46.39 BELLARY 46.77 RAICHUR 51.84 GULBARGA 56.25 CHITRADURGA 42.63 GULBARGA 45.63 BIDAR 46.64 MANDYA 51 08 BIJAPUR 55.39 RAlCHUR 41.78 MYSORE 45.49 MANDYA 44.96 BELGAUM 50.68 BELGAUM 54.06 HASSAN 41.64 BELGAUM 44.98 DHARWAD 44.65 BIDAR 4926 SOUTHKANARA 51.52 MANDYA 41.59 KOLAR 43.56 KOLAR 44.05 BELLARY 48.98 CHITRADURGA 4970 BIDAR 41.20 CHITRADURGA 43.50 CHITRADURGA 43.99 BIJAPUR 48.84 MANDYA 49.07 KOLAR 40.32 MANDYA 43.46 SHIMOGA 43.41 CHITRADURGA 47.86 MYSORE 48.50 MYSORE 39.88 HASSAN 43.26 GULBARGA 42.48 SHIMOGA 47.12 KOLAR 48.18 BELLARY 39.03 SOUTHKANARA 43.23 BELGAUM 42.14 GULBARGA 46.76 SHIMOGA 46.52 TUMKUR 38.67 KODAGU 41.62 TUMKUR 41.60 HASSAN 43.35 CHICKMAGLORE 45.73 KODAGU 38.25 BIJAPUR 40.97 HASSAN 4072 CHICKMAGLORE 43.21 KODAGU 4438

CHICKMAGLORE 40.10 SOUTHKANARA 39.54

GOOD BIJAPUR 37.31 TUMKUR 40.56 NORTH KANARA 33.43 TUMKUR 40.47 TUMKUR 42 13 CHICKMAGLORE 36.64 CHICKMAGLORE 40.06 KODAGU 3131 KODAGU 38.24 NORTH KANARA 40 12 NORTH KANARA 36.57 NORTH KANARA 37.11 KOLAR 37.78 HASSAN 39.50

NORTH KANARA 3639

IVPI V PL VIPL VII PL VIIIPL Mean 40.87 43.94 45.53 46.86 51 41 Standared deviation 2.76 3.12 11.37 5.74 8.24 Coefficient of variation 6.77 7.10 24.96 12.24 1603 Mean+Standard deviation 43.64 47.06 56.90 52.60 5965 Mean-Standard deviation 38 11 4082 3417 41 13 43 t 7

X Standard-Teacher ratio:

The mean value of standard teacher ratio shows

decline from Plan to Plan (table 4.27). The coefficient

of variation shows fluctuations at different Plan

periods under consideration. But the coefficient of

variation has declined after the VI Plan showing

declining trend in the disparities among districts.

Hassan remained in the Poor category except during

VI Plan. Uttarakannada has showed improvement In the

position by movIng from Poor to Average category during

VI Plan and continued In the same position during VII

and VIII Plan periods, Dakshinakannada and Dharwad,

remained in the Good category and moved to Average

during VIII Plan.

Bidar has shown improvement from V Plan onwards.

Most of the other districts remained In the Average

category.

186

Table 4.27 DISTRICTWISE STANDARED-TEACHER RATIO AT DIFFERENT PLAN PERIODS

IV Plan(1971-1973) V Plan(197 4-1978) VI Plan(1980-1984) VII Plan(1985-1989) VIII Plan(1992-1994) Category District Score District Score District Score District Score District Score POOR HASSAN 2.19 RAICHUR 2.20 BIJAPUR 2.74 HASSAN 2.08 HASSAN 1.77

RAlCHUR 2.16 HASSAN 2.12 MYSORE 2.28 CHICKMAGLORE 1.86 NORTH KANARA 2.03 NORTH KANARA 2.04

AVERAGE CHICKMAGLORE 2.00 TUMKUR 1.99 HASSAN 2.10 SHIMOGA 1 84 NORTH KANARA 1 76 TUMKUR 1.92 CHICKMAGLORE 1.98 CHICKMAGLORE 1.86 MANDYA 1 83 KOLAR 1 75 KOLAR 1.90 KOLAR 1.96 RAICHUR 1.84 MYSORE 1.83 TUMKUR 1 74 SHIMOGA 1.88 SHIMOGA 1.89 NORTH KANARA 1.80 KOLAR 1.82 CHICKMAGLORE 1 74 GULBARGA 1.86 MANDYA 1.80 MANDYA 1.79 RAICHUR 1.80 RAICHUR 1 72 MANDYA 1.83 BELLARY 1.76 SHIMOGA 1 78 NORTH KANARA 1.75 MANDYA 1 71 BELLARY 1.80 MYSORE 1.76 TUMKUR 1.77 TUMKUR 175 SHIMOGA 1 .71 CHITRAOURGA 1.70 CHITRAOURGA 1.69 KOLAR 1 76 CHITRADURGA 1.69 MYSORE 1.68 BIDAR 1.68 GULBARGA 1.67 CHITRAOURGA 1.73 GULBARGA 1.46 CHITRADURGA 1 68 MYSORE 1.66 BIJAPUR 1.55 BELLARY 1.54 BELLARY 1.44 BIJAPUR 1 45 BIJAPUR 1.46 BIDAR 1.52 GULBARGA 1.40 BIJAPUR 1.44 KODAGU 145

BELGAUM 1.43 GULBARGA 1 42 BELLARY 140

GOOD BELGAUM 1.40 BELGAUM 1.39 DHARWAD 1.24 DHARWAD 1.27 BELGAUM 1 33 DHARWAD 1.33 KODAGU 1.36 BELGAUM 1.23 KODAGU 1.24 DHARWAD 1 31 KODAGU 1.28 DHARWAD 1.35 BIDAR 118 BIDAR 1.21 BIDAR 1.24 SOUTHKANARA 1.15 SOUTHKANARA 1.20 KODAGU 1.18 SOUTHKANARA 1.16 SOUTHKANARA 1 11

SOUTHKANARA 1 16

IVPI VPL VIPL VII PL VIII PL Mean 1.74 1.73 1.69 1.61 1.55 Standared deviation 0.30 0.29 0.42 0.28 0.21 Coefficient of variation 17.57 16.82 25.07 17.24 13.76 Mean+Standard deviation 2.04 2.03 2.11 1.88 177 Mean-Standard deviation 1.43 1 44 126 1 33 1 34

4.8 Analysis of Literacy Rates

Published data on educational development do not

provide information on educational outcomes. In the

absence of such data, changes in literacy rates can be

used as a proxy for educational outcomes as functional

literacy measured by the census is presumed to be equal

to four years of schooling.

The data on educational development analysed in

the present study belong to seventies and eighties

covered by the Censuses of India carried out in 1981

and 1991 with the information from the Census of 1971

serving as the bench mark. In this section an attempt

is made to examine the changes in the literacy rates of

variOUS segments of popUlation at the state and the

district level to obtain the indirect measure of the

effectiveness of the planed development of primary

education in Karnataka. The literacy rates published

by the Census of India, 1991 is not comparable with the

earlier Censuses carried out during 1971 and 1981. The

popul a t ion 0 f the 0 to 4 Age group was excluded in

earlier censuses while reporting the literacy

188

information where as the population of 0 to b Age group

was excluded in 1991. In order to make the literacy

rates comparable for the present study, the numbers of

llterates have been divided by the total population

reported in each of the Censuses.

One of the main objective of all Five Year Plans

of Karnataka considered in this study was to reduce

social and geographical inequalities in the development

indicators like education, health, etc. Therefore, the

education sector Plans are expected to bridge the gaps

in the literacy levels of various population segments

and differences across districts. In the present

analysis the literacy gains of some of the important

population categories and districts will be examined to

draw inferences about the effectiveness of Educational

Planning.

4.8.1 Ll teracy galns of Scheduled. castes, Scheduled.

Trlbes and General Population

To begin with, the literacy gains of the

vulnerable sections of the society like Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes are compared with the gains

189

reglstered by the population in general. The population

belonging to scheduled Tribe category is around 4.25

per cent In Karnataka according to 1991 Census. and

bulk of them is concentrated in a few pockets. The list

of tribes included in the schedule has~ seen drastic

changes with the inclusion of many new groups making

the comparlson of the ST category across Censuses

difficult. Table 4.28 glves the picture of such a

comparison.

Table 4.28 Comparative Picture of Literacy Gains of SC,

ST and General Population

Gain Gain

1971 1981 1991 between between

1971·1981 1981·1991

General population 31.52 38.46 46.72 6.94 8.26

Scheduled castes 13.88 20.44 20.71 6.56 10.27

Scheduled Tribes 14.84 20.13 29.21 5.29 9.08

190

Fig 4.17 Literacy of Population Category Based on Ctinsuses 1971, 1981 c1 1991

50 -

4(H I I l

30~

!

"

10 ~ I

o

percent

. I I I I I

"I ' .. . '.1 I

.1 ! «I'

.. ·1 . I

I

I , i I

GIIner.' Scheduled C ... t_

Population Catagorl_ Scheduled Trlb_

Literacy of Population Categories Gains during 1971-1981 and 1981-1991

percent

12 , '

~ ! 10 1 8~ a J

I 41 2

o Ganer.1 8cheduled Ca"te" Scheduled TrlbM

"opulatlon Categor' ....

_ 1971-81 m:J 1981-91

I

II II I ,I 11

il II i I I

il ! I il II II II 'I t. il 'I Ii

I II II i

I

II I

It is seen from the Table 4.28 that the literacy

gain of the general population during the decade

bet'.-Ieen 1971 and 1981 was 6.94 points as compared to

the gain of 6.56 registered by SC and 5.29 by ST. This

decade overlapped with the last three years of Fourth

Plan, the entire Fifth Plan and t,.-IO Annual Plans. It

was In the Fifth Plan, more than 50 percent of the Plan

:>utlay on prlmary education was earmarked for

incentIves to attract chIldren from Scheduled Castes

and Tribes.

~he data on enrollment do indicate that the

enr:>llment of children from these sections Increased

considerabl y during this period, but such enrollments

did not result In the attainment of literacy. The

sit~ation Improved during the decade between 1981 and

1991. The literacy galns of both SC and ST categories

respectively accounting 10.27 and 9.08 points which

were hlgher than the gaIn of 8.26 recorded by the

::;eneral populaticn (Graph 4.17) This decade not only

overlapped ·.-lith Sixth and Seventh Plans but also saw

the change in the Educational Policy of the Government

192

of India in 1986 which stressed the importance of

Primary Education. Both the five Year Plans implemented

during this period in Karnataka gave h1gh priority to

facilitate the education of weaker sections. During

this decade, Primary Education was made the joint

responsibility of the Center, the State and the newly

introduced elected governments called Zilla Panchyats

iZP! at the distrlc~ level. There was a phenomenal jump

1n the enrollments i=edia~ely after the introduction

of Zilla Panchyats. As compared to improvements

reported 1n enrollment and retention figures during

this per1od, the literacy gains observed appears to be

lower than the expected level. The literacy gains of

General population was less than one percent per year

and slightly higher than one per cent in the case of SC

category.

4.8.2 Gender-w1se L1 teracy gains of Scheduled castes,

Scheduled Tribes and General Population

Girls education was given high priority from the

fifth Plan onwards along with the special attention

given for the education of SC and ST categories. How

193

far such efforts reinforced each other has to be

examined by comparing the Ii teracy galns of Male and

Female segments of these population categories.

It may be seen from the Table 4.29 that the

advantage of Plan efforts for the SC and ST population

worked to the advantage of Male category of these

population segments during seventies. SC Males

regls~ered a gal.n of 8.62 and ST Males gained 8.24

points whlch are higher than the gain of 7.19 percent

obtained by the General Male populatlon. It was the

lower level gains of Females in General and the Females

belonging to SC and ST which accounted for low overall

galns In literacy during the decade between 1971 and

1981.

The situation considerably improved during

eighties for Female population in General and the

Females belonging to SC and ST categories. The literacy

gains recorded by the General Female category was 9.25

higher as compared to the gain of 7.27 percent by

General Male Category. Even the SC Female category

registered higher gain of 9.39 as compared to General

194

Female Category which itself was higher than Males.

Even the SC Female category gained 9.08 which was

higher than the General Male category and slightly

lower than the gains recorded by General Female

category. But, interms of gains the SC Males registered

the hlghest at 10.76 points during eighties

(Graph4 .18!. But these gains in elght::'es reduced the

inltial disparities In literacy levels among the

populatlon categories only marginally.

Table 4.29 Comparative Picture of Male and female

Literacy Gains of SC, ST and General Population

1971 1981 1991 Gain Gain

between between

1971·1981 1981·1991

General Male 41.62 48.81 56.08 7.19 7.27

Scheduled caste Male 20.73 29.35 40.11 8.62 10.76

Scheduled Tribe Male 21.71 29.95 38.93 8.24 8.98

General Female 2097 27.71 36.96 6.74 9.25

Scheduled caste female 6.74 11.54 20.93 4.8 9.39

Scheduled Tribe females 7.67 10.02 19.10 2.35 9.08

195

4.8.3 Literacy galns of Scheduled castes, Scheduled

Tribes and General Population in Urban and Rural areas

Karnataka educational scene lS marked by the vast

difference between Urban and Rural population.

Education In Urban areas lS marked by the private

initiatives in addition to the Government efforts at

Primary stage, where as the responsibility of providing

Primary Education In Rural areas rests solely on the

Government efforts. The strength of the Government

interventions can best be judged by the magnitude of

literacy gains among Rural population segments and the

reduction In the gaps In literacy between Urban and

Rural areas. Table 4.30 compares the literacy gains

of six braad population categories of Urban and Rural

population during seventies and eighties.

Initially In 1971, the differences in literacy

levels between corresponding Urban and Rural population

categories were very large. The literacy level~General

Rural population was 25.13 per cent and the

corresponding category in Urban area had attained 51.43

196

percent, the gap was about 26 points. At the end of

Seventies the gap remained same while the literacy of

Rural General population increased to 31.05 per cent

and that of Urban General Population was 56.71 per

cent. During Eighties the gap was reduced to 23.5, per

cent, the Ii teracy of Rural General popu'..ation

increased to 39.43 per cent and that of Urban General

population was 63 per cent.

Table 4.30 Comparative Picture of Rural and Urban

Literacy Gains of SC, ST and General Population

1971 1981 1991 Gain Gain

between between

1971·1981 1981·1991

General rural 25.13 31.05 39.43 5.92 8.38

Scheduled caste rural 10.26 15.36 25.18 5.13 9.82

Scheduled Tribe rural 12.99 17.94 26.30 4.95 8.36

General urban 51.43 56.71 63.00 5.28 6.29

Scheduled caste urban 31.98 38.91 48.81 6.93 9.9

Scheduled Tribe urban 30.03 35.00 45.75 4.97 10.75

197

,

I II II

i I i II

I

'I II II

~ i

Fig 4.18 Gender-wise Lit9racy gains: from 197H~1 " 1981-91

Within each Population Catec;lory

R ...... . ~~·~·:,:I\

Hil ~

· .. ···.I \ I U·.II

'\' 1I11 II \ 11 ~ \ \ \1' .... 1\ \ \ .

. . \ \ .. .- .

fl, I· ·11 I [··'-n !

~ 11 I

\ \'. I,. il' \' ~ lJ (ian Mala 8C Mala ST Mal" (ian Famala 8C F"mala IJT Famale

PopulatIon Catagorlaa

Oacadal Galna

Ill:J 1971-19111 c::; 19111-1991

FiB,LtIi.Rural-Urban Literacy gains:71-81 & 81-91 Within each Population Category

/>ercanr

~jI ~; , I

10 -< I -= I I I .

! I n I

4 ~:I' 1'1\\\\\1 i ~. ! 1!m1 ~ I l\\\ ~ I \ \ .. I ~\\i ~ \\ \ . U\ \\ .

21It:~~· IU\~; ILJ~\ .1 ~\\;, \\\1'" I o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

CJan ltur" 8C Rural 8T I'bJral Gan Urban 8C Urban 8T Urban Population Catagorl_

DBc;adul Gain.

[ill '!1171- '!II II 1 c=J 19111-1991

I

" iI II

'I I I , I

Ii Ii II

II ii !: " I'

ii II

ii i: ii Ii d 1; " " Ii !\ I, Ii il II II II II

Ii II :I 'I i, Ii II II

i! Ii !I II II ii

I: I'

II II I!

II II I

I I

Surprisingly the gap in literacy rates between

Scheduled Caste Urban category and the Scheduled Caste

Rural Category increased during the two decades. In

1971 the SC Urban was at 31. 98 per cent and the SC

Rural was way below at 10.23 per cent resulting in a

gap of 21.75 points. The literacy levels of SC Urban

and SC Rural categories increased respectively to 38.91

per cent and 15.36 per cent respectively in 1981 while

the gap also increased to 23.55 points. Similarly the

gap marginally increased to 23.63 in 1991 when the SC

Urban and SC Rural reached the literacy levels of 48.81

and 25.18 respectively.

The similar phenomenon of the increase in the gap

between Urban and Rural segments of ST population took

place during Eighties (19.4 percent gap) while the gap

remained same In 1971' and 1981 (About 17 percentage

points) .

When the literacy gains of the different

population categories are compared between 1971 Census

and 1981 Census, the gain registered in 1971 by

199

General Urban population was lower at 5.28 points than

the gain of 5.92 by Rural General population. In the

Case of the SC and ST population it was reverse wi th

Urban segments registering higher gains in 1981 as

compared to the corresponding Rural segments. While the

size of the gains increased in Eighties in the case of

each of the categories as compared to Seventies, the

Urban segments of SC and ST population registered

higher gains in 1981 as compared to the corresponding

rural segments. It was in the opposite direction in the

case of General population. (Graph 4.18a)

From the above analysis it can be inferred that

the benefits of the interventions under different Five

Year Plans directed for the benefit of SC and ST

categories is accruing more for the Urban segments of

those groups. ll.nother observation that emerge,outolthe

above compar ison is the slow pace wi th which the gap

between Rural and Urban population is being bridged

resulting in the maintenance of the disparities.

200

4.8.4 Li teracy Changes in Districts during Seventies

and Eighties

Another dimension of the educational disparities

tackled by the planning lS the regional disparity

within the state of Karnataka. When the state was

formed, the region comprising of four northern

districts added to the state from fGrmer Hyderabad

State were very backward in education. Even the region

added from Bombay province was educationally backward.

Not all

part of

districts of old Mysore

the Karnataka state

state which became

could be called

educationally well developed during those times.

The coastal District of Mangalore which was part

of Madras province and the small independent state of

Kodagu had higher literacy rates. Five Year Plans,

particularly from the Fourth Five Year Plan onwards

adopted the policy of relating plan allocation to the

backwardness of the district to reduce intra district

dispari ties. In his section, an attempt is made to

examine the changes in literacy gains of each of the

201

districts keeping their literacy level in 1971 as the

bench mark. The comparison of the gains In the literacy

of General population and Scheduled Caste population is

given in the Table 4.30.

Table 4.31: Comparison of growth of Literacy rates in different districts of Kamataka State:

DISTRICTS GENERAL

Literacy Gain during Literacy Gain during Uteracy 1991 1971 1971· 1981 1981 1981·1991

BANGALORE 42.72 8.6 51.32 14.02 65.34 BELGAUM 30.73 5.91 36.64 7.24 43.84 BELlARY 25.12 5.52 30.64 6.07 36.71 BIDAR 20.02 6.42 26.44 9.54 35.92 BIJAPUR 27.48 4.48 31.96 12.7 44.66 CHIKMAGLORE 34.93 8.57 43.50 8.71 52.21 CHITRADURGA 31.45 6.8 38.25 8 46.25 OAKSHINAKANNADA 43.45 10.02 53.47 9.71 65.18 DHARWAD 38.51 3.85 42.36 6.14 48.50 GULBARGA 18.74 6.2 24.94 5.72 30.66 HASSAN 30.56 6.93 37.49 10.73 48.22 KOOAGU 44.30 5.85 50.15 8.25 58.40 KOLAR 27.06 6.51 33.57 8.78 42.35 MANDYA 22.51 7.84 30.40 10.68 4108 MYSORE 25.62 5.34 30.96 9.08 40.04 RAICHUR 20.20 4.52 24.72 3.87 28.59 SHIMOGA 36.37 8.07 44.44 7.59 52.03 TUMKUR 29.36 7.56 36.92 9.31 46.23 UTIARAKANNADA 40.65 7.58 48.35 81 56.49

It can be seen from the Table that the situation

that existed at the time of the formation of Karnataka

stat~ with respect to the disparities across districts

202

persisted in 1971. The most backward districts in

literacy were Gulbarga, Bidar and Raichur of Hyderabad

Karnataka area. The Districts of Kodagu, Dakshinakannda

Uttarakannada and Bangalore retained their higher

levels of literacy ln 1971 and Other districts were

located in between these two extremes.

One should expect larger gains in literacy in the

backward districts as the result of planning at its

implementation. Gains ln literacy during the decade of

Seventies experienced by the districts did not change

their relative arrangement drastically. Dakshina

kannada, Bangalore and Uttarakannada districts gained

higher points and continued to drift apart from other

districts while the gains recorded by the backward

districts like Gulbarga and Raichur were small and

thereby disparities increased during Seventies.

Surprisingly, Bidar gained more points among the

backward district to improve its literacy level as

compared to its neighboring district of Gulbarga and

Raichur. Chikrnagalore and Shimoga districts which were

ranking in the middle gained more during seventies and

203

their distance from the high ranking districts

considerably reduced. The pattern of literacy gains by

the districts during Eighties show an al ::ered picture

as compared to the previous decade.

While the gains of the most backward district like

Raichur and Gulbarga remained least, the gains recorded

by the districts like Bijapur, Mandya and Hassan were

higher and their position among the ranking of the

district improved considerably.

But, the difference In literacy between the

highest ranking district and the lowest ranking one in

1971 was 24.71 points which increased to 28.75 in 1981

and to 36.75 in 1991. This increase in differences that

took place in the middle of positive gains by all the

districts indicate that the Plans have not succeeded in

bringing about changes in the way in which they were

intended to do.

204

CHAPTER V

Analysis of qualitative data on

educational planning process

5.1 Introduction:

Secondary data reflecting the changes in the

educational parameters during the past 24 years starting

from 1971 to 1994 were analysed in relation to

educational plans in the previous chapter.

The present chapter deals with the outcomes of the

analysis of the qualitative data on the planning process

underlining such developments observed in the previous

chapter. To begin with the structure of educational

planning is provided followed by detailed method of

analysis of qualitative data and the final analysis lS

presented.

205

5.2 Method of qualitative data analysis

Data obtained was in the form of field notes taken

continuously during field visits. It consisted of the

responses of various functionaries involved in plan

formulation. The discussion centered around

following issues:

a) How do educational plans get initiated?,

b) Process of preparation of educational Plans,

c) Nature and sources of information collected and

used during the formulation and implementation of

plans,

d) Administration and implementation of programmes,

the

e) Perceptions of individuals occupying different roles

and performing different functions related to school

education,

f) Feedback from the grassroots and

g) Information from informal discussions/encounters.

The purpose of interviews was to know the meaning

and functions the planners attribute to five year and

annual plans. It was intended to generate different

categories of activities carried out under planning, the

206

kind and nature of information they collect and use In

decision making processes, their perceptions about the

meaning of their own activities and other roles

encountered in the negotiations during the process of

planning.

The respondents were asked some key questions like,

'How plans are initiated ?', , Who does what ?' etc. The

initial responses were pursued further through detailed

probes to elicit the details of issues that emerged

during the discussions.

The above information thus generated was further

reinforced by attending the plan related meetings to

observe the transactions at the district and state

levels. The investigator took necessary permission of

the state authorities. Finally, visits were made to 12

communities having primary schools to talk to the

communi ty members, teachers and the School Betterment

Committee members.

207

First, The information in the form of field notes was

categorised

follows:

based on the source of information as

A. Secretariat

B. Office of the Commissioner of Public Instruction

C. Zilla Panchayat Office

D. Office of the Deputy Director of Public Instruction

E. Office of the Block Level Education Officer

F. School and community

At the second phase, the information categorised on

the above lines was read and re-read and further divided

into sub categories, as follows:

• Initiation of plans,

• Nature of planning,

• Nature and sources of information,

• Administration/implementation,

208

• Perceptions of individuals performing different

functions and occupying different roles, and

• Feedback from the grassroots information from informal

discussions/encounters.

Each of the cells marked with 'Yes' represent the

collection of the bits of information generated from

the field notes belonging to the respective category of

data. In the following analysis such information bits

are linked up to obtain the field view of the aspects

of planning practiced at different levels and their

correspondence as well as their relevance in the light

of grassroots level information.

The above categories were further divided into two

groups depending upon the origin of the information as

interview based and observation based. The following

grid provides the categorization of the Data.

209

Table 5.1 Grid representing the categorization of informa

tion from field notes:

Infonnation category State District Block Grass roots

~- -- ~- ot.err.I ~- observa- klter- --view lion view -tion view lion view lion

Initiation of plans Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Nature of Planning Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Nature and sources of information Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Administration! Implementation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Perceptions of individuals Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

performing different functions and

occupying different roles

Feedback from the grassroots No No No No No No Yes Yes

informatIOn from Informal

diSCUSSIOns I encounters

210

5.3 Structure of educational planning:

The disc~ss:on at various levels revealed a

distric~ structure of educational planning starting

from policy making to the development of detailed plan

proposals for various programmes contemplated for

action. Fig 5.1 is the result of the information pieced

together from the discussions.

The structure also provides the routes of

information flow for developing plans. The nature of

information flow differs according to the levels.

In the section 5.9 an attempt is made to exarnlne

the nature of information flow.

211

Fig. 5. 1 Structure of Educational planning for primary education

State planrung Board

, Planrung depanment

r

DDPI pI anru ng

Zilla Panchayat (CEf)

I Taluk Panchavat

I -,

Gram Panchavat I -

SSC

Chief Minister and the Cabinet

Mirustrv of Educallon for pnmary educallon

r Education Secretanat

I Planrung WIng

I Deputy secretary under Secretary

I ConumsslOner of public InstruCUon

r

DPI pnmary education

educatIon

r f

Finance department

DSERT DP! (minority )

I Office of DDPI DIET

Dlslnct , AEO·

Schools (HM)

• Subsequently a new position at the block level called Block educational officer has

been created.

212

Initiation of Planning Process:

5.3.1 Discussions with chairperson of the State Planning

Board.

In Karnataka, an advisory body called State

Planning Board under the Chairmanship of the Chief

Minister, functions to advise the Government in planning

matters. It consists of a Deputy Chairman and Members

nominated by the Government. Invariably the Deputy

Chairperson and the Members are drawn from academic and

research institutions or retired civil servants having

specialisation in various sectors which come under the

purview of planning.

The State Planning Board is responsible for

formulating policies related to social and economic

development. Hence, it deals with aspects such as

agriculture, industry and education. The Deputy

Chairperson of the State Planning Board was interviewed

to understand the role played by the Board in

educatlonal planning. The following picture emerges from

213

the discussion with the Deputy Chairperson of the State

Planning Board(SPB) .

The Chief Minister 1S the Chairperson though

usually the Deputy Chairperson looks after the work. SPB

prepares s~atus paper relat1ng to all aspects of social

welfare. Status paper 1S prepared by 1dentifying the

problem to formulate policies to solve the identified

problems. Thus, Planning Board acts as a think tank.

The Secretaries, Additional Secretaries and

Educational experts are consulted and based on their

exper1ences the Status Paper is prepared. The Chief

Minister also glves suggestion to write the status

paper.

The status paper is presented to the Cabinet. The

Deputy Chairperson attends the meeting and convinces the

ministers and obtains the approval for the status paper.

If it 1S approved, the finance department allots money.

Based on the ideas and policy prescribed in the status

paper, action plan is prepared by the concerned

21~

department at the Secretariat with the help of the

Secretary and the Additional Secretary.

Discussion with the Deputy Chairperson of SPB

reveals that the State Planning Board lS yet to

formulate policies related to primary education. The

Deputy Chairperson In answering the question, "Have you

brought out any policy on education?" said, \\No, we

do not have state policy on education. Whatever laid

down in the previous years and by the National level is

followed. The Chief Minister has asked us to write a

paper on agriculture. Next we may write a paper on

industrial policy. We are thinking to bring out a paper

reI a ting to agricul ture and uni versi ty education. We

may also work on financing of university education."

The method of drawing status paper at SPB is highly

centralised. People involved in the formulation of the

policies are the Secretaries, the Additional Secretaries

and the Commissioner of SPB. Here, experiences of these

people are taken into consideration and people at the

grassroots level are not involved. SPB personnel collect

215

required statistics from the concerned secretariat.

According to the Deputy Chairperson, "No, we do not

consult DDPI's or AEO's. I consult the Secretary, and

the Additional Secretary. Decisions are taken at the

secretary level. We present the ideas that are felt

necessary by me. Secretaries, experts and ministers

also suggest based on their experlence. The Chief

Minister also gives recommendations."

SPB do not workout the details of the plans fer

both Five Year and Annual plans. It formulates the

policies related to agriculture, industry and provides

status paper on the basis of information obtained from

the discussion with the secretaries, additional

secretaries of various ministries. Based on the problems

identified

formulated.

in these status papers, policles are

The discussion clearly indicates that the SPB

concentrates only on the sectors which come under the

State list of the Constitution. It also indicates that

the, Board takes initiative only when it is asked to work

216

on a specific sector by the Chief Minister. Further, it

is far removed from the field level as it interacts with

the secretaries of different departments. Basically it

may be concluded that the SPB functions legit~mizing

role through its stamp of 'expert approval'. As far as

educational planning at school level is concerned, the

SPB's role lS marginal. It is also apparent that the

SPB, if invited to look into educational planning would

be interested in working on the policy to link higher

education with industry.

5.3.2 Discussions with Persons occupying key positions

ln relation to educational planning at the Secretariat

and CPI's office:

The process of plan preparation, whether it is the

Five Year Plan or the Annual Plan under a Five Year Plan

begins at the State level. It is activated by the

decision taken by the Cabinet under the advise of the

Finance Department regarding the size of financial

allocation to the education department. This was

217

confirmed by several key persons working in the

secretariat and in the office of the Commissioner of

Public Instruction.

The Under Secretary working In the Secretariat

looking after school education said that, "Education was

the State subject which later came under concurrent

list. Central Government allots certain amount to each

State for education and specifies that, a particular

sub-sector should be given more. The Center insists that

prlmary education should be given importance to achieve

U.E.E." While discussing about the State component plans

she stated that "We have to deal with different levels

of education. The given amount should be allotted to

pre-prlmary, primary, secondary, higher education and

adult education."

Regarding the role of the district she said that,

"Zilla Panchayat acts as a Government at district level.

It takes into account primary, secondary and adult

education. DDPI and other related offices give

information to prepare a proposal. This proposal lS

218

placed before the State Government for approval. The

State Government allots money to different districts

based on the proposal received from Zilla Panchayats.

This preparation of proposal of various districts are

carried out in the month of October or November for the

next year. Money allocated for other works like

construction of rooms, buildings repairs teaching aids

etc. are approved". To the question, "How the plans are

prepared by the districts?", the DDPI (Planning), in the

Office of the CPI explained that the, district planning

is being systematically followed only since 1988. Now

Districts are entrusted to have their own plans. Before

1988, planning was carried out at the State level.

District level machinery does it now. They conduct

monthly review meetings to know physical achievement and

financial problems, if any. He further stated that,

"Eighth Five Year Plan is progressing. Now the Fourth

Annual Plan is prepared for the year 1995-96. The Chief

Minister and the Secretary of Planning Department decide

about the financial allotment to districts. This depends

on previous year's allotment and usually allotment is

increased by 10% to 15% for next Five Year Plan. In the

219

State plan, 10% of the total amount is given to

education and out of the given amount 50% is allotted to

primary education."

At a later stage during the discussion the officer

reaffirmed that the money is allotted first and

according to the allotted amount the plan is prepared.

The amount is distributed to Five annual plans but it is

not strictly followed as the demand cannot be predicted

accurately. But, in the beginning of the Five Year Plan

many developmental activities (teachers' appointment)

are taken up because of the availability of funds.

Later, at the end of the plan such activities cannot be

undertaken. In the next Five year plan the teachers'

salaries will go to non-plan expenditure.

Similarly, the Central Plans are also initiated

when the Center communicates the allocation made in a

given year for the state. The Case Worker said that,

"Guidelines were given by Central Government for

centrally sponsored Schemes. Guidelines contain the

financial target allotted for the State."

220

The Section Officer in the Secretariat of the

Education Department reported that "Before preparing any

Programme,

Government

the

holds

Additional Secretary

the discussion with

from

the

Cent=al

Deputy

Secretary, the Secretary and Directors of respective

levels of education. The Additional Secretary chairs

the meeting. He clarifies the doubts related to

financial aspect. He also collects the information

related to the beneficiaries involved in the project and

the necessary mechanism required for the project. This

is called State Level Education Committee. Based on the

meeting held at the State level, the Center prepares a

booklet containing guidelines required to write the

proposal. The State Government prepares the proposal

according to the specifications given in the booklet. In

the notification from the center physical and financial

targets are specified. If the project involves large sum

of money then the implementation ~s phased out in

different stages."

221

It is clear from the above that the work related to

planning are put into motion by the Cabinet decision

regarding the quantum of money allocated to different

ministries. The secretariats of the concerned ministries

allocate the money to different departments corning

under their jurisdiction. The Cabinet also allocates

money to Zilla Panchayats for planning development

sectors like school education, health, sanitation, minor

roads etc. It emerges from the discussion that the plan

size for various sectors are decided on ad hoc basis of

10 to 15 per cent increase over the previous Five Year

Plan. In the case of annual plans within an ongoing Five

Year Plan, the same criterion of . . increasing the

allocation by 10 to 15 per cent over the previous

annual plan allocation is used.

5.3.3 Discussions with Persons occupying key positions

in educational planning at the Zilla Panchayat and

DDPI's office:

Even at the District level, the planning activity

starts when the Zilla Panchayat decides financial

222

allotments for the different development departments,

including school education. This comes out from the

interviews with the personnel at Zilla Panchayat.

The Statistical Officer working under the Chief

Planning Officer in Hysore mentioned that, 3486 lakh

rupees have been allotted to Mysore district. She said

that "A few district officers felt that the amount

should be increased by a few more lakhs. But the State

Government did not agree and informed the Zilla

Panchayat to plan wi thin the allotted amount.

Accordingly, the draft plan was prepared."

The Assistant Director (Planning Section) in

Chickamglore Zilla Panchayat, explained about the

planning process. "Government gives lump sum amount to

Zilla Panchayat. We have to allot it to different

sectors. This method is in practice since 1987. In the

beginning we gave importance to roads and bridge

construction. The new Government has given different

sectors under the control of Zilla Panchayat, Taluk

Panchayat and Gram Panchayat. Government has allotted

223

nlne crore to Taluk Panchayat directly and 3 crore to

Gram Panchayt. Education doesn't come under Gram

Panchayat. At Zilla Panchayat level this year we have

asked DepartInents to increase the amount by 10%."

The Project appraisal and Evaluation Officer

working under the Chief Planning Officer in Mandya

district reported that "In the month of November the

State gives lump sum amount and districts prepare draft

plan by distributing the amount to different sectors. In

the month of March State GoverllIllent finalises the

allotment to Zilla Panchayat fund."

Mandya DDPI said, "Zilla Panchayat allots the

amount to education sector. Concerned clerk distributes

the amount to different Heads. Usually the amount is

increased by 10% from previous allotment. The major

proportion goes to salary component. Very less money is

allotted to other developmental acti vi ties. This draft

plan is submitted to Zilla Panchayat. This year we have

exceeded the allotted amount. Because more number of

teachers were appointed this year. We require nearly two

224

crore extra. This is discussed in the State level

meeting."

The Case worker in charge of preparing draft plan

working under DDPI, Mandya explained the steps involved

in preparation of draft plan, "CEO asks for the draft

plan from DDPI by specifying the amount allotted to

education. The directions for allotment are given by

the State Government which informs Zilla Panchayat to

increase the budget allotment by 10% from the previous

year. This is communicated to DDPI's office from Zilla

Panchayat."

Zilla Panchayat member from Mandya said that, "We

have to increase the allotment by 10% according to the

government guidelines. In the meeting, we discussed

aspects related to the distribution of money to

different programmes. Actually officials prepare the

draft plan and members can also give suggestions for

implementation. In the Education sector members can

also propose for upgrading the schools, opening of new

schools. Zilla Panchayat members put forth their

225

demands during standing committee meeting. Usually

standing committee members would not oppose our

proposals. But there should be money In the plan

allotment, otherwise they postpone it to next year.

Actually In the meetlng we do Dot discuss about

formulating new programmes. Our discussion is confined

to money matters. We discuss about shortage of money

and allotment of funds ~o different sectors and various

programmes. This draft plan lS placed before general

body meeting. If two-thirds of the members vote In

favour of the approval of a draft plan then it is sent

to the State Government."

The tex~ book deflnitions of planning starts with

a broad goal followed by an analysis of the situation

in a sector to identify the local needs and problems in

relatlon to the goal. This would lead to specified

objectives, action plans and the programs to suit the

local condition. Only after this stage the costs are

estimated for mobilising the resources. Availability of

resources leads to further prioritization and

adjustments in the plan. contrary to the above procedure

226

of planning, In the real world of educational planning

in the Karnataka context, financial targets are fixed in

the beginning of the draft plan preparation.

5.4 Nature of Plans:

Having seen that the plans get initiated after the

decision regarding the potential availability of funds,

the next issue pursued in the analysis deals with the

nature of plans. During the interviews the varlOUS

participants in the planning process at all levels were

asked to tell about the process of planning. The

discussion indicated three levels of planning namely,

the central, the state and the district level in which

all personnel involved In planning participated. But,

most frequently heard concepts are 'guidelines' and

'proposals'. These two are used as the main devises in

the planning process. Guidelines normally accompany the

communication from the higher level of the department

specifying the allocations. Response to these guidelines

take the form of proposals. Proposals normally contain

description of an acti vi ty in the domain of education.

227

The description contains labels of acti vi ty indicating

the treatment like distribution, appointment, repairs,

training etc. , The units of focus are labeled as

benef~ciaries like children, schools, communities etc.

~umber of such units to be covered are termed as

physical targets. The money required are termed as

financial targets. In the case of programmes which form

the part of a plan to be finalised at a higher level,

proposals are collected from different lower level units

of the department for consolidation.

Thus, proposals from different states are

consolidated by the Center, proposals from different

districts are consolidated by the state and proposals

from blocks are consolidated at the district level by

the concerned departments.

In the following section discussion held with the

officials at the state and the district level around the

theme of the procedures followed in preparing plans are

presented according to the levels.

228

5.5 Plan Procedure for different programmes

Enquiries regarding the process of plan preparation

could only elicit the procedure fo::cwed :or speci :ic

programmes. Programmes were treated separate~y and there

was no indication regarding ';'ntegration of set

programmes in Five Year Plan/Annual Plan.

Discussions with the Section Officer in Education

Secretariat about the activities carried out in relation

to planning revealed that there were two sections in

the Secretariat Plan A and Plan B. Plan A section deals

with State Budget Plan and Non Plan. Plan B section

deals with Central Budget Plan and Non Plan.

5.5.1 Central programmes

Central plan schemes in operation during

Year Plan are as follows,

1) OBB (Operation Black Board)

Eighth Five

2) DIET (District institute of education and training)

229

3) CTE (College of teacher education)

4) lED (Integrated Education of Disabled Children)

5) Improvement of Science Education

6) Educational Technology

7) Class Project (Computer Education)

8) NFE (Non-formal Education)

According to the Section Officer, the Government of

India funds these proj ects. CPI prepares the proposal

speci fying phys ical targets and money required. This

proposal 1S sent to the Secretariat. There is an

Empowerment Committee at the State level.

proposals are examined. Committee verifies,

Here

whether

the money required for the set physical target is

calculated correctly and whether the targeted

beneficiaries include the needed people. Proposals,

after verification, 1S sent to the Government of India.

Based on the decision taken at the Center, proposal is

approved and sent to the State Government. The

Secretariat issues Government Order to Directorates who

are responsible for implementation. The Secretariat

230

sends monthly report to the Center. As an example he

explained the scheme of opening of District Institutes

of Education and Training (DIET). The Government of

India sanctions orders for construction of building

for DIETs and appointment of teaching staff. A meeting

was held at the State level and the proposal was

prepared by the DSERT. After the Government Order DIETs

were given money from the Center through state

Government which in turn routed the funds through DSERT.

According to the officer, the Central Government

issues guidelines for centrally sponsored Schemes. These

guidelines contain the financial target allotted for the

State. He explained the process with examples as

follows: In the case of the scheme to lmprove science

education, a copy of the letter is sent to the

Secretariat and DSERT. A Committee is set up in DSERT.

This Committee decides about the teaching aids that have

to be supplied in science kit. This depends on the

amount allotted per kit by the center. The DSERT decides

about the number of materials to be included in the

231

science kit. The same lS communicated to Secretariat

through a proposal. In the Secretariat the proposal is

verified. They verify whether physical targets and

financial targets are correctly mentioned (amount

required to furnish physical target should not exceed

the amount allotted). This proposal is forwarded to the

Center for release of the amount. Similarly, the State

Government decides about the amount to be spent on two

in-one and computers. The DSERT decides about the

physical targets based on this allotted amount.

According to the Section Officer, the State Government

can refuse Central programmes, e.g. the Central

Government allots money for salary of teachers

appointed during the current plan year. After the Five

Year Plan, salaries have to be paid by the State

Government. If the State Government is not in a

position to do so it may reject the programmes. Most of

the Central programmes are fully financed by the Central

Government. Hence the State Government accepts the

Central programmes. The decision to accept or reject the

programme is taken in the cabinet meeting. The Education

232

Secretary, the Chief minlster and the Education Minister

participate in the meeting.

5.5.2 State programmes

Some of the State sector programmes

education cited during the discussion with

Assistant in the Secretariat are :

1) Construction of new school buildings

2) Vidyavikas (uniforms, text books)

for prlmary

the Senlor

3) Akshaya Programmes (play grounds, repalrs of

classrooms, excursion, supply of musical instruments)

4) Construction of class rooms.

The Section officer in the Secretariat was asked as to

how the state schemes are decided. According to him, the

Chief Minister calls for the meeting to discuss about

the

that

amount

are

involved In carrying out different schemes

being currently implemented. He seeks t~e

advice from Secretaries to know whether schemes should

be continued or not? Based on their experlence and

complaints received from the people, officers and

233

Secretaries suggest for the

discontinuation of the schemes.

modifications

Budget Speech

or

is

prepared

Programme

based on this discussion. e.g. Ksheer

was stopped due to the problem of

distribution. Complaints were received from AEOs and

DDPIs such as sour milk was served to students, milk

cannot be supplied to interior places, teachers cannot

monitor the distribution of milk as it reduces the

instruction time.

During the budget speech, the Finance Minister

highlighted about new programme and its coverage along

wi th other programmes. The allocation presented during

the budget speech is taken from draft plans prepared at

the State level. A report of the budget estimates

containing details regarding programmes to be

undertaken, physical and financial targets allotted, is

placed before the Assembly. This report needs to be

voted by MLAs. MLAs discuss about the programmes

(needed or not) then they approve the plan. A copy of

the report is sent to the Secretariat. Money is allotted

234

to respective Directorates for ongoing schemes from the

Secretariat.

5.5.3 District programme:

The programmes concerned at district level as informed

by Project Appraisal and Evaluation Officer at Mandya ZP

offlce are,

l. Salaries of teachers,

2. Equipment supply,

3. Buildings construction,

4. Training of teachers,

5. Distribution of uniforms and text books.

The Panchayat Raj and Rural Development Department

at the State level informs the amount allotted to ZP for

the preparation of district draft plan. It also gives

the guidelines for distributing the amount to different

sectors. Within the given amount ZP prepares the

district draft plan.

235

The sector wise allotments are made by the CPO. The

CPO asks the concerned officer to distribute among

different accounts. In the education sector the DDPI

prepares the draft plan according to the specification

and sends it to ZP. The draft plan reaches the DSI and

the CPO. They clarify certain points related to the

allotment with the DDPI in the meeting. The draft plans

of all the departments are compiled at the ZP. Based on

the modifications made during the meeting a 'Draft

Annual Plan' is prepared at the ZP.

Thus prepared the 'Draft Annual Plan' lS sent to

the Panchayat Raj and Rural Development. A meeting is

held at State level to decide about the final allotment.

This draft plan gets modified at the State level

meeting. Then it lS placed before the Legislature for

approval. Based on the approved figures the link

document is prepared. And this document is distributed

to all the districts. The District Officers have to

execute the plan accordingly.

236

5.5.4 Procedure followed for new schemes:

The Chief Minister finds out whether the new

schemes, ''''hich he wants to introduce, are feasible by

consulting secretaries of concerned department. Later

guidelines are prepared at the Secretariat by the Deputy

Secretary. Education Secretary I I modi fies the Proposal

if required. Guidelines are sent to the Directorate from

Education Secretary II and calls for the proposals.

Usually these guidelines inform the beneficiaries to be

selected and the necessary information that the

Directorates should furnish In terms of physical and

financial targets.

In the next stage, Directorates with the help of

the AEO and the DDPIs prepare a proposal based on the

guide:ines sent by the Education Secretary II. This

proposal is sent to Secretariat. Case Workers at the

Secretariat verify whether the proposal contains all the

details as specified in the guidelines.

237

Proposal is then sent to the Planning Department.

The Planning Department verifies whether the money

mentioned in the draft proposal is wi thin this ceiling

limit. The proposal is sent back after verificat:on to

the Education Department. The proposal from the

Education Department of the Secretariat is sent to the

Finance Department. Here they verify whether the money

component mentioned 1S feasible to carry out the

programme. The Education Department then 1ssues

Government Orders (G.O) to CPr. Sometimes the G.O 1S

issued directly to ZP for implementing.

After the 1ssue of G.O, CPI or ZP office can draw

money for implementation. If OM asks to include new

schemes, allocation for the schemes is made within the

ceiling set by the Finance Department. The Education

Department is requested to prepare the guidelines.

Inspite of proposals being scrutinised, many of the

schemes are not successfully implemented. This 1S

because of shortage of funds. In the plan document

238

shortage of fund is mentioned and it is left to CPI or

other Directorates to see whether they can adjust

resources and take up the project on a large scale. If

they want to channelise from one Head to another they

have to take permission from the Finance Department and

Planning Department.

5.5.5 District Primary Educational Plan:

'District Primary Educational Plan' aims at

universal enrollment and quality improvement of primary

education. The DPEP is a World Bank assisted programme.

85% of the money is given by the World Bank and 15% of

the share is given by the State. Under this project

Seven States have been selected namely Karnataka,

Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Haryana, Maharashtra and

Madhya Pradesh. In Karnataka four districts having low

female literacy rates are selected. They are Mandya,

Kolar, Belgaurn and Raichur.

239

According to the Section Officer of the education

department at the secretariat, DPEP is the World Bank

sponsored project where 15% of it has to be met by the

State Government.

DPEP has a State level body consisting of

• Governing Council (C.M. being the Chairperson)

• Executive Committee (Secretary-I being the Chair-

person)

• District Committee

Any correspondence between District Committee and being

the World Bank is only through the Secretariat and the

Government of India.

Mandya district was selected for DPEP. In Mandya,

the Project Co-ordinator of DPEP explained that, 40

crore is spent on this project. The main aim of DPEP is

to provide safe drinking water to schools, teaching

materials, furnitures, infrastructure for school,

school compounds, and also to give training to the

teachers. According to him the proj ect aims at

providing a school in every village.

240

Informing about the method of preparing the district

plans he said, "State DPEP Head decides about: the

programmes, and guidelines are communicated to district

level officials for preparation of the proposals".

According to the Project Co-ordinator, "there lS no

difference between regular planning done by the

district and DPEP planning. DPEP is a World Bank

sponsored programme. This programme may last for seven

years. Here, we submit the proposal as asked by the

state DPEP Head. Necessary orders are issued to the

proj ect director. As per the directors instruction we

implement the programme.

We have already prepared the action plan based on

the format given by the resource person for 1994-1995

and 1995-1996 as the State did not give us further

guidelines to implement the plan, we have not taken up

implementation".

241

In DPEP, the District level officials prepare the

proposals according to the norms prescribed by the

State level officials and implement the plan after

obtai~ing the approval from the state level officials.

Implementation is carried out according to the

guidelines specified by the State level officials.

5. 6,~rocedure of educational planning

Details of the procedure followed during the preparation

of the educational plan at the state and the district

level offices are discussed.

5.6.1 Educational planning exercise carried out at the

State Level Office of the cpr

In the CPI office, the Assistant Director of

Planning, said, "State level planning for education lS

done here. The State allots money to education sector.

The planning takes place at CPI's office. The amount is

allotted to different programmes. The allotment is first

2~2

approved by the State Education Ministry and then by the

Center".

As mentioned earlier, the DDPI (Planning) said

that, the Chief Minister and the Secretary of Planning

Department decide about the financial allotment to

districts based on previous year's allotment and usually

allotment is increased by 10% to 15% for next Five Year

Plan. Answering to the question, "Who decides the

financial allotment to different departments of

education?" he said, " At the time of decision making,

the directors of education departments (Primary,

Secondary, Vocational) and DDPI (planning) decide about

the financial allotment required for each district". He

also added, the meeting of the DDPls is held to know

the requirements of the districts and present it ln the

meetlng of the directors of various education

departments under the chairmanship of the CPI at the

state level".

243

Funds allotted to education in the State depends on

the Center's allocation. The programs which cannot be

taken up at the dlstrict level are carried out at the

state level, such as repair of classrooms, construction

of additional rooms and other constructional work.

District level officials appoint teachers, give salaries

to teachers from ZP fund. The Center takes up many

qualitative improvement programmes such as OBB, SClence

labs construction and SClence kits distribution (to

improve science education) . During State plan

preparation, money lS allotted first and according to

the allotted amount draft plan is prepared.

In planning discourse no one mentions the term

objectives. Instead, the often used word in the place of

obj ecti ve is t!1e physical target. But physical targets

are arrived at keeping the financial targets in focus.

The DDPI (Planning) claimed that, he decides the

State level programmes. In a way he is correct, since he

prepares the draft proposals on the basis of the

244

requisitions received from the DDPIs. At the time of the

interview, he said that, the DDPIs are asking for

additional classrooms and hence he intended to make

proposal for the same in the annual plan proposals.


District Level Zilla Panchayat Office:

These excerpts are from the discussion held at district

level offices.

According to the CAO, "The State gives us

guidelines. The salary component should be given more

importance and next basic needs like health, water,

education should be glven importance. Usually we

increase the amount by 10 to 15 per cent over prevlous

year's allotment. Draft plan is prepared based on the

State guidelines by District officers. They give it to

ZP for approval. In ZP meeting with minor changes, it

gets approved. This is called district draft plan and

245

draft plan and members can also give suggestions fo=


also propose for upgrading the schools or open.:.ng of

new schools. ZP memb~rs put forth thelr demands durlng

Standing Committee meeting. Usually Standing Committee

members will not oppose our proposals. But there should

be money in the plan allotment, otherwise they postpone

it to next year. Actually in the meeting we do not

discuss about formulating new programmes. Our

discussion is confined to money matters. We discuss

about shortage of money and allotment of funds to

different sectors and various programmes. This draft

plan is placed before the general body meeting If

two-thirds of the members vote in favour of the

approval of a draft plan then it is sent to the State

Government."

According to a Case Worker in Mandya, after the

approval of the plan, State Government issues Government

order to ZP. A copy is given to the DDPI who sends the

proposal to ZP. The list of schools selected for

247

it is glven to the State for approval. After the

approval plan of action is prepared."

Planning Appraisal and evaluation Officer in

Mandya explained, "The sector wise allotments are made

by the CPO who asks the concerned officer to distribute

funds to different Heads of account.

sector, the DDPI prepares the plan.

In the Education

She may ask more

for a particular Head. But we have to take into account

of all the Heads of account. We have to prepare the

proposal wi thin the given amount. In case we need more

allotment, we request the State Government Which

releases the amount. This action is take~-up after the

1st quarter of the plan year. This is asked usually for

salary component."

ZP member from Mandya said that, "We have to

increase the allotment by 10% according to the

government guidelines. In the meeting, we discussed

aspects related to the distribution of money to

different programmes. Actually officials prepare the

246

draft plan and members can also glve suggestions for


also propose for upgrading the schools or opening of

new sc~oo:s. ZP memDers put forth their demands during

Standing Commlttee meeting. Usually Standing Committee

members will not oppose our proposals. But there should

be money 1n the plan allotment, otherwise they postpone

it to next year. Actually ::.n the meeting we do not

discuss about formulating new programmes. Our

discussion 1S confined to money matters. We discuss

about s~ortage of money and allotment of funds to

different sectors and various programmes. This draft

plan 1S placed before the general body meeting If

two-thirds of the members vote 1n favour of the

approval of a draft plan then it is sent to the State

Government."

According to a Case Worker ln Mandya, after the

approval of the plan, State Government issues Government

order to ZP. A copy 1S glven to the DDP! who sends the

proposal to ZP. The list of schools selected for

2~7

different programmes is sent to ZP for approval. If the

proposed nwnber of schools is more than the allotted

target, then ZP officials ask the DDPI to glve priority

to needy villages. ZP officials do not delete school

names from the list. In some cases the BDO informs that

a particular school cannot be repaired with Rs.5,OOO/-.

They survey other schools and separate list of schools

are selected. The BDO takes the permission to change the

selected schools from the AEOs.


District Level Office of the DDPI:

The meanlng of the proposal as explained by the

officials of DDPI's office is glven below. The

proposals are separately sent for different programmes.

Hence the nature of preparation of the proposals are

discussed separately for each programme.

The Case Worker in DDPI's Office, Mandya, explained

the method of drawing proposal for additional rooms.

248

Addi tional rooms: The State asks to send proposal for

additional classrooms required. The DDPI In turn asks

the AEOs to send a list of schools requiring additional

classroom by fixing the norm. Requirement of the

additional classrooms is decided based on pupil-teacher

ratio and number of existing classrooms i.e. pupil

teacher-classrooms ratio being 50:1:2. Based on the

strength of students, teachers and classrooms the AEOs

calculate additional classrooms required. Taluk level

information is consolidated at the district level sent

to the State.

Based on the funds availability, physical targets

are allotted to each district by the State. The allotted

physical targets are usually less than the requirement.

Based on this allotment, at the district level again a

list of schools badly requiring additional rooms is

called from taluk level. Most needed schools are decided

by the DDPI based on the strength of students. Money is

sanctioned to ZP .. The DDPI gives the list of rooms

required in respective school. ZP decides the agency

249

for construction and the DDPI is only the supervising

authority.

The Case Worker at Chickmaglore while giving

addi tional information regarding the al:

for additional classrooms said that thE

for the part of the estimate. The

provides a fixed amount of the unit

Centrally sponsored scheme called Jawaha

The remaining funds are to be mobi

community.

Repair of class rooms: The Case We

of planning at Mandya DDPI's office said

for repairs is same as the room construc

has not given funds to repair but, every

asks us to send the proposal. We hi

proposal to Government after obtaining

for repair of schools from ZP engineers.

Manaranjana programme: Person in charge of Akshaya

Programme

allotted

said that,

11 lakhs

during 1993-1994 the State

for Manaranj ana (entertainment)

programme. The DDPI and CEO decide about the number of

books and types of books to be distributed and orders

are gl ven ~o book se:.lers. Only financial allotlnent is

glven by the State Government. Number of schools

selected for the distribution of the books are decided

at the Dlstrict level.

District specific programme: Mandya Case Worker said

that, previous CEO had asked, the DDPI to send a

proposal for district specific programme. Accordingly,

the proposal for giving prizes to SSLC rank students

was prepared and sent to the State Government. The State

Government agreed to include the programmes from 1993-94

onwards. Hence provision is made by the State for the

allotment of fund. 1.5 lakhs lS sanctioned for this

purpose. 1 lakh is spent for distributing prizes to

SSLC rank holders. 5 prizes are glven to 1st five

highest rank holders in 3 categories: (a) SC/ST;

251

(b) Boys; and (c) girls. Remaining 50,000/- lS glven to

the best teacher and the best school award. If the State

recommends for discontinuing this programme based on the

inspection reports then it will be discontinued and

deleted during the preparation of draft plan at the

district level also.

5.7 Perception of officials concerned with educational

planning about the VEE:

Since the section of the DDPI (planning) In the

office of the CPI is the origin of all plan proposals

fcr state schemes, the discussion with the officer

covered a wide range of issues like the basis of

allocation of funds for the district, efforts to

universalize elementary education, introducing new

schemes etc. His response for various probing queries

are summarised below.

It was interesting to note that the response of the

DDPI (planning) for the question, "Have you taken up any

252

addi tional programmes to support UEE?" To quote his own

words, "What is UEE? What additional programmes should

be taken up? All these programmes that are carried out

are only to achieve UEE. What other programmes one can

take-up?

When his attention was drawn to the fact about

children who have to go to work and for whom classes

can be conducted in the same building after 5 or 6

0' clock, he said, "No, we cannot do it, this 15 not

effective. Usually academicians visit two villages and

define the problems and generalise it to the entire

State. But the problems are different in each village.

Academicians, in the beginning, thought that poverty was

the only problem in sending children to school, but now

they feel social taboos are also hindering UEE and

prescribe non-formal education as the alternative to

formal system. But it is not so in practice, I argue

with them telling that, if parents want to send

children to school, they send children to formal system

253

and not to NFE. Because these two system are not

comparable."

for the question, "What can we do to the children

who are labourers and out of school?" The DDPI

(planning) said, "How many such children do you find in

a village? May be 8 to 10, 1n the entire State may be

8,000.

help.

Our country's problems are like that, we cannot

Because of the scarcity of resources we are

experimenting this NfE with the foreign funds (in DPEP

districts) and not with the State funds."

When the attention of the DDPI (Planning) was drawn

towards the allocation of money for districts and asked

to explain the basis of allotment, he said that it is

based on the population of the district and not the

backwardness. for the question, "Do they take into

account the backwardness of the district while allotting

the funds?" he sa1d, "No, for allotment backwardness of

the district 1S not taken into account. There are Tribal

Development Board and Backward Development Board to

254

support backward districts. For the question, "While

fixing expenditure, do you take into account per pupil

cost? Have you used any other indicators?" he said,

"We have calculated per pupil cost and it has corne to

around Rs. 875/- per year but we have not reflected it

in planning. Incentive schemes are not working out

effectlvely.

enrollment.

Even wi thout these schemes there lS 60%

We find problem only with 20% of children.

Even if the enrollment increases by 5%, we are happy.

It is very difficult to enroll these children."

The discussion was focused to know the efforts

towards universal enrollment and was asked "Do you

lncrease the allocation for education keeping in view

the cost involved in covering the last 20% of children?"

He replied, "No, we do not take into account children.

who are not In the school. But we do allot based on the

norms followed during five year plan. We have prepared

perspectlve plan taking into account the opinion of

experts. There are many things, which do not require

money but requlre change in the policy, e.g.

255

transferring the power of teachers' recruitment from

district offices to taluk boards. We cannot transfer

the power because it is a policy decision. Previously,

recruitment was taking place at the State level. Now, it

1S decentralised to the district level. It may be

decentralised further to the taluk level. But the

salaries are paid by the State Government." He

continued, "Related to appointment of teacher, the

Central Government wants us to recruit female teachers.

But "r l~ is not going to be useful because ( 1 ) teachers

are not prepared to stay 1n the village (2) they have to

travel from far off places (3) they take transfer to

city by bringing political pressure."

About the school timings, the DDPI expressed his

opinion relating to change of school timing according to

the convenience of the local people. The main problem is

that teachers are not available to teach the regular

schedule. They are given permission to declare winter

vacation any time in the academic year. Even the school

timing can be changed according to their convenience.

256

As teachers do not stay in the same village, they do not

agree with these timings. However in Belgaum class start

at 8 a.m. and close at 12 noon during summer."

5.8 Nature Of Information And Information Flow

Based on the discussions held at various levels the

following types of information are identified:

• Guidelines

• Proposals

• Statistical information

Decisions in the form of orders and circulars.

The nature of each of the above is discussed in the

following paragraphs.

Guidelines: The need of guidelines lS felt at all

levels. Guidelines originate from a higher level of the

structure to lower levels. They are needed when higher

level decides the outlays or allocates money for plans

to be prepared and implemented by the lower level of the

257

structure. This can be illustrated by the description

given by the Planning, Evaluation and Appraisal Officer

of Mandya Zilla Panchayat. According to him, "the St.at.e

Government. indicates t.he plan outlay for preparing the

district plan and gives guidelines during the month of

March. The guidelines indicate the priorities to be

given. On the basis of such priorities the total outlay

needs to be distributed across different development

departments."

Most of the guidelines contain a por forma to organise

the i terns of actions and financial requirements. They

also include the identification of authority to approve

the actions undertaken.

Proposals: Proposals are responses to the guidelines.

They go from lower levels to higher levels of the

structure. Normally they are evidence of compliance to

the guidelines. They include the information organised

according to the pro forma supplied along with

guidelines. Draft Proposals with details of action to be

258

taken are sent for approval to the agency as prescribed

in the guidelines.

Statistical Information The substantive aspects of

proposal consists of statistical information. Such

informa tion is always In the form of numbers

representing the 'reali ty' . But validity of these

numbers never gets questioned. The statistical

information is generated separately for each proposal.

In other words, each of the proposals using the same

information like enrollment, number of teachers etc.

Collects information separately without cross-checks

from lower level structures. The lowest link in the

planning structure is the school. All information flows

upwards from the Headmaster. During the discussions at

all levels starting from the state to the block, no one

mentioned the existence of a reliable data base.

Circulars and orders: The information is in the form of

instructions, approval and acceptance taken for

circulars and orders. They always flow in downward

259

direction of the structure. Information provides

legitimacy at the operational level to implement and

initiate actions in different areas.

In the following paragraphs an attempt is made to

capture the role and quality of information flow from

the qualitative data generated during field visits.

5.9 Information base for the development of proposals:

Realistic and achievable planning requlres a

reliable data base. This data base would contain unit

wise information on important educational parameters.

Whether the plan intends to expand or restructure, the

direction and magnitude of the task require the current

status of the system. The data base is also required

for diagnosis of the situation and specify objectives.

Discussions with the district and block level

officers revealed that information on same parameters

260

are sought and supplied separately for each programme

at the time of proposal and also at the time of

implementation. Data base does not exist at the block

level which can be updated every year from where the

information can be drawn for planning as well as

monitorlng the implementation. Discussions at the

district and block lev€l offices revealed the existence

of different sources of information which are employed

at different points of time for different purposes as

given below.

1) Monthly Reports: Each school sends a Mahevari

(monthly) report to the AEO through the IOS. Very

rarely the IOS goes to the school to collect the

required information. This Mahevari report contains the

position of teachers working, sanctioned number of

rooms, number of children on roll and the average

attendance separately for boys, girls, SC boys, SC

girls, ST boys and ST girls. The information contained

in the report is not trustworthy. According to the AEO

of Najanagudu " .. this.report would not be accurate as

261

the information given by the teachers ~s not correct.

Teachers increase the students enrollment. Teachers

fear that they may be transferred to some other school

if the enrollment figure ~s

problem of distribution of

less. This has led to the

incentives. Due to th~s

inflated numbers many text books and food packets have

remained ~n my office. For example, ~n one school

teachers had included additional 30 names, but they

were not present. When asked the reason for their

absence, teachers tell, students have gone to yathre,

or to attend festival in the village etc., lOS found

out the correct number of school going children. Last

year they had asked for ten quintal of food. This year

according to the survey I have given only 3 quintal of

food. "

When the Case Worker at the DDP1's office was asked,

"How is information received and processed?" the case

worker responded, "DDPI office receive information from

AEOs every month starting from June in the form of a

report named KDB report (Karnataka Development Board) .

262

When asked about the collection of data at taluk

level, he said, "The information is collected by each

Inspectors of Schools in monthly meeting of Headmasters

of the schools in their respective ranges. HMs are

required to bring the information pertaining to their

school in prescribed form and give it to the lOS. Such

information from each range is consolidated at the

AEO's office and reported to the DDPI in the form of

KDB report."

In fact there exists a post of Assistant

Statistical Officer in the office of the DDPI. But, in

all the districts visited, the posts were vacant at

the time of the visit.

It was also found that the same type of

information is used both at the time of sending plan

proposals and also at the time of implementing the

programme. There lS no mechanism to cross check the

information nor they are used for monitoring purpose.

For example the case worker in the DDPI' s office in

263

Mysore stated that, "state Goverrunent allots money to

glve equipments to HPS (chair, table, desk, sitting

planks, bench) . ZP and DDPI officials decide about

list of equipments to be supplied . There is also a

separate committee related to equipment. AEOs inform

about the equipments required by the schools. They

collect it from HMs." The present investigator asked,

"Who decides about the nwnber of equipments?" He said,

"Roughly we give 10 plank. During the distribution of

planks to respective schools we see the nwnber of

equipments already in the school. If it is more then we

give it to some other school.

2) Enumeration; Lot of time of teacherS/Headmasters 1S

taken away in compiling and supplying information in

different kinds of pro forma to the higher office. In

fact the teachers start collection of information

during the month of December every year about the

children who should be enrolled in school during the

succeeding year. This is called enumeration census. The

information comes from households. Teachers collect the

264

information related to date of birth, house number,

head of the household's name, number of brothers and

sisters. All these statistics are sent to the DDPI' s

office.

office.

Individual details are sent to the AEO's

Such a type of cens~s is done even in school-

less villages.

3) Occasional surveys: The AEO of Nanjungudu Block of

Mysore district mentioned about a survey conducted by

him. This survey was conducted to meet the instruction

given by the State Government which stated that the

incentives should be distributed to those children who

regularly attended the school. The survey attempted to

measure the number of students attending the schools

regularly. He also added that children attend the

school in large numbers till the distribution of

uniforms, text books and food packets and stop corning

after the distribution.

265

4) Programme Specific Information: Each time when a

progranune is to be implemented or proposal has to be

sent as per the guidelines, efforts are made to collect

the essential information for the purpose. Proposals

to create new posts of teachers or opening of new

school, lS decided based on the infor:nation collected

from the HMs. For example, the lOS reported that the

DDPI has glven new pro forma to collect information. A

copy of the pro forma is displayed on the notice board

during circle meetings. HMs are expected to collect the

information accordingly.

In one of the meetings attended by this

investigator in the DDPI's office, Mysore, she saw Case

Worker distributing pro forma during the meeting and

asking the AEO's to collect taluk level data within 3

days. The doubts raised by the AEO's on the certain

items in the pro forma one of the Case Worker clarified

by explaining that, "It is similar to last year's pro

forma and in addition you have to collect information

related to high schools also. H The city AEO objected

266

saying that, "I cannot collect High school information

wi thin 3 days as there are 67 High schools in his

taluk." The Case Worker then asked them to get

information from only Government schools.

In the same meeting, a person from Textbooks

Bureau came to collect statistics related to primary

and secondary schools. He wanted to know the total

enrollment in government and private schools, number

of books that are in the stock and SC/ST students from

V to VII standard of government schools. All the AEOs

were asked to give the needed information wi thin a

given date to the Textbook Bureau.

5) All India Educational survey: NCERT conducts

periodic all India Educational Survey of Education. But

information collected in such surveys are not kept for

use in the block or district level.

267

5.10 Reliability of Information:

Most of the programmes depend upon the enrollment

figures. But the functicnaries at the grass roots level

know that the enrollment figures are most often

inflated. Earlier, the AEOs remark has been cited to

show the distortions 1n the figures given by the

headmasters for reasons of their own. But, invariably

the information supplied by the schools are taken into

account for further planning and administrative

purposes. The present researcher during her visit to

the DDPI office at Chickamaglore came across a

situation in which the clerical staff were calculating

per pupil expenditure for the district. One of the

Second Division Clerk asked her senior as to whether

she should take attendance or enrollment into

consideration to calculate per pupil expenditure. The

First Division Clerk clarified that she has to take the

enrollment, otherwise the per pupil expenditure becomes

high if attendance 1S used in calculation. On the

268

expenditure side she wanted to find out whether she has

to take the actual salaries disbursed or salaries of

the teachers who are not paid at present. The FDC told

her to take the salary payable as the money has been

allotted to them.

In another incident, the CPO of Mysore showed the

researcher a letter which required certain information

about the district to be supplied to the State in

fi fteen days time. According to him, the work needed

more time. He remarked that since such unreasonable

requests were made the officials at the block and

grassroots level gave some figures and hence the

statistics did not tally from programme to programme.

To quote his own words "It is not consistent. Higher

officials are happy with the targets and statistical

figures. They take 10ts of time in asking for the

required information and we have to collect the

information within fifteen days. That is why our

implementation is failing."

269

Information used in the process 1S gathered by

different functionaries. No arrangement exists at the

block level to collect and make t~em cons1stent. Even

at the district level the position of the }\.SSlstant

Statistical Officer 1n the office of the DDPI has

remained vacant in all the three districts visited by

this researcher.

5.11 Role of Information in Planning:

Inspite of the discrepancies ln information and

its lack of credibility, plan proposals use convenient

form of information to satisfy the procedural

requirements and information is also used to justify

higher allocations.

This can be illustrated by several examples. The

statement made by the Case Worker in the office of the

DDPI, Mysore regarding the rationale for deciding the

distribution of the equipment as already been mentioned

earlier.

270

The same practice is evident from Mandya as well.

The case worker in charge of programmes in the office

of the DDPI reported that the State asks to send

proposal for number of additional classrooms required.

DDPI in turn asks the AEOs to send a list of schools

requiring additional classroom by fixing a norm.

Requirement of the addi tional classrooms is decided

based on pupil-teacher ratio and number of existing

classrooms. Taluk level information is consolidated at

the District level and sent to the State. Based on the

availability of funds physical targets are allotted to

each district by the state. The allotted physical

targets are usually less than the requirement. Based on

this allotment, the district again asks for list of

schools badly requiring additional rooms from taluk

level. Most needed schools are decided by the DDPI

based on the strength of students.

In another instance, as narrated by the same Case

Worker the State Government invited ZP and DDPI's

office asking to send a proposal for repair of play-

271

ground and fencing the DDPI instruc':ed ':he AEOs to send

a list of LPS/HPS schools having playground where

fencing was r~quired in their respective blocks.

Accordingly AEO's sent the reports based 'In '''''h.:.ch the

DDPI estimated that 175 school play qrc:unds required

fencing. Similarly, in 1993-94 the State hac .:.mposed a

ceiling of 5,000/- for repair to be glven to each

school and each legislative constituency was permitted

with 10 schools. Hence Mandya was al:otted 90 schools.

List of schools was sent to ZP by the DDPI. They were

approved without any change.

As discussed above each progranune generates its

own information on the same phenomenon, the maln

purpose appears to claim as much resources as possible

with the help of statistics and other forms of

information.

5.12 outcomes of the analysis: In the present chapter an

attempt is made to analyze the information generated

through interviews, discussions and observat:ons of p:an

272

related meetings carried out at state and district

level. Based on the analysis certain observations are

made:

1. All plan activities start from the decision regarding

the quantU!:t of funds by the cabinet or the Nat:conal

Planning Commission, whether the plan refers to new Five

Year or an Annual Plan of an ongoing Five Year Plan.

2. It has been indicated that the cabinet takes the

decision regarding financial outlays based on status

paper submitted by the secretaries of different

departments including education to the cabinet meeting.

The State Planning Board has no role to play in shaping

the educational plans. The status paper is prepared by

the planning section of the secretariat of the education

department on the basis of information obtained from

commissioners and directors. The discussions with the

officials of the planning section in the educational

secretariat did not indicate any systematic approach to

analyze the information in a holistic way.

273

3. Educational plan consists of three sections depending

upon the source of outlay. All the programs for which

the Central Government supports, are called, centrally

sponsored schemes. The programs for whlcn the funds come

from state account are termed as state sector programs.

Programs which are supported by the individual ZP are

termed as district sector programmes. Invariably the

officials involved in the planning process understand

educational planning as a bundle of discrete programmes.

They always think at the concrete level rather than

viewing the plan as a set of inter-related abstract idea

structure which have implication for action during the

discourse. No one talked about strategic plan,

objectives, diagnosis of a situation etc.,.

4. 7he planning procedure consists of guidelines and

proposals. Guidelines

procedures to prepare

authority to lower

guide I ines by the lower

communicate instructions and

a proposal given from higher

authority. Responses to the

level structure to the higher

274

level structure take the form of proposal. Even the

district sector programs are district specific In the

sense of administration than plan formulation. During

our discussions only one instance of proposal In the

form of giving awards to rank holders within a distr~ct

came to light as a sole example of District specific

programme.

5. The discrete nature of plan program clearly emerges

from the nature and method of data collected for

preparing the proposals. Even though the data may happen

to be the same for several programme proposals, each of

them seek data separately and the information collected

under one program is rarely used for another program. In

this process data on a given parameter may not be the

same when collected under different programmes. In the

entire planning structure, the notion of data base, its

update and analysis is completely absent.

From the above observation it may be concluded that

the plans are used as legitimizing instrument for

275

spending public :unds. Once the funds are earmarked for

differen~ programs the role of planning comes to an end.

The feed back from <::he evaluation of the implementatlon

of prevlous plans do not find any place in further

planning.

After looking at the plan process carried out at

the district level and the state level an attempt 1.S

made in the next chapter to describe the field level

activities and perceptions related to planning and

implementation.

276

CHAPTER VI

A View of the Primary Education

at the Field Level

6.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter the meaning and process of

planning emerging out of discussions at the district and

the state level was presented. In this chapter the

info~ation generated during the visits to the block and

community levels are analyzed. Block and community level

are active locations and they provide the information

needed for future decisions.

The relevance of planning from the view of bringing

about changes in the intended direction gets tested at

the field level. The degree of understanding and

commi tment to the aims and obj ecti ves of plans decide

the success.

277

Two blocks from each of the selected districts

were visl~ed during the field work. The block and

schoo~ level educational functionaries, district and

village level elected representatives, school

betterment committee members, and parents were

interv~ewed in each block. The objective of the field

work was t~ ascertain the role of the grassroots level

bureaucratic structure In expansion of education and

the responses of the client groups to the planned

development. Specifically, the field work served the

following purposes:

• To understand the role of field level functionaries

in educational planning and nature of information

base used for planning.

• To understand the process of educational development

In the form of new schools additional rooms,

•

additional teachers, deployment of teachers,

distribution of incentives, etc.

To understand the perceptions of the concerned with

respect to the above issues in the context of the

planned development of primary education.

278

• To obtain the perceptions of the parents who have

not enrolled or have withdrawn their children from

the school

The narrative recounted In the following pages has

been evolved based o~ the field notes on the interviews

and observation.

6.2 Educational Planning and Field Level functionaries

The Field level functionaries do not perceive their

role as of any importance in planning. Their basic role

is to respond to the circular sent by the higher

offices asking for specific information or directing

them to take actions. As one of the Inspectors of

Schools (IDS) puts it, "we have nothing to do with the

planning. It is the work of the Head Quarters. We only

supply information sought by them". Since the role of

information is crucial in planning, the researcher

asked the functionaries about the nature and source of

information they transmit upwards in each of the

blocks. The discussions revealed that Head Masters/Head

279

dropouts from parents. We just sit and write the reason and never visit houses."

As AEO of Nanjangudu pointed out that teachers inflate enrollment figures to ensure their place in the school in which they ~ike to continue. In one case he recollected, the teacher has reported thirty children on the roll who did not exist.

On enquiry about the number of school going aged child population in the vi~lage, the teacher in Alambur of Nanjangud Block said, "~tere are many children we do not enroll. If we enroll them all then the space in the school would not be sufficient. I was teaching all the classes alone three years ago. The second teacher under OBB was posted here. It is sufficient to enroll 70 or 80 children for two of us. I f we show less then that, one of us would be deputed to another school. Hence we enroll 70 to 80 students."

Puneeth aged 6 years of Tangali Tandya of Kadur Block stopped going to school. Gowrarnrna in Kanagondanahalli in the same block did not enroll to the school as her father opposed. He was against her going to school. Gowrarnrna takes food to her father who works in a farm. Hale Mudigere Jayalakshrni works as a coolie. She .is paid Rs.30/- per day. She is a 1st standard dropout. According to her father, Lakshrni did not show any interest in studies hence started working. Renuka of the same village is seven years old. She was enrolled to the school. But she did not attend the school. Now she takes care of her younger sister at horne. Her mother works as a labourer. Nagalakshrni in Mogarhalli of Srirangapatna Block stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard She left the school . three years back to look after her sister. In the same village in Manjula's house, she has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled in school, because Manjula has to cook and look after the household work, when their

281

Teachers of all schools in each range ( a range is a

part of a block) and one lOS will be incharge of all

primary schools in that area meet once in a month in a

central place and provide the current information about

their scl1oo1 in a prescrlbed pro forma. Normally the

pro for:na includes the current enrollment and

attendance level of children ln gender-wise and

category-wise classifications, number of classrooms,

the ownershlp status of the school building, the number

of teacher posts sanctioned and the number of teachers

working and information about several accounts

maintained at the school. The information routinely

collected every month from each school is sent to the

district level office for physical storage. Based on

the information thus generated, the AEO would prepare a

development report and sends it to the Office of the

DDP1. The following excerpts are from the field notes

presented as illustrations to show the unreliability of

the enrollment data.

Teacher who accompanied researcher to Tangali Tandya enquired about the purpose of the work and appreciated researchers' effort to obtain information from villages . and said, "you have been honest in visiting villages to collect the information by going to houses. Often the department asks us to collect reasons for

280

dropouts from parents. We just sit and write the reason and never visit houses. H

As AEO of Nanjangudu pointed out that teachers inflate enrollment figures to ensure their place in the school in which they like to continue. In one case he recollected, the teacher has reported thirty children on the roll who did not eXist.

On enquiry about the number of school going aged child population in the village, the teacher in Alambur of Nanjangud Block said, "There are many children we do not enroll. If we enroll them all then the space in the school would not be sufficient. I was teaching all the classes alone three years ago. The second teacher under OBB was posted here. It is sufficient to enroll 70 or 80 children for two of us. If we show less then that, one of us would be deputed to another school. Hence we enroll 70 to 80 students. H

Puneeth aged 6 years of Tangali Tandya of Kadur Block stopped going to school. Gowramma in Kanagondanahalli in the same block did not enroll to the school as her father opposed. He was against her going to school. Gowramma takes food to her father who works in a farm. Hale Mudigere Jayalakshmi works as a coolie. She .is paid Rs. 30/ - per day. She is a 1st standard dropout. According to her father, Lakshmi did not show any interest in studies hence started working. Renuka of the same village is seven years old. She was enrolled to the school. But she did not attend the school. Now she takes care of her younger sister at home. Her mother works as a labourer. Nagalakshmi in Mogarhalli of Srirangapatna Block stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard She left the school three years back to look after her sister. In the same village in Manjula's house, she has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled in school, because Manjula has to cook and look after the household work, when their

281

parents go to interested In scheol.

work. Her parents are not enrolling their children to

The above clted children could be traced because their

names happen to be in the school reglsters as enrolled.

The examples glven above indicate :hat the information

base used for planning purposes is not reliable. During

the field work, no one talked about the existence of a

data bank. The same information was collected

separately for different plan proposals. Since the

concentration of all previous plans was on expansion of

enrollment, the inflated figures given by the teachers

for various existential reasons also become useful for

justifying the interventions of previous plans and

place demand for continued flow of resources to do the

same thing in much more expanded scale. But, once the

resources are allocated, the dynamics of growth takes

over at the action level. At the stage of plan

formulation, the exerClse lS driven by supply based

politica: economy. Whether the same principle also

dominates at the action level becomes important to

hlghlight the role of planning. In the succeeding

paragraphs procedures followed in expanding education,

supplying infrastructure and human resources to the

schools are discussed with the help of field notes

based on observations and interviews.

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6.3 Dynamics of Expansion of Schooling

The activities that take place at the field level more

or less conform to the plan programmes. But the

procedure followed to implement and the forces that

come into operation in the process differ from the

perspectives with which such programmes are planned.

Some of the major interventions are focused here to

bring out the field realities influencing the expansion

of education. Here, the term educational expansion is

used to differentiate the changes that take place at

the field level from the perspective of educational

development. The dynamics of expansion will be

discussed in terms of the opening of new schools, basis

of the decisions to distribute resources for existing

schools under construction, repairs and maintenance,

provision for additional teachers and reallocation of

existing teachers through transfers and deputation.

Opening of New Schools

The Government of Karnataka follows a norm for opening a

new school. Normally, the norm specifies that the

habitation should have a popUlation of 300 or should

have at least 20 to 30 school going aged child

population. Over a period in the last forty years most

of such habitations have been covered. Therefore, there

is little scope for opening new schools. But, at the

283

local level new schools are coming to existence through

an indirect route to circumvent the norm. Initiative for

this development does not emerge from the department of

education. I~ depends on the initiatives taken up by the

representatives of the people at the constituency level

(demand side) and the response of the department for

such initiatives. The following excerpts from the field

notes illustrate the procedure and the role of the

department of education at the block level.

When asked how the decision to open schools are taken, an lOS in Mudigere said, "We do not decide about the opening of a school. It has to come from local people. We can not feel the need of a school in a particular place. Local people should feel the need of a school."

The AEO at Kadur while discussing about the activity currently being carried out in the block said, "One of the activities carried out at the taluk level is opening of branch schools. If school going child population is 16 or more, then villagers write to us. The lOS visits the spot and based on the visit report we send the proposal to DDPI's office for approval. lOS carries out the- spot inspection to knO"'l whether the students' strength is between 15-20 and whether villagers accommodate the school in a private building for a year. AEO recommends for

284

deputation of a teacher. Within two years a Government building is constructed.

When asked whether he would fix priority to forward proposals, AEO, Kadur replied, "We do not fix any priority. We forward all the proposals to DDPI's office. During 1989-94 12 branch schools were opened. This year, we have recei ved 3 applications. These applications are pending with DDPI for approval."

In Mudigere one of the lOS on the issue of opening branch schools said, " We gi ve preference to SC/ST areas. We are not given any guidelines. We follow our own guidelines before sending the proposals to DDPI's office. We conduct spot inspection to check the population of school going children (6 to 13) which should be more than 15. We ensure that the villagers agree to run the school for two years in any private building and equip the school with necessary equipment. We recommend for the deputation of a teacher from the nearby school. The DDPI approves deputation of a teacher. At the end the of second year we send the proposal for building. The school building is constructed by the Government. Teacher's posts for these schools are created as soon as the State Government allots additional teacher posts in the district."

285

In another example, a hamlet called Laxmipura attached to Oddaradoddi village in Heggadadevannakotp. Villagers of Laxmipura managed through lobbying to obtain a branch school of the main school. and also diverted the additional room which was allotted to Oddaradodi village under OBB scheme.

Providing a teacher for a branch school is also complicated. The FDC in Kadur, answering to the question "Who decides the teachers allotment?" explained, "lOS, AEO and DDPI decide about posting of teachers to branch school. Usually one teacher is deputed from HPS school to branch school. HMs of these schools pressurise the lOS and AEO constantly to bring back the deputed teacher or they demand additional post. In such cases an additional post is created to HPS. After two years or wi thin a year, a teacher's post is created in the branch school. Hence AEO selects the schools where HMs pressurise more and the teacher is needed very badly. Strength of students are also considered for this purpose." When asked for the record in which guidelines are mentioned for the selection of the schools, he replied, "such things are discussed orally and are not available in written form."

286

In another case, Lokavali village in Mudigere had a branch school. The main school of which ~s situated ~n another village. One teacher ~s teaching in that school. There are cwo rooms in the branch school. One room ~s given to Shishuvihar (pre-primary). tour classes are taught by a single teacher in another room. This branch school is started for the benefit of SC students because these children were not coming to the main school. The main school has two rooms and students' strength is only 15.

The SBC President and Gram Panchayat Adyaksha of Laxmipura village said, "This village is dominated by SCs. All the benefits go to neighbour ing village dominated by STs. A Few years back these two villages got separated. Recently, Government gave a branch school and a teacher was deputed. Teacher's post is not created ~n Oddaradoddi school. AEO informed that, the teacher post cannot be sanctioned as ours is not an original Grama."

Out of the 12 villages visited three of them

had branch schools. All of them are located in SC

colony. Such schools are likely to continue as single

teacher schools. The local level Governments are not

empowered to create teachers post but rooms can be

constructed by them.

287

From the above field realities it can be surmised that

the expanSlon of schooling facility depends upon the

demand factors. The demand for school in a given

locality emerge frem the local power politics and social

6.4 Implementation of Schemes.

Apart from the administration of the existing

schools, the schemes envisaged under plans have to be

lmplemented by the block level educational

functionaries. The way ln which they go about

translating the schemes into action provides insights to

lnfer the outcomes of the planned development approach.

Generally they fol:ow a procedure which endorses the

local power structure. The following excerpts from the

field notes illustrate the above observation.

At the AEO's office in Heggadadevanakote block, Case Worker in charge of Akshaya programme was consulted to go through the files and collect names of schools selected for various progranunes. For the question "How are schools selected for various programmes?" he explained that, the Government order is circulated by the DDPI along with the guidelines to select school. For yatra programme guideline has been given to select 35 schools. Concerned Case Worker

288

collects the list of schools for yatra programme from lOS.

In the case of schemes like construction of class rooms, repair of school buildings, fencing the schoo 1 grounds etc., ros gives the list of schools separately for each scheme. and short list the number according to the target set by DDPI. And shows the list of schools to AEO before sending it to DDPI. According to him, "The previous AEO had the feel of local conditions but present AEO puts the signature to the list of names selected by me randomly. Actually lOS and AEO should decide about it but they are not doing accordingly. ross are not aware of the prevailing conditions in the villages. They are not maintaining any report. They have to write a report on every visit. This is not done by them. When we ask lOSs for list of schools which require classrooms or repair. lOSs inturn suggest us to refer to the consolidated monthly reports given by HMs. If an lOS feels that repairs are not required in a hobli circle then he would not give list of school names."

In Kadur, First Division Clerk (FDC) in charge of Akshaya programmes explained the procedure followed for implementing various schemes, "In Akshaya there are 9 programmes dealing with supply of uniforms, text books, foed, creating educational environment, providing play grounds, repair of school buildings, educational excursions and providing musical instruments to schools. ODPI fixes financial and physical targets. AEO selects the schools for implementation. Sometimes guidelines are given by cpr and DDPI. Sometimes AEO himself imposes norms."

The AEO of Kadur, during the discussion about the procedures selecting the locations/specific

'targets for implementation of the programmes and schemes, said that IOS's are asked to collect information related to problems of the schools

289

and discuss with HMs and teachers during their visit to the school and make a note of facili ties required for each school. Based on this information the schools are selected.

During the discussion with the lOSs at Kadur, researcher tried to cross check the information she had obtained earlier regarding the procedures of implementation by asking them to explain the steps involved In providing additional classrooms and teachers.

One 0 f them explained, "Orders corne from the CPI office to the DDPI. The DDPl asks the AEO to send a list of schools requiring additional classrooms. In June a list of schools requlrlng repairs and additional classrooms are prepared. In July, a list of schools requiring addi tional teacher posts is prepared. This is prepared after receiving the enrollment numbers of students. The prescribed norm is, One additional room to be given to HPS having 5 rooms. Additional room lS given based on the strength of LPS.H

In Mudigere, the issue of selection of schools was raised with the Case Worker in charge of building constructions in the Office of the AEO in Mudigere Block said, "it depends on 105, who give us a list. This list is sent to DDPI's office."

The above excerpts provide a general picture of the

procedure followed at the field level. It also shows

that the role of the 105 is crucial in the process of

implementation. It will be of interest to know-how far

the norms and procedures are adhered by 105. The

political structure and the education structure get

290

linked at the lOS level. His/her inspection report

provides official the official seal for accepting the

clalms for resources. In the following paragraphs

specific schemes are focused to know how they are

carr~ed out.

Adding classrooms to the existing schools form a maJor

component of civil works activities under the plans.

Irrespective of the source of funding of the schemes

like State Plan schemes, centrally sponsored schemes or

Zilla Panchayat schemes, the implementing authority is

ZP. But, the need for construction requires an

endorsement from the education department which follows

the general procedure mentioned earlier. The

construction acti vi ty involve tendering and contracting

for civil works to local contractors or to the public

sector construction corporations like Land Army,

Karnataka Construction Corporation etc. Most often, the

construction of classrooms and small school buildings

are given to local private contractors as the magnitude

of budget lS very small. But this activity of classroom

construction attracts much attention of the local

291

politicians and district level bureaucracy. There exists

a great scope for grafts and distribution of patronage.

The following excerpts provide the picture of the

process of classroom construction.

One of the Nanjungudu 105 was interviewed to know the basis of selecting schools to implement varlOUS programmes. 105 explained that in general, ln any programme the physical targets allotted by the DDPI are shared equally among four circles. When asked," How are you going to select the villages in a circle for construction of school buildings?" 105 replied, ftpreference is given to the schools having no buildings and very interior villages. But in few places if the site is not available then we shift it to the place where site is available. For example, Banaj i village dominated by SC/ST has only one room. There are two teachers working in the school. When one teacher takes the class the second teacher has to wait outside. The class room is not spacious enough to accorrunodate all the students. A room was allotted to this school but villagers did not give a site. Hence the room is shifted to Kasovali. In Kasovali, villagers came forward to give a site. Now this school has 5 rooms. I asked, "How are you going to distribute the physical target, when there are eight backward villages in a circle and only 2 in another circle?" In reply he said, "for any programme, physical targets are distributed equally among 4 circles. If the backward areas are concentrated then the political leaders to come to the office to demand equal treatment for their constituency. There are 3 MLAs in Nanjangudu taluk. When a particular circle gets attention, MLAs from other, circles demand for the same. Hence, any benefit given by the government is equally shared by all the circles irrespective of the development."

292

lOS in Mudigere was asked, "what is the basis for selecting schools for additional classrooms?" Showing a pro forma he said, "This is given to HMs. They fill and give it to respecti ve inspectors of schools in the circle meeting. This pro forma gl ves information related to the strength of students and number of standards. Based on thiS information additional classroom are allotted to schools.H

The Case Worker working under the AEO in Muddur Block said, "This year the DDPI allotted 10 addi tional classrooms in the existing schools. The AEO and two lOS discussed and fixed the norms for selection. But it is not uniformly distributed among the circles. AEO and lOS selected the schools. This list of selected schools is sent to DDPI's office. The DDPI did not make any modification. If the SBC or the MIAs ask for a room, then DDPI writes to AEO and asks whether it is possible to fulfil the requirement. The AEO. based on the spot inspection report, conveys his opinion. Thus selected list 1S given to ZP. The work is entrusted to BDOs. After construction BDO gives the keys to AEO. The same will be communicated to DDPI and ZP."

In Kanagondanahalli when the school was started several years ago, the teacher was taking classes in Gram Panchayat office. It was very small room. Teachers felt very bad to teach in the small room and persuaded a villager to donate land. He gave 1 1/2 acres. The Head teacher also observed that the children were discontinuing their study after 4th standard and hence decided to obtain up-gradation of the school up to 7th standard. He collected 60,000/,to construct one room but was able to construct 4 more rooms with the grants from ZP and Taluk Panchayat. When school was visited by the

293

researcher, standards I to V"I. I were functioning with three teachers. Out of them one teacher was on deputation and the remalning twc pos~s belonged to the school. There were five rooms. Students' strength was around 200. The teacher was asked, "how did he manage to get sanction for so many rooms ?" Teacher explained, "application related to additional teacher's post or additional classroom can be sent by post or we can go to concerned office and hand over the application. If we give the application tc department (AEO's office) then 2 to 3 years are required to materialise because they have ~o wait for allotment. If we go through ZP, wort.: can be done in a year. Gram Panchayat member and SBC members can also give the application. Teacher prefers to go personally to move things faster. For the construction of a classroom, teacher can give an application directly to BOO. BDO takes permission from AEO and constructs a room. Application is sent through Gram Adhyaksha or SBC member to the department. Teacher should wait for 15 days or one week to know, whether the room has been sanctioned or not. In a month application is moved to ZP from taluk Panchayat. Teacher finds out from concerned caseworker in ZP, whether the room is sanctioned or not. Teachers usually go on Saturday after the morning classes. This may take a week or 1S days. If things are not materialised in this procedure then teacher meets MLA cr MP. If they tell the ZP, the school room is constructed within a year. But according to the teacher, things can be materialised even without MIAs help."

lOS of Kadur explained the process through which the schools get the additional facilities. According to his report, "Last year (1993-1994), DDPI allotted 14 classroom to Kadur taluk. Schools were selected by lOS and AEO based on their field reports. This list was given to BOO. BDO was entrusted with the responsibility of drawing the plan, estimating and constructing."

294

lOS at Heggadadevanakote answer~ng to the question "How are you going to select schools for implementing programmes?" said, "we select the most needed place. But things do not happen according to our specifications". When asked, "Do you consider SBC members application while allotting additional classrooms?" he said, "SBC members rarely ask for such things. In case politicians ask then the preference is given to them. If SBC or MLAs ask for a room then DDPI writes to AEO and asks whether it is possible to give or not? AEO based cn the field report and spot inspection report conveys his opinion on the case by case basis. Thus selected list is given to ZP. The work is then entrusted to BDOs. After construction BDO gives the keys to AEO. The same will be communicated to DDPI and ZP. Constructions are taken up under different Heads of account." If the proposal is the result of the MLA's ini tiati ve, they get cleared by DDPI without any problem. Otherwise, DDPI exercises cuts in the proposals according to her/his perception of the allotted resources and their distribution across different blocks."

Kanagondanahalli represents the implementation dynamics

of several schemes like construction of rooms,

deputation of teachers, and creation of posts. In the

above discussion, the mention of all levels of political

influence has been made by the teacher. It may be seen

that the criteria for identification of sites do not

follow the educational needs in terms of backwardness of

the sub-block regions. It gets divided equally among

them. During the process of the distribution of the

295

benefits equally, the provision always falls short of

the need. Hence, the politics of distribution of the

public resources takes over and status quo gets

maintained. Similarly, the repair of classrooms is

another intervention which attracts attention of the

local representatives elected either to Zilla Panchayat

or to the State Legislature.

In the AEO's office (Maddur), a few Villagers carne to his chamber, explained that, the school building is in very bad condition and requested the AEO to take action to repair the building. He sent them after assuring them that he would inform about their problem to the DDPI. Afterwards jokingly AEO remarked that all the buildings constructed after Independence are in bad condition and all the schools have to be constructed again.

In Maddur, Case Worker in charge of repairs of class rooms said, "This year MLAs and villagers have pressurised for repair of schools. This month MLA has asked for repair of 21 schools. We have sent the proposal to DDPI. Another MLA has asked for repair of classroom after we had sent the proposal. Now we have to send the proposal again.

Repairs are taken up under many pretext including the

state plan intervention. Repairs are not directly

implemented by block level education office. But they

have to endorse the request. The following selections

296

from the field notes indicate the issues involved.

Though repairs involve considerable allocation, an unit

of implementation is school. There is scope for a lot of

graft in awarding the contract: and also overestimation.

The work is normally carried out by the contractor and

supervised by the Zilla Panchayat Engineering

Department. Tenders are approved by the Zilla Panchayat

Office.

6.S Provision of Additional Teachers

Deployment of human resources in the form of

teachers recruitment and their placement forms an

important activity of the block level educational

office. As mentioned earlier, the documentary analysis

of the Five Year Plans revealed L'lat the macro level

projections of additional future enrollments form the

basis of projecting future demands for teachers and

accordingly allocations are made. For example in VI

Plan, provision for four thousand teachers was made in

the Five Year Plan to meet the target of 20 lakh

additional enrollment. But, in reality all the

297

additional enrollments do not take place 1n school-less

villages. Existing schools account for marginal 1ncrease

in enrollment. Further, a teacher-Pupil ratio of 1:50 is

used for locating the add1tional teacher. Schools, to

attain this marginal 1ncrease over the previous level,

require more than £:11e to S1X jears. Hence only a few

schools qualify for additional post. Invar iabl y,

provisions for salary component get postponed as much as

possible. The new posts sanctioned in any g1ven year 1S

always less than the projected demand. Hence, the

allocation of additional teacher's post corne under the

local power play.

In recent times it is the rural areas where such

demands have to be met. But, the teachers in rural areas

prefer to move to towns or to large central villages.

This also creates a demand for transfers. Transfers are

considered as purely administrative matters. But, the

re-deployment of teachers has greater significance 1n

the distribution of quality of schooling. Small schools

in interior areas continue to work with a single teacher

and the town schools have more teachers. The dynam~c

298

nature of the interplay of the demand and supply forces

for transfers and deputations require a separate study.

Glimpses of such power play could be discerned 1.n the

interviews with the field level functionaries of the

education departments. Some such statements are given in

the succeeding paragr~phs as illustrations.

Mudigere AEO said, "The criteria considered for the creation of the post is teacher-pupil ratio. Teacher-pupil ratio should be 1: 50. AEO sends a proposal to DDPI for sanctioning of addi tional teachers' post. In the proposal they mention students strength, number of teachers, working hours and number of required posts. SBC members also can send similar proposal for additional teachers' post to the DDPI."

Responding to the question, "do you fill up all the vacancies simultaneously in the block?", the AEO at Mudigere said, " When the sanctioned posts are less than the required posts, only teacher-student ratio is considered. This information is given by HMs in the hobli meeting. We see whether the school is LPS/HPS, number of students and teachers. We give preference to I to VII standards and schools having more number of students. E.g. in Komanahalli 2 teachers are teaching 20 students in LPS school. In the town school 450 students are taught by 4 teachers. Hence we depute a teacher from Komanahalli to town school. This year, DDPI informed us not to depute OBB school teachers to other places."

Maddur lOS explaining about the allotment of teacher posts said, "1: 50 teacher-student ratio norm is followed by the Government to allot additional teacher posts. Additional teacher post 1.S sanctioned to the schools having 1:80

299

teacher-student ratio. MLAs or SBC members ask for additional posts. AEOs are not in a position to give it. Hence deputations are done to such schools. Teachers can be deputed from LPS or HPS."

On the way bacK from the visit to the village to AEO'S office at Maddur blocK, HM who was accompanying researcher said, "I was transferred from Town School to a village school. Last year, I tried asking for a transfer to my native village as I have lands in the village and I have to take care of the irrigation work. AEO behaved rudely with me. He spoke without giving respect. Hence, I got him transferred to DDPI's office. There, he is given powerless superintendent post. Because of this incident, lOSs are scared that, they may also be transferred to far off places as graduate HMs. In the elections lOSs have supported Cong (I) (political party). I have canvassed for Janatha Dal(political party), this party has now come to power. If I am not transferred then I will go to the Chief Minister. And get my transfer this year."

The Case Worker in the office of the AEO stated that, during the period when a school having more strength is waiting for the sanction a f an additional post of teacher, a teacher is deputed to that school from a neighboring school. If classrooms are less than the teachers then teacher from that school is deputed to some other school having more strength. He showed a list containing school names, standards and number of teachers working and explained that, lOS, AEO and DDPI decide about it. Usually one teacher is deputed from HPS school to branch school. HMs of these schools pressurize the lOS and AEO constantly to bring back deputed teacher or they demand additional post. In such cases an ,additional post is created to HPS. Regarding the norms followed during deputation or transfers of teachers AEO of Heggadadevankote said,

300

"Transfers are recommended by AEOs to DDPI' s. We transfer teachers according to teacher student ratio in the class. We take into account 1: 50 ratio as the norm. For deputation, if an extra hand is required, the HM gives an application for deputation. Teacher is deputed within the Panchayat jurisdiction."

Nanjungudu lOS said, "When OBB Scheme was introduced, students' strength was around 18 in a class. Now due to migration and family planning only 2 to 3 children are in a class. In a class of two standards there are only 8 to 10 children studying. A teacher for 8 to 10 children is a" waste. In many villages 60 to 70 children are taught by one teacher in a class. Hence we have deputed one teacher to HPSs from LPSs having two teachers."

A teacher posted against the vacancy in a village called Mahadevanagar is at present working in Heggadadevanakote town school against the vacancy of a craft teacher. This teacher accompanied researcher on the instruction of AEO, to visit a village. On the way by travelling to the village she narrated the details of how she got herself deputed to the town school. According to her the village school where she is posted, is away from her home town. The school is a LPS and has an enrollment of 40 children. Only 20 attend the school. School has two teachers including her. She thought that one teacher is enough to teach 20 children and wanted to go on deputation to a school in her home town. But there was no vacant post in the town school. But the post of craft teacher was vacant. She persuaded the Headmaster of the school to write to AEO and ask for craft teacher and simultaneously requested the AEO to depute her to the school in town citing her problems. Her request was considered and she was posted against

'the post of craft teacher in the town school.

301

The above excerpts from the field diary indicate that

the centralised approach to recruit and deploy teachers

does not take into consideration the educational

concerns. Transfers of teachers become a fertile ground

for political power play. Teachers use their influence

to ~ina a place suitable :or their own well-being.

6.6 Perceptions of Local People

The targets of the plan intervention, namely the

poor and land-less live within their own circumscribed

space the system which expects them to change their

ways of life do not offer enough opportunity to do so.

Somehow the incentives get distributed without any

tangible educational outcomes for the beneficiaries.

They get co-opted by the entrenched educational system

to draw upon the public funds In their name. The

following excerpts represent the examples of non

enrolled, dropouts and neglected children and the

explanation given by the parents and elders of the

households for their educational deprivations. Some of

the examples highlight the drabness of education and

consequent failure in retaining the children, some

reflect the competing demands on the childrens' time by

the school and the parents and some reflect the lack of

faith in the ability of the school in providing useful

302

education. The examples given below are the examples of

the failure of planned development of education.

Kalamrna's father (Lakshmipura) 'going to school is of no use. children are not able to write cannot read and 'wr i te Kannada.

feels that, School gOlng

alphabets and A 4th standard

student cannot read 1st standard text book.'

In Mahadevanagara, the mother of a girl made the following comment when she was congratulated by the teacher for her daughter's promotion to the next class "what is the use of going to 3rd standard. She does not know how to write Kannada alphabets. It is not worth going to 3rd standard."

In Mogarahalli of Manjula's parents also are not benefited by the

Srirangapatna block, feel that the children school.

While talking with Kalamrna(Lakshimipura), a villager explained his grievance related to the functioning of the schools. There was a teacher working in the school for 3 years. He was corning very late to the school. Never strained himself to teach students. He was sleeping in the classroom. Kalamrna's mother complained that the teacher was asking students also to sleep in the class. "Can grown up children sleep in the class?" was her question. Hence, when Kalamrna said that, she did not want to continue schooling, her mother did not resist. Kalamma said that, once teacher told them that he is not going to lose any money if students did not corne to school. Government is going to give him salary". Kalamma' s father feels that, going to school is of no use. School going children are not able to write alphabets and cannot read and write Kannada. A 4th standard student cannot read 1st standard text book. Once a villager said to the teacher that, he has spoiled all the children for three years. Two

303

teachers came on deputation after retirement. They worked very hard, children were busy doing home work and preparing for next day's class. They were here only for a year. After they left, children came back to the original stage. Now they do not find any difference between school going and non school going children.

Jayalakshmi (Lakshimipura) stopped go~ng to the school after completing 3rd standard. She is not interested in going to school. Now looks after domestic work. Her mother also did not force her to go to school.

Madesha(Sindhuvalipura), 9 years old, stopped going to school. He was studying in 3rd standard. Once the teacher scolded him. Since then he has stopped going to the school. From then onwards he looks after cows.

Ranganath (Sindhuvalipura) left school last year on the pretext of stomach-ache. His father consulted a doctor and got him treated. Since then Ranganath started showing a dislike to school.

Savitha(Sindhuvalipura) stopped going to the school after 4th standard. Her parents go to work. They are economically sound. But she is not interested in going to school. She finds it less interesting, now she looks after the household work. She is not sent to field to do the work. Next year they are planning to get her married. This year they want her to learn domestic work.

Sivakumar(Alambur) who is a 2nd standard dropout, has seven brothers and a sister. Five brothers are elder to him. They are all engaged in agriculture. Si vakumar has no work to do. He plays near his house or near flowing water. His brother when asked, "Why is he not ,going to the school?" answered, "he would not listen, he goes with books to school and plays outside with his friends. They tried explaining

304

to him but now are fed up" When they had any financ.:.al problem? in the negative and said, comfortable financlally.

asleed, whether They replied, were quite

Manjula (Alarnbur) 1st standard dropout of 89-90 batch has 3 sisters and a brother. Ten year elder one is married. Younger one, Bhagya lS not interested in going to schoo':'. Hence, not enrolled. Her mother said, " my husband and I go to work. We are not here to see whether she goes to school or to play". "Do you expect them to do household work, when you go to worle", a question was asked to her mother. Her mother said, "no these children cannot coole for us, they are very young. I do all the household work and then go to work. But, in school they would not learn anything because they are not intelligent enough to grasp things. My son goes to tuition where few boys sit and study together. There also he is perfornung badly". When enquired, whether the financial problem stops them in sending their children to school"? She said, "Every thing is given by the school. Whatever we earn is sufficient for us. We do not send our children to work. In fact school gives them books, uniforms, food. We need not spend money for education but our children are not interested in going to schoo:".

R.Swarny (Alarnbur) 3rd standard dropout has 5 brothers, 2 of them are married and 3rd one lS In the 9th standard. Both his parents go to work. They have a very spacious old fashIoned house. Swarny's sister-in-law was at home. According to her, Swarny did not show any interest in studies. Swarny said that, he would not go to school. Now he is engaged in grazing cows.

..

Child labour

Belishetty (Soligarakaloni) has 3 sons and 1 daughter. He has not enrolled any of his three sons to the school. They are serving as bonded labourers in different places away from the village. Belishetty had taken loan from villagers and left his sons to serve in their houses. Hence they could not go to school. First son returned to the house 4 years back, second and third sons came back last year. His daughter is going to Anganwadi. His family depends on wage labour. They earn Rs .115/- per day during the season and during other times they do not earn much.

Shankar (Mogarha1i) stopped studying when he was in 4th standard. He went to Tirupathi for one year and came back. He wanted to join 4th standard again. Teacher refused to admit him as he was over aged for 4th standard. He goes to cut stones and earns 25/- per day. His parents depend on manual work.

Mahadev's younger brother (Mahadevanagara) is engaged in grazing cows and sheep. Hence he cannot go to school. Mahadev's father wants his third son to continue in school for a year and then send him to look after the sheep and has plans to train the second son in fishing. He is very poor. They cannot have two meals a day properly. Government has given 3 acres of land but they cannot depend on it because of uncertain rains. Even if the Government gives incentives, children cannot be sent to school. Work has been distributed equally in the family. Children should work and earn to maintain the family.

Basavaraj's(Mahadevanagara) father children. 3 girls and 2 sons are Married sons are staying separately.

has 7 married.

Basavaraj 306

3rd standard dropout goes to Kerala for fishing and comes back after two months. Other two sons have stopped going to school after third standard. Now they go for fishing with other friends. They also graze the sheep.

Manju (Lakshimipural1st standard dropout, left the school 3 years back due to her mother's illness. She takes care of household work. Her elder sister Neela has never been to scheol. She is a casual labourer and earns Rs. 25/ - per day. According to Neela's mother, money earned by her husband is not sufficient to maintain the family. Due to her ill health she cannot go to work. Hence her daughters are working.

Household work

Rathna(Kanagondanahali) has studied up to VI standard. Her father stopped her from going to the school. Because she has to take care of the house hold work when her parents go to work.

Geetha (Kanagondanahali) of 3rd standard. stopped going to school due to ill health. But according to her friends she does all household work. She has a problem with her speech. She can not talk freely with children. Hence she stopped going to school. Manjunath has studied up to VI standard. He stays with his uncle. Parents are living in a different village. He was sent to study in this village. But his uncle asked him to look after the sheep. Because they cannot hire a person to look after the sheep.

Sunitha(Lokavalil stopped going to the school after completing 3rd standard because she was taking care of her sister's kid. After a year she refused to rejoin school. She was not interested in going to schocl. Her elder sister also did not go to school. She was also expected to take care of her brothers and sisters.

307

Radha (Halemudegere) stopped her schooling after 4th standard. Her mother removed her from the school. Her mother said," We are poor. We cannot afford education. Radha cooks and takes care of household work when I go to work." Ramaswamy stopped going to the school after 3rd standard. Now he earns money from manual work.

cattle rearing

Siddaraju (Sindhuvalipura) was removed from the school two years back. His father asked him to look after cows as there was nobody to do it. His brother continues to study as he has no work to do at home.

Parents apathy

Kusuma(Soligarakaloni) stopped going to school from 2nd standard. She is not going to work as she is young. Her grandmother tells that, her sons and daughters-in-law go to coolie work. They are not depending on their children's earnlng. Children do not show any interest in education. Kusuma's brother works as a casual labourer.

Nagesh(Soligarakaloni) is ln 2nd standard. He is very irregular to the school. His mother goes to sell bangles and father goes to repair locks. According to his mother, "children have to walk 1.5 km to go to school, so they do not go, instead they play near the running water and come to the house exactly at 5.30 p.m. Parents cannot check whether they go to school or not. Now children are not earning. After a few years, if they are not interested in going to school then they have to take up locksmith's work like their father."

Marappa (Soligarakaloni) a 4th standard student is irregular in attending the school. His mother a bangle seller carries her ware

308

from one village to the other to sell. The boy accompanies her to villages and assists her. Even his brother did not go to school. He is also not interested. Now, he works as a labourer.

Vijaya( Athgur) discontinued her study to look after her sisters and brothers. She has studied up to the 4th standard. A girl who had stopped going to school after Fifth standard was asked the reason for not going to the school? She said that, her mother is not willing to send her. She is getting married soon to her uncle. As her mother underwent a major operation, she was taking care of her mother.

Nagalakshmi ( Mogarhali) stopped going to the school when she was in 1st standard. She left the school three years back to look after her sister. Her parents work for wages. Nagalakshmi's grand mother told that the girls' mother is not interested in sending the children to school. In Manjula' s house, her parents and younger brother go to work in a factory. She has only one brother, both of them are not enrolled to school.

Pakura and Naga are dropouts of 3rd and 4th standards. Their mother passed away last year. Father got married again. Stepmother also goes to work and nobody takes care of them. They would not go to school but play outside the school. Because of this, parents feel it lS better to teach them fishing than sending them to school. Hence they accompany their parents for fishing.

The very purpose of educational planning is to counter

the living conditions of the children which are

diS8ussed in the above cases and provide primary

309

education for them. But the entrenched system of

education tends to equate pr~mary education to the

attendance in school, irrespective of the outcomes. The

schools operate uniformly in all the places and with

respect to all children, irrespective of their living

conditlons. There ere no alternatives. In such a

sit~ation the objective of educational planning becomes

the perpetuation of the existing system and not the

primary education of all children.

In conclusion the field data indicates that the

growth of education while drawing upon the resources

provided by supply dominated educational plans responds

to the demands articulated at the local. Most often the

demands are not governed by educational considerations

but by the local power politics.

310

CHAPTER VII

SUl+fARY AND CONCLUSION

7.1 Introduction

Primary education in the Indian context

attracted renewed interest in recent years.

has

This

interest is not confined only to Indian policy makers.

Even the international agencies and markets have evinced

keen interest in promoting primary education in India.

This change in the scenario is attributable to the

recent changes in the economic policies leading to the

opening up of the Indian economy.

Right at the inception of the constitution, the

framers of the Indian constitution had realised the

importance of primary education and hence directed the

state to make primary education free and compulsory upto

the age of fourteen years for all children. But, the

motivation behind the constitutional directive was to

ensure the development of a democratic and just society

311

which required a well informed citizenry. Another

impetus for the promotion of primary education during

the early decades of the constitutional rule came from

the planned economic development envisaged and

implemented through rive Year plans. The five Year

Plans, right from the rirst one, included education as a

distinct sector of planning.

Inspite of such early efforts to develop primary

education in India, due to historical and social reasons

the progress achieved was far from satisfactory in the

past. One important indicator in the form of literacy

grew with a snail pace. Over the period, the absolute

Size of illiterates also increased along with the slow

growth of literacy. The primary education forms the

foundation of all further educational outcomes,

including literacy. The failure of the educational

system in providing opportunities for the masses lie at

the root of the sluggish growth of literacy. The

educational discourse has blamed the poor economic

condition and unjust social arrangement in the society

for the educational backwardness of the society.

312

But the very rationale for planned development of

prlmary education militates against the notion dominant

In the educational discourse. Very few instances are

there to seek the reason behind the continuation of

educational disparities across population categories,

across reglons and sub-regions inspite of increased

outlays and expenditure through Five Year Plans. This

ralses serious doubts about the nature and purpose of

planning for primary education.

The experience of educational planning In other

developing countries also has given raise to serlOUS

criticisms. But, systematic studies into the approaches,

techniques and processes of educational planning are

very few in number. Not much work has been done in the

past regarding the relationship between planning and

actual practices that take place subsequent to the

formulation of plans In the field level.

313

Keeping the above issues In focus the present study

titled "Educational Planning for School Education: A

Study of Three districts ~n Karnataka.", has been

proposed to look into the nature :Jf educational plans

formulated in the Karnataka State, the process of

planning pursued and the nature of activities performed

by the field level functionaries while implementing the

plans.

7.2 ObJectives of the Study:

I The objectives for the State level analysis are.

1. To examine the Karnataka State Plan documents to

ascertain the methodology and priorities of educational

sectoral plans in IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII Five Year

Plans.

To develop indicators of educational parameters and

compute them to examine the changes in those parameters

over the period of time from 1971-1994.

31~

3. To compare the distribution of educational access,

retention and quality input indicators (educational

parameters) across different popu~ation segments over

twenty four years.

4. To compare the effect on varlOUS educational

indicators after

administration of

level.

t'le State sharing the power of

school education with the District

S. To Examine the effect of the plan expenditure on

selected educational indicators.

6. To examine the changes in literacy levels of different

population categories as indicated in census of 1971,

1981 and 1991.

II The objectives proposed for district level analysis

are

To compute the educational performance and

educational outcome indicators related to the progress

of primary education at the district level.

315

2. To compare the inter district disparities in relation

to educational indicators across Five Year Plans.

III The objectives for the study of the planning

process are:

1. To identify the linkages of educational planning

structure at the state, the district and the sub

district levels in Karnataka.

2. To study the roles played by various personnel in the

process of planning.

3. To obtain the quali tati ve aspects of planning like

information flow, information analysis during the

preparation of educational plans.

4. To understand the perceptions involved in educational

planning at various levels.

5. To know the perceptions of people at the grass roots

level related to primary education.

316

7.3 Research Methodology

Methodology followed in the present study lS a

combination of descriptive and analytical approach to

st~d! the data from secondary sources, and descriptive

st'Jdy of the qualitative data collected by the

investigator on the process of planning and

implementation.

The secondary data considered for the study are,

Fl ve Year Plan documents regarding the approach and

outlays for different aspects of primary education from

Fourth Five Year Plan through Eighth Five Year Plan,

the published and unpublished data collected from the

Office of the Commissioner of Public Instruction on the

educational parameters pertaining to primary education

in Karnataka and the demographic data from Censuses.

The primary data was collected through focused

interviews and non-participant observation of the

317

planning process carried out at the state, district,

block and community levels.

The secondary data on the educational parameters

covered the period from 1971 to 1994. The primary data

was generated from offices of the DDPI and Zilla

Panchayat secretariat in three districts, Block Level

Education Offices in two blocks each located In the

selected districts (six blocks in all), two rural

localities each located in the selected blocks (Twelve

localities in all) .

The indicators listed below were developed and

their values were derived for each year, starting from

1971 through 1994 for purposes of the study.

• Enrollment rate representing the enrollment as per

cent of population.

•

•

•

Gender equality index.

Annual retention rate.

Indicator for the provision of schools represented

by schools per ten thousand population.

318

•

•

Indicator of the supply of teachers represented by

teachers per ten thousand population.

Pupil teacher ratio indicating the size of the

learning groups.

• Standard teacher ratio indicating the degree of

multl-grade teaching.

• Literacy represented by the ratio of literates to

total population.

Different exercises to analyse the data as

indicated below were carried out.

• Descriptive analysis of the plan documents to

highlight the focus and approach of Five Year

Plans.

• Descriptive and comparative analysis of the

financial allocation for different programmes to

achieve the objectives of planning in the area of

primary education.

319

• Descriptive analysis of the annual changes in

indicator values representing important parameters

of primary education mentioned earlier.

• Regression analysis us~ng per pupil annual plan

expenditure at constant pr~ces as independent

variable and each of the selected indicators as

dependent variable was carried out. For each of

the variables, the annual time series data were

constructed using secondary data for the period

from 1971 to 1994.

• Comparison of the changes in the performance

indicators of primary education before and after

the introduction of Zilla Panchayat

administration.

• Plan wise changes in the relative positions of the

ranking of the districts on different indicators

of primary education.

• Descriptive analysis of the literacy indicators

used as proxy to educational outcomes.

• qualitative analysis of the field data on the

planning process and implementation process.

320

7.4 Findings of secondary data analysis:

I. Analysis of the state plan documents, strategies and

outlays

1. Star:ing from the fourth Plan, in each of the five

Year Plans it has been repeatedly reiterated to achieve

cent percent enrollment covering 6 to 11 age group

children. None of the plans, however, specified the

targets taking into consideration the current status of

enrollment.

2. The Second priority area was to improve the

retention rate in primary schools. The plan documents

at:ributed poverty and lack of parental motivation as

the maln reasons behind the phenomenon of school

The plans did not develop alternative

strategies. From the Fifth Plan onwards a mention was

made in the documents about continuing and part-time

education. But it was not worked out in detail as an

alternative to the formal system.

321

3. The review of the achievements of the previous plans

given in the documents of the succeeding plans starting

from Fifth Five Year Plan to Eighth Five Year Plan

mentions the phenomenal growth in the enrollments

achieved during prevlOUS Five Year Plan. The

adaevement also records improvements in retention of

children in the school. But none of the plan documents

mention the outcomes of schooling. There was not even

an attempt made to relate the changes in the literary

levels with the changes in enrollment and retention

rate to assess the impact of plan development during

Five Year Plans.

4. The analysis of the plan outlays in each of the Five

Year Plans indicates a narrow range of interventions to

develop pr imary educat ion. Only four major programmes

have been given high priority in all the plans. These

items are: Construction(Civil Works) , incentives,

teachers' salary and at later stages of planning pre

school. Excepting the outlays of teachers' salary the

remaining three items represent facilitative measures

322

3. The enrollment rate of Scheduled Castes and

Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST) at lower primary level shows

gradual increase as compared to t:-1e enrollment rate of

non-SC/ST which remained constant through out. The trend

indicates that the enrollment rate of SC/ST ',vas

considerably lower tLll 1975 and suddenly picked up and

reached the level of non SC/ST enrollment rate in 1988

and surpassed it afterwards.

4. The comparison of changes in enrollment rates

between SC/ST and non-SC/ST category shows that the rate

of growth of enrollment at Higher Primary level

increased gradually in the case of non-SC/ST at a slower

pace whereas the change of growth rate was at a faster

pace in the case of SC/ST. There was a large difference

In the enrollment rate between SC/ST and non-SC/ST

during 1971. Enrollment rate became more or less equal

by 1993.

5. Gender equality indicator developed in the present

study represents the ratio between enrollment rates of

boys and girls. This indicator in the case of lower

324

and not educational interventions directed towards

improving educational processes. Even among such

facilitative measures, the Incentives have claimed

increasingly large outlays over the successive plans.

The outlays on teachers' salaries ranged from one-fifth

to one-third in different Five Year Plans.

II. Analysis of state level time series data

A descriptive analysis of the time series data on some

major educational indicators constructed for the

purpose using secondary data sources revealed the

following:

1. The rate of enrollment as per cent of population

remained more or less constant from 1971-80 and

increased by one per cent since 1987 onwards at the

lower primary stage.

2. The enrollment rate improved gradually from 1971 to

1994 at higher primary level.

323

3. The enrollment rate of Scheduled Castes and

Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST) at lower primary level shows

gradual increase as compared to t~e enrollment rate of

non-SC/ST which remained constant through out. The trend

indicates that the enrollment rate of SC/ST was

considerably lower till :975 and suddenly picked up and

reached the level of non SC/ST enrollment rate in 1988

and surpassed it afterwards.

4. The comparison of changes in enrollment rates

between SC/ST and non-SC/ST category shows that the rate

of growth of enrollment at Higher Primary level

increased gradually in the case of non-SC/ST at a slower

pace whereas the change of growth rate was at a faster

pace ln the case of SC/ST. There was a large difference

in the enrollment rate between SC/ST and non-SC/ST

during 1971. Enrollment rate became more or less equal

by 1993.

5. Gender equality indicator developed in the present

study represents the ratio between enrollment rates of

boys and girls. This indicator ln the case of lower

324

primary schools increased considerably but at a constant

incremental rate to reach from 78 t~ 93 between 1971 and

1994. But the rate of bridging the gap in the case of

Higher Primary School is found to be faster in the case

of Higher Primary School. It has changed from 57 to 90

during the same peri0d. Stlll a small disparity persists

between boys and girls. Which is likely to be bridged by

the end of this century if the present trend continues.

6. The gender gap amongst SC/ST was higher as compared

to non-SC/ST both at Lower Primary Level and Higher

Primary levels. But as compared to 1971 situation this

difference has been reduced At Lower Primary level. But

the di fference in gender equality index between SC/ST

and non-SC/ST has increased at Higher Primary level.

7. The annual retention rate of boys and girls

differed by 5-6 points in 1971 and became almost equal

at 93 per cent in 1992 at lower primary level.

The comparison of the retention rate Se/ST and non

Se/ST categories indicated the reversal of the position.

325

Initially in 1971 SC/ST retention was at 72 per cent and

the non-SC/ST was 76 per cent. The values of the

indicators with respect to both the categories increased

in subsequen~ years. The annual retention rate of SC/ST

reached 96 per cent whereas it could reach

per cent in the case of non-SC/ST in 1992.

only to 92

8. Availability of schools per ten thousand population

both at Lower Primary School and Higher Primary School

level indicated a contrasting trend. This indicator

value decreased in the case of the provision of primary

schools whereas it remained more or less constant

between 1971 and 1994 In the case of Higher Primary

Schools. The provision of Lower Primary classes to

almost all viable habitations had been completed by 1971

or around. Therefore opening new schools became marginal

activity during the greater part of period under

consideration. Since, this indicator measures the

availability of school per unit population, In the

absence of new schools and in the presence of population

growth in the locali ties served by schools this

indicator value declined from eleven schools to around

326

thousand population. Pupil teacher ratio increased from

37 to 52 during the period.

11. Since the creation of teaching posts depends upon

the enrollment in the school at the rate of one teacher

per 50 students. The nwnber of teachers working in a

school may not be same as the nwnber of classes taught

in that schooled. If the number of teachers is less than

nwnber of classes taught then the phenomenon is called

multi-grade school.

The standard-teacher ratio was used as indicator of

multi-grade teaching. The value of this ratio shows that

the modal school context in primary schools of Karnataka

is multi-grade and the ratio marginally declined from

1.58 to 1.39 from 1971 to 1994 respectively.

III Influence of plan expenditure on access, retention


1. It was hypothesised that the variations in the

access, retention and quality inputs are influenced by

328

seven schools per ten thousand population. In the case

of Higher Primary School, opening of new schools is not

involved. It is simply an act of expanding lower primary

schools vertically by adding hlgher primary classes. The

constant value of this indicator reflects that the

process of up-gradation kept pace ',-.lith the populatlon

increase during the period 1971 to 1994.

9. One of the quality input in the form of teachers was

examined with the help of teacher per ten thousand

population as an indicator. This indicator behaved in a

cyclical fashion. It had initially a higher value in

1971 and started declining till 1979 to reach the lowest

point. From 1979 it started increasing at a faster rate

to reach another peak in 1984 and again experienced a

steep fall to reach another low in 1987 and there after

it started to increase every year till 1994. But the

value in 1994 was lower than its initial value in 1971.

10. The pupil-teacher ratio observed during the period

under consideration emerged as a corollary of the

interaction of changes in schools and teacher per ten

327

thousand population. Pupil teacher ratio increased from

37 to 52 during the period.

11 . Since the creation of teaching posts depends upon

the enrollment In the school at the rate of one teacher

per 50 st~dents. Tre number of teachers working In a

school may not be same as the number of classes taught

in that schooled. If the number of teachers is less than

number of classes taught then the phenomenon is called

multi-grade school.

The standard-teacher ratio was used as indicator of

multi-grade teaching. The value of this ratio shows that

the modal school context in primary schools of Karnataka

lS multi-grade and the ratio marginally declined from

1.58 to 1.39 from 1971 to 1994 respectively.

III Influence of plan expenditure on access, retention


1. It was hypothesised that the variations in the

access, retention and quality inputs are influenced by

328

the plan expenditure. Hence, to know the influence of

plan expenditure on access, retention and quality input

indicators, linear regression technique with correction

for auto correlation was used. Positively significant

result at five per cent level was obtained for the

enp)llment lndlcator. The influence of expenditure on

other indicators were not statistically significant.

IV Change In the trend of education indicators after the

change in administrative system.

1. The mean value of enrollment, gender equality and

retention indicators were higher after the introduction

of Zilla Parishad in Karnataka in 1987. This increase is

applicable to both Lower Primary School and Higher

Primary School levels. Schools per ten thousand

population and teacher per ten thousand population

showed decline In their mean values after the

introduction of Zilla Panchayat. But Higher Primary

Schools per ten thousand population showed marginally

higher mean value after the introduction. Pupil-teacher

ratio increased and standard-teacher ratio remained more

329

or less same after the introduction of Zilla Panchayat

as compared to the situation before Zilla Panchayat.

V District wise analysis of educational lndicators.

The analysis of changes in the relative positions of the

districts at the end of each Five Year Plan on a three

point scale revealed the following:

1. At the end of the Fourth Year Plan, the

arrangements of districts on the 3 point scale indicated

that the districts belonging to Hyderabad-Karnataka area

were classified as poor and the districts which merged

from erstwhile Madras province in the coastal area

occupied the Good category on all the indicators. This

kind of arrangement retained more or less the same

pattern even at the end of Eighth Plan period. Only

Bidar district classified under the Poor category at the

end of Fourth Plan shifted to Good category with respect

to enrollment rate at the end of Sixth Plan. On other

variables Bidar did not show much change as compared to

its initial position.

330

VI Literacy Gains Of Various Categories

1. The literacy galns of General population was

slightly higher than the gains registered by SC and ST

categories durlng 1971-1981 decade. But during eighties

the gains of SC and ST population categories were

higher than the general population.

2. The Literacy gain recorded by the General population

was on an average less than one percent per year

through out the period under consideration.

3. The gains of the Male population in general was

higher than the galns of Female population during

seventles and the trend reversed during eighties. But

in the case of Scheduled Castes, gains in literacy of

male was higher than the Females during the decades of

both seventies and eighties. Such difference was very

marked during 1971-1981 decade and it got reduced

during the next decade.

331

4. Li teracy gains of Urban population in general was

higher than the Rural counterparts between 1971 and

1981. The trend got reversed with ~ural segment showing

higher gains between 1981 and 1991. But in the case of

S Cs the Urban segment maintained higher gains as

compared to Rura: population through out the period.

5. The initial difference ln literacy rates of highest

ranklng district and lowest ranking district increased

in 1981 and further widened ln 1991. This widening took

place in the midst of increase in the literacy rates of

all districts.

7.5 Findings of primary data analysis:

I The processes of planning

1. All plan activities start from the decision regarding

the quantwn of funds by the Cabinet or the National

Planning Commission, whether the plan refers to New Five

Year.or an Annual Plan of an on-going Five Year Plan.

332

programmes. Invariably the officials involved ln the

planning process understand educat:onal plannlng as a

bundle of discrete programmes. They always thlnk at the

conc~ete level rather than percelvlng the plan as a set

of inter-related abstract idea structure WhlCh has

impllcatlon fer actJCi'.. cic one talked about strategic

plan, objectives, diagnosis of a sltuatlon etc.

4. The planning procedure consists of guidelines and

proposals. Guidelines communicate instructions and

procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S glven from

higher authority to lower authority ln the lower

section. Responses to the guidelines by the lower level

structure to the higher level structure take the form of

proposals. Even the district sector programs are

district specific 1n the sense of administration than

plan formulation. During our discussions only one

instance of proposal 1n the form of giv1ng awards to

rank holders within a distr1ct came to light as a

district specific plan proposal.

33~

programmes. Invarlably the officials involved 1n the

plar~ing process understand educat~onal plann1ng as a

bundle of discrete programmes. They always ~h1nk at the

concrete level rather than perceivlng the plan as a se~

of inter-related abstract idea structure ~hlCh has

implication for actlC:'c. ~tc one talked about strategi_~

plan, objectives, diagnosis of a situation etc.

4. The planning procedure consists of guidelines and


procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S gl ven from

higher authority to lower authority in the lower




district specific 1n the sense of administration than


instance of proposal ln the form of glvlng awards to

rank holders within a district came to light as a


33 ..

2. It has been indicated that the Cabinet takes the

decision regarding financial outlays based on status

paper submitted by the secretaries of different

departments including education to the Cabinet meeting.

The State Planning Board has no role to play in shaping

the educational plans. The status paper is prepared by

the planning sec:ion of the secretariat of the education

department on the basis of information obtained from the

Commissioner and Directors In the area of school

education. The discussions with the officials of the

planning section in the educational secretariat did not

indicate any systematic approach to analyze the

information in a holistic way.

3. Educational plan consists of three sections depending

upon the source of outlay. All the programs for which

the Central Government supports are called centrally

sponsored schemes. The programs for which the funds come

from the State account are termed as state sector

programs. Programs which are supported by the individual

Zilla Panchayats are termed as district sector

333

programmes. Invariably the officials invo:ved ln the

planning process understand educat.:.onal plannlng as a

bundle of discrete programmes. They always :hlnk at the

concrete level rather than perce1v~ng the plan as a set

of inter-relaced abstract idea structure ~hich has

implication fcr act:'2i:. ~lc one talked abcu: strateg~.:

plan, objectives, diagnosis of a situat1cn etc.

4. The plarL~ing procedure consists of guidelines and


procedures to prepare a proposal which 1S gl'len from

higher authority to lower authority 1n the lower




district specific ln the sense of administration thar,


instance of proposal .:.n the form of glvlng aY"i'ards :c

rank holders w1thin a district came to light as a


334

5. The discrete nature of plan program clearly emerges

from the nature and method of data collected for

preparing the proposals. Even though the data happens to

be same for several programmes, proposals for these

programs seek data separately and the information

collected under one program is rarely used for another

program. In this process data on a given parameter may

not be the same when collected under different

programmes. In the entire planning process, the notion

of a data base, its update and analysis is completely

absent.

From the above observation it may be concluded that

the plans are used as legitimizing instrument for

spending public funds. Once the funds are earmarked for

different programs the role of planning comes to an end.

In an on-golng plan development of education in

Karnataka, action plans are drawn without any feed back

from the implementation of the previous plan.

335

II The Process Of Implementation:

1. The Process of imp1ementat1on 1S found to be

counter point of the process of planning. The role of

the fiela level edc.cational structures in planning is

merely to follow guidelines and supply information. But

in the implementation process they have to communicate

decision to higher authorities 1n the form of

rec:)mmendations. Information used 1n the planning

process 1S aggregated and quantitative data which

serves the purposes of macro level politico-economic

decisions to deploy resources for primary education.

But, the process of implementation is guided by micro

level information and the decisions are responses to

local s:)cio-political signals. Here, the data is viewed

in the form of real communities and power structure.

2. The local level functionaries view their role in

planning as marginal. Their concern 1S to distribute

the resources transferred to them for growth of

education in their jurisdiction. They do not share the

336

perspectives of plans and even if they agree with the

view points underlying the plan llke social justice,

preferential treatment of backward classes and regions

etc, they find it difficult to act according to them.

The resources are expected to be equally distributed

across political constituencies. New schools are

recommended on the basis of the demands of local

political

deployed

leaders,

to cater

teachers are

to the interest

appointed or re-

of schools having

higher classes in towns and large villages. The local

leaders appropriate the benefits of incentives to

increase their respective political clouts. Much of the

activities of the educational administration and

supervision lS non-educational in nature and resembles

more the revenue administration.

3. The decentralisation in the form of Zilla

Panchaya ts has not yet empowered the local political

and bureaucratic structures to work out their own

development planning in social sectors, especially

education for which such decentralisation has been

moqted.

337

7.6 Discussion of the findings

The present study has attempted to assess the

experience of educational planning In the field of

primary education iT' Karnataka during the period from

1971 to 1994. The criticisms enumerated by Weiler (1978)

formed the theoretical framework for the present study.

One of the maln criticism of educational planning

lS that it tends to reproduce the current educational

system on an expanded scale. The researches in the field

of Sociology of Education in India, some of which have

been reviewed in this study demonstrate that, by and

large, the education system has worked towards

perpetuation of the status quo. In such a situation, the

expansion of the current primary education system would

be counter-productive to the goal of planning namely,

Universalisation of Elementary Education. This study has

indicated that the educational planning in Karnataka has

done precisely the same. The changes in literacy of

various population segments indicate that, while all

338

segments of population have gained in literacy rates,

the relative disparities have not changed over the

period of time and in some cases the disparities have

rather widened. In the absence of a precIse measure of

educational ou(comes, the .!.iteracy rate can be taken as

its proxy. The rationale for planning In the past has

been to attain growth with distribution. The literacy

outcomes belies this understanding. The analysis of the

plan documents in terms of their strategies, programmes

and outlays reflecting the priorities indicates that the

planning for primary education equates the expanSIon of

current education

universalisation of

system

prImary

with the

education.

goal

The

of

plan

priorities as reflected In outlays indicate that all

previous Five Year Plans have tried to physically expand

the access and provide incentives to encourage children

to attend the school. Actual educational process has

escaped the attention of the planners. The analysis of

the changes In the parameters of education indicate that

the plans have succeeded in tracking children and make

them come to the school to receIve the incentives. The

obs~rvations and discussions at the field level confirm

339

this observation. In the absence of educational purpose

the educational planning is guided by the consideration

of the political economy. In other 'Nords, the planning

is being used to legitimize the flow of public resources

to the current educational system. The critlcism of

educational planning in the context of developing

countries relating to the tendency of perpetuating the

status quo is applicable to the educational planning in

Karnataka too.

The second criticism that the educational planning

flows from top to bottom applies In the context of

Karnataka as well. The whole process of planning starts

from the political and bureaucratic apex at the State

level. This has continued even after the establishment

of decentralised development administration in the form

of Zilla Panchayats. All the districts have uniform plan

strategies and programmes even after the change in the

structure of governance. The decentralisation In

planning is confined to the distribution of plan funds

made available to the districts across different

340

departments and within a department, across different

programmes decided at the apex level.

The third criticism that the plans are pre-occupied

wi th the growth against development comes out true in a

very prominent way in the present sLldy. The entire

planning lS based on the current levels of gross

enrollment and projection of this enrollment as future

targets. All other plan interventions are made

subservient to the gross enrollment targets. Therefore

the whole of planning appears as an exerCise in

numerical manipulation of numbers. Even when these

numbers, educationally speaking are unreal, they acquire

the sanctity of official educational statistics and

processed for planning purposes. But, the same education

system which produces these statistics do not trust them

at the action level. A separate set of information are

used at the time of taking decisions for allocating

resources.

Another equally important criticism is that the

educ~tional planning neglects implementation. The

3~1

absence of official statistics on the educational

outcomes testify the truth of this observation with

respect to educational planning in !:Carnataka. The whole

purpose of schooling ln the form of learners'

ac~ievement is conspicuously absent ln the planning

j';'sc8urse. Successive plans have increasingly relied on

the same set of programmes. But those programmes have

not been viewed in an integrated fashion to understand

their implication at the action level. An example of

such unrealistic approach to planning is the provision

for salaries of teachers arrived on the basis of

enrollment targets aggregated at the district or at the

state level and arriving at the teacher requirements on

the basis of one teacher for 50 students. This would

work in a context where the educational system is being

introduced for the first time. But in an ongoing system

the incidence of increase in enrollment in each school

decides the teacher requirements in addition to the new

schools opened ln un-served areas. None of the plans

has looked into the existential dimension of the

distribution of additional enrollments. As a result, the

increase ln enrollments induced through incentives in

342

the existing schools have resul ted ~n the decrease in

the supply of teachers and schools per unit population,

increased pupil-teacher ratio and standard-teacher

ratio. In other words, the idea of 'school' has been

transfor:ned into day care centers of children

especially ~n rur31 areas. The qualitative data

generated from the field level about the process of

decision making with respect to the management of

schools confirm the criticism that the planning

neglects implementation. In fact it is the other way

round resulting In the same conclusion. That ~s, the

Implementation does not take the operational plan into

consideration while taking decisions.

The question still remaining to be answered is, if

the educational planning ~s not directed towards

educational objectives, then what is the function of

education in the whole scheme of things? The answer to

this question can only be in the form of a proposition,

subject to further verification, namely, since planning

is made as condition for appropriating public resources,

it is used as a tool for legi timising the claim for

343

resources by entrenched interests. In the field of

primary education, the vast bureaucracy itself has grown

over the years as a vested interest and survives by

l' . a~lgnlng with the interests

econcmy at different levels.

7.7 Policy implications

controlling political

1. The changed policy of the Central Government to fund

primary level education through DPEP should take note of

the outcomes of this study. The structures envisaged for

the continuous planning and implementation of the DPEP

depend heavily on the civil and educational bureaucracy

and inherently they are integrated vertically

replicating similar structures responsible for the

ongoing education system. The district level development

administration has a margi nal role to play in planning

and the DPEP has already become a section in the office

of the DOPI performing discrete functions and not the

interrelated set of activities. The functionaries wait

for the approval of proposals to take actions. The DPEP

needs to shoulder calculated risk of experimentation

344

wi th decentralised and representative structures taking

charge of planning and implementation at the district

level with support from autonomous academic institutions

made available to the district level initiatives. They

would provide the needed research and development

ac:ivities.

2. Efforts should be made to develop training programmes

to expose the functionaries performing both planning and

implementing functions at strategic levels to the theory

and practice of educational planning.

3. Immediate effort should be initiated by the State to

develop an educational data base which includes

information on educational outcomes and quality of

education.

4. Independent third party evaluation should be built

into the system from ninth Five Year Plan onwards.

345

7.8 Suggestions for further studies

1. Process studies of planning and implementation In

DPEP can be taken

functional/dysfunctional

practices.

up

aspects

to

of

identify

structures

the

and

2. Case studies uSlng social anthropological framework

can be taken up to establish the nature and function of

school in single communities of differing structures and

the nature of educational outcomes for different

sections in such communities.

346

APPENDX

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

Planning process

1. What are the objectives laid by the State to

achieve U.E.E.?

2. What are the targets you have set to achieve the

objects?

3. How is the educational development of the district

determined?

-Level at which this exercise ~s taken up.

-Indicators considered for determining educational

development.

-Method used for determining educational develop

ment.

4. What is the process involved in sanctioning of

educational facilities?

-Who collects the information?

-To whom it is reported?

-Who takes the decisions to improve the condition?

5. What is the information required at the State, the

District and the Taluk levels for planning purpose?

6. What are the sources of data available for planning

purpose?

7. What are the problems do you find in the informa

tion obtained?

8. What is the gap to be covered in each district?

9. What is the amount requ~red to cover the gap?

10. What is the target to be covered during each year?

11. Who fixes the physical targets £or dis~ricts each

year? Related to

-No. of teachers

-No. of schools to be opened

-No. of class rooms constructed

-What are the equipments to be supplied? How many?

12. Do they take into account targets set at National

and State levels?

13. What are the functions carried out at the State and

the District level in relation to planning process?

13a. What is the normal procedure followed to arrive at

the programmes?

14. What are the plan and non-plan schemes undertaken

by the State and the District?

15. Who decides about var~ous schemes to be

implemented?

or

How do you arrive at new programmes?

15a. How do you decide the cost of implementing

programmes sustaining the programmes?

16. Who evaluates the effectiveness of the schemes?

17. How are the set targets are translated in:c

programmes?

17a. What are the programmes formulated to achieve

U.E.E.?

17b. How do you encourage ~.E.E. and SC/ST education?

18. How are you gOlng to re-adjust the gap bet'l'Ieen

resources availability and resource requlred?

-Are you going to reduce the target

-Additional resource is sought

19. Do you have district specific plans? Do you give

guide lines to District?

19a. What are the guidelines

district plan?

followed to prepare

20. What are the aspects covered in the district draft

plan?

21. What are the aspects involved In the preparation of

the draft plans?

22. How is Five Year Plan prepared for the district?

-Personnel involved

-Basis for Fixing of amount

~Basis for Fixing of targets

23. How are the Annual Plans and Five Year Plan

related?

23a. How are Physical and financial targets distributed

for each annual plan?

24. What are the sources of finance at the district

level?

-Center

-State

-Local bodies

-Credit instltutes

-Contributions

-Others

25. Who decides about the allotments of funds to

district level?

26. What are the guidelines followed by the state in

distributing the funds?

-Geographical size of the District

-Population of the district

-Educational backwardness of the district.

27. In case of shortage of funds, what are the items

given more importance and money is allotted?

28. What are the maln items that are going to suffer,

during the shortage of funds?

29. What are the effects of these things on the

developmental activities of education?

30. What are the alternate methods you would suggest to

minimise the negative effects on educational

development?

31. What are the maln reasons de you th:nk weuld affect

the complet~on of the wo~k as per the sched~:e?

32. What are

mistakes?

your suggestlons to correct. these

33. I f plan programmes are not completed wi thln the

plan period it be<::omes burde!"! to next year as it

comes under non-plan. Hew are you gOlng to manage In

such a sltuations, where scarcity of funds

prevailing?

34. In the stages of planning, where are we failing?

35. What are the reasons for the failure?

36. "''hat are the ways do you think PRls would help to

achieve U.E.E.?

37. What are the challenges PRls shoulc take up?

38. What are the major problems at the implementation

stage?

39. How can these problems be corrected?

40. What are the factors that affect

-Realistic plan

-Regular flow of funds

-Flow of communication

-Monitoring

STATE PLANNING BOARD (SPB)

1. What are the activities carried out the SPB

related to education?

2. What are the activities carried out related to

primary education?

3. What is the normal procedure followed to arrive at

a programme?

4. Who are involved in the preparation of the status

paper?

5. What are the guidelines followed to prepare the

status paper?

6. Have you brought out any policy on education?

7. Have you formulated programmes related to primary

education?

8. Do you consult DDPI's, AEG's during the

preparation of the pr0gramme?

9. Whom do you consult during the preparation of

training materials?

10. How are going to collect the required information?

11. Have you formulated separate programmes for SC/ST

and girl child?

12. Do you consult finance department to know the

availability of funds?

13. Who decides the cost of implementing the

programmes?

14. Who write the action plan for the ideas given

by you?

Questions related to U.E.E.

1 ~ . What are the main reasons hindering the achievement

of U.E.E.?

2. How can we solve these problems?

3. Can we achieve U.E.E. by 2000 A.D.? How?

4. What are the target groups we should concentrate to

achieve U.E.E.?

How can PHIs help in bringing awareness among local

people to participate in educational development

activities?

6. Do you face any problem in enrolling students? If

yes, what are those problems? and, How can we solve

them?

7. What are the problems of retention? How can we

solve them?

8. What are the aspects we should take into account to

improve quality of schooling?

9. What should be the ratio of teacher and students?

10. What are the reasons for irregular attendance?

11. What are the problems of SC/ST and girl enrollment?

12. Suggest an alternate method by which we can cover

SC/ST and female children?

13. What are the measures followed to increase

enrollment of SC/ST and girls?

14. Hew are incentive programmes help in enrolling and

retaining children?

15. Comment on the effectiveness of incentive scheme.

(the supply of uniforms, text books, food items and

scholarship) .

16. What are the maln factors hindering the achievement

of DEE?

17. What is the role played by the PRls In achieving

U.E.E.?

18. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the

present planning process?

19. What are the aspects needed to be decentralised for

achieving U.E.E.?

20. Do you think the present delegation of power

helping in achieving U.E.E. in an accelerated

manner?

21. What should be the power and responsibility of the

State, the District, the Taluk and the village level

offices for accelerating the development

education?

22. What is the role played by elected members in

facilitating educational development?

23. What 1S the type of training required for them?

24. Is the financial assistance given by Government

insuff~cient?

25. Do you have any alternate plans to overcome the

financial constraint? Give reasons?

26. What are your expectations from district level

officers and elected members?

27. Why have district failed to plan their own

programmes?

Facilities available in the school

1. What are the equipments provided fer the school?

2. What are the equiprnents required for school?

3. Do you use these equiprnents? if no, glve reasons?

4. Do you think that you should be consulted before

supply of materials? Give reasons?

5. Have you requested higher officials to supply

equipments that are useful for school?

of

6. Express your opinion about the buildings, and

stationary provided for teaching purposes?

7. Do you think teachers find problem in commuting to

the school? If yes, suggest alternate arrangement to

solve problem?

8. How do teachers solve the problems faced by them in

the school? Whom do they report?

9. What are the complaints generally received related

to functioning of school?

Classroom teaching

1. What are the problems faced during enrollment and

retention of children?

2. Do you find it difficult to teach more than one

standard at a time?

3. How do you plan for teaching more than one class?

4. Can this be one of the reasons for decline in the

quality of teaching? If no, what are the other

reasons?

5. What are the other problems? Do you face in the

classroom while teaching?

6. What are problems faced by the teacher ln the

school?

About maintaining discipline

Relationship with Head Master and teacher

Relationship with PR members and officials

Relationship with parents and SBC members.

7. How can political leaders and local people support

the educational development of the village?

8. Do you feel better quality educatlon is imparted?

If no, what are the measures do you suggest?

9. How is inspection carried out? Explain merlts and

demerits of the inspection?

Parents

1. How do you feel about the present functioning of

the school?

2. What is your opinion about

- Teacher's punctuality

-Teacher's competency

-Teacher's political influence

3. What are the expectations do you have from the

school?

4. What are reasons for not enrolling/withdrawing

children?

5. Do you think education lS required for girl child?

YIN, Give reasons.

6. What are the problems do you find in sending girl

child to the school?

7. !'low is School Better:nent Committee (SBC: support

the efficlent funct~oning cf the school?

8. Do you think SBC ::ecrJl::es :ncre power to monitor the

functioning of the schoo:? ~xplaln.

9. What are the incenti·;e programmes implemented in

your village to support education?

10. .~e you happy wi~h tte lncentive programmes

lmplemented by the :;overnment? If no, give reasons.

11 . How are these programmes helping you to send your

child to school?

School Betterment Committee

1. How are SBC supporting the activities of the school

in the village?

2. What are the powers given to SBC?

3. What are the aspects do you think SBC can

interfere?

4. How are the villages support the stand taken by

SBC?

5. What are the changes brought about by SBC ln the

functioning of schooling?

6. Wha t aspects do you think are required :or total

enrollment, retention and improvement in the quality?

7. How are ~he incentive schemes help for the

educat:onal development?

8. ~hat are the steps that should be ta~en bj

offlcials to achieve U.E.E.?

9. How are PRls helping for better functioning of the

school?

10. What is the procedure followed to f~lfi:l the

requirement of school?

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