educational alternatives in food production, knowledge and ...educational alternatives in food...

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 3, November 2012

Educational alternatives in food production, knowledge and consumption: The public

pedagogies of Growing Power and Tsyunhehkw^

Pierre WalterUniversity of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

This paper examines how two sites of adult learning in the food movement create educational alternatives to the dominant U.S. food system. It further examines how these pedagogies challenge racialised, classed and gendered ideologies and practices in their aims, curricular content, and publically documented educational processes. The first case is Growing Power, an urban farm which embraces small scale capitalism and vocational education as an end toward community food security, social and ecological justice, and anti-racist education. The second case, Tsyunhehkw^, is the ‘integrated community food system’ of the Oneida Nation in rural Wisconsin, centred on cultural decolonisation through the growing and eating of traditional Oneida foods. In both these projects, there are strong possibilities to teach a critical, social justice alternative to white, middle class norms and practices of food production and consumption.

574 Educational alternatives in food production, knowledge and consumption

Introduction

Thisstudycontributestoanemergingandvibrantscholarshipontheforms,processesandsitesofpublicpedagogy(Sandlin,Wright&Clark2011).Thisbodyofworkintersectswithalongertraditionofresearchonadultlearninginsocialmovements,includingtheenvironmentalmovement(Clover2004;Foley1999;Flowers&Chodkiewicz2009;Ollis2008;Walter2007).Ingeneral,publicpedagogyscholarshiphastendedtofocusoncritiquesofhegemonicstructuresofinformaleducationandlearninginpopularculture,followingtraditionsofcriticalpedagogy(Sandlin,O’Malley&Burdick2011).However,researchondisruptionsofdominantstate and corporate ideologies through public pedagogies such as culturejamming(Sandlin2010),voluntarysimplicity(Sandlin&Walther2009)andcriticalshopping(Jubas2011)isalsoapartofthisscholarship.Researchinsocialmovementlearning,althoughnecessarilyincludingacritiqueofdominantideologiesandsocialstructures,hasfocusedmoreonthepotentialofadultlearningandeducationforsocialchange.Todate,however,publicpedagogyandsocialmovementlearninginthefoodmovementhasreceivedrelativelylittleattention,withnotableexceptions(Flowers&Swan2011;Sumner2008).

Theenvironmentalmovement,andmorerecently,thefoodmovement,havebeencriticisedinfeministscholarshipasrepositoriesofmale,middleclassnorms,practicesandoppressivegenderrelations.Inthefoodmovement,callstoreturntomoreholistic,organicandlocalfoodproduction,forexample,maysimplymeanadditionallabourforwomen,andfamilymealsmaybesitesofviolenceagainstwomen,bothsymbolicallyandmaterially(DeVault1991;Lupton1996).Morerecently,scholarsinthefoodmovementhavealsobeguntocritiquethestructuresandrelationsofsocialclass,whitenessandpowerexpressedinalternativefoodpractices,pedagogies,spacesandcommunityinstitutionsinthefoodmovement

Pierre Walter 575

(Guthman2008;Slocum2006,2007).Amongothers,RachelSlocum(2006:337)arguesfortheimportanceofunderstandingandacknowledgingthehistoryofracism,colonialism,andclassandgenderoppressionunderlyingthefoodsysteminattemptstoenactlocalalternativestoit:

ItmaybeusefulforcommunityfoodadvocatestoactivelyconsiderthattheUSfoodsystemwasbuiltonafoundationofgenocide,slaveryandlayersofracistinstitutionsthathavedispossessedracializedgroupsofculturalpride,landandwealth,ingender-andclass-specificways.Itsurvives,forinstance,throughtheworkofpeopleofcolorwhoserve,disproportionately,inthehazardousworkoffarmlaborandfoodprocessing.Institutionalizedracismintersectingwithprocessesofcolonialism,welfareideologyandgenderandclassoppressionisalsovisibleintheareasoffoodinsecurity,diseaseandexcessdeath.

InthepoliticsandactivismofIndigenousscholarsinNorthAmericaandbeyond,strongthemesofdecolonisation,landsovereignty,self-determination,culturalrevivalandindigenouspedagogiesinrelationtofoodarealsostronglyvoiced(Grande2004;LaDuke2005).Recently,IndigenousscholarshavebeguntotakeupthethornypoliticalquestionoffeminismsandIndigenousthought,activismandcultureaswell(Green2007;Suzaket.al.2010),withstrongimplicationsforthestudyofcolonialism,genderoppression,classandraceinthefoodmovement.

ThepurposeofthispaperistoexaminehowintwositesofpublicpedagogyintheU.S.foodmovementtherearepossibilitiesfor‘activists’todisrupt,contestandcreatealternativestodominantideologiesandpracticesinthefoodsystem,andtoexaminehowthesepedagogiesdoordonotaddressracialised,classedandgenderedideologiesandpracticesinthefoodmovement.Thepaperdescribestheaims,curricularcontent,andtheirpublicallydocumentededucationalprocesses.Otherresearchonpublicpedagogyinsocialmovementsitessuggeststhatadultsmay‘engage


incriticallytransformativelearningontheirown’,focusingmoreon‘noncognitiveandembodiedrelationsoflearning…withoutthehelpofaninterveningadulteducatorandwithoutcritical,rationaldialogue’(Sandlin,Wright&Clark2011:11).Thus,thepaperlooksforevidenceofapublicpedagogypromotingtransformativelearninginthetwosites under study as well.

Methodology

Thestudysites,locatedinthestateofWisconsin,U.S.,illustratediversepublicpedagogiesembracingalternativeideologiesandmaterialpracticesoffoodproductionandconsumption,socialjustice,culturalrevival,andhumanhealth.Thefirstcase,thatof Growing Power,isanurbanfarminanimpoverishedAfricanAmericanneighborhoodinthecityofMilwaukee.Thiscaseembracessmall-scalecapitalismandvocationaleducationasanendtowardfoodsecurity,multiculturalleadership,socialandecologicaljusticeandanti-racistpedagogy.Thesecondcase,Tsyunhehkw^,isthe‘integratedcommunityfoodsystem’oftheOneidaNationinruralnortheasternWisconsin.Itcentresonrecovering,producing,processingandpromotinghealthy,traditionalOneidafoods;thatis,ondecolonisinglocalfoodandlifesystems.

Dataforthestudywascollectedinbriefsitevisits,documents(includingnewsletters,annualreports,conferenceprograms,andbrochures)andanexhaustiveinternetsearchusingGoogle-Web,-Videoand-Newssearchengines.Thisformofdigitalresearchisincreasinglyprevalentinadulteducationresearch(e.g.Irving&English2011;McGregor&Price2010).Datawereanalysedusingethnographiccontentanalysis(Altheideet. al.2008)inatwo-stageprocessforanalysingdigitalwebsitesandmediaaspublicpedagogy(Kelly2011).Inthefirstphase,alldatawerereviewedforeachcase,andacompositecase‘portrait’developed;inthesecondphase,characteristicelementsforeachcasewereidentified,andfindings

Pierre Walter 577

solidifiedinasecondreviewofdataforeachcase.Internetsitesusedforthestudyincludedeachinitiative’swebpages(forGrowing Power almost50;forOneidaover150),socialmedia(bothhaveFacebookandTwittersites),blogs,independentnewsmediaaccounts(67articlesforGrowing Power,28forOneida),andinthecaseofGrowing Power,54videos.

Thestudyexaminesonlytheclaimsmadebyeachcaseintheirpublicallyavailabledocuments,andthusdoesnotrevealhowandwhatlearnersinthesesitesactuallyexperienceandlearn,exceptanecdotally. The study likewise does not directly address how educatorsinthesesettings,as‘thecriticallinkbetweenhegemonicpopularcultureandcriticalawarenessofthatcultureashegemonic’,mighthelpto‘fostercriticaldialogueandhelpadultlearnersunderstandthepowerandpoliticsatworkwithinpopularculture’(Sandlin,Wright&Clark2011:10).Thus,inonesense,thisstudy,likemanyothersprecedingit(Sandlin,O’Malley&Burdick2011:359),isananalysisofan‘imaginedpublicpedagogy’,asthispedagogyisevidentinthedocumentsofeachcase.Inthisregard,thestudyprovidesagoodstartingpointforfurtherempiricalfieldresearchonadultlearnersandlearningintheseandotherinformalpedagogicalsiteswithinthefoodmovement.

Community-based capitalism, food production and social justice

ThecityofMilwaukee,Wisconsin’sclaimtofamehasbeenitsGermanimmigrantbreweries(Miller,Schlitz,Pabst),industrialmanufacturing,andaradicalpoliticalhistoryinwhich‘SewerSocialists’electedthreeSocialistmayorsfrom1910to1960.Today,Milwaukeeisacityofabout600,000peoplesurroundedbyanother1millionpeopleinitssuburbs,whichhavegrowndramaticallysincethe1960s,inpartasaconsequenceof‘whiteflight’fromthecityproper.LikeothercitiesintheMidwesternRustBelt,Milwaukeesufferedfromadownturninmanufacturinginthelate1960s,


inwhichthousandsofoncewell-paidindustrialworkersfoundthemselvesslippingoutofthemiddleclassandintothelowwageserviceandhealthcaresectors.Endemicpovertybegantocharacterisemanyneighbourhoodsoftheurbancore,includingthosewhichwerepredominantlyAfricanAmerican(CityofMilwaukee2012a).Thecityistodaydeeplydividedbyraceandclassbothgeographicallyandeconomically:accordingtoonerecentstudy,MilwaukeeisinfactthemostraciallysegregatedcityintheU.S.,withurbanblacksdisproportionatelysufferingtheilleffectsofjobandtaxbaselossestotheprosperouswhitesuburbs(Denvir2011).

Togetherwithanenduringlegacyofracialinequality,Milwaukeehasalsohistoricallybeenthesiteofgrassrootsmovementsforpeaceandsocialjustice,environmentalism,andcivilrights,ofinnovationsincommunitydevelopment,andofnumerousattemptstobridgeitseconomicandracialdivides.Inthelastdecade,afoodandsustainabilitymovementinthecityhasgrowninleapsandbounds,withstrongrootsinimpoverishedAfricanAmericancommunities,amongothers(Broadway2009;CityofMilwaukee2012b).Oneofthemostlong-standingandwell-knownoftheselocalfoodsecurityinitiativesisGrowing Power,anintegratedurbanfarmandnon-profittrainingcentreestablishedbyAfricanAmericaentrepreneur,farmerandcommunityleader,WillAllen.

Aformerprofessionalbasketballplayerandcorporatebusinessman,Allenhasforthelasttwentyyearsbuiltacommunity-basedurbanfarmingsystemontwoacresoflandsituateddirectlyinthemidstofoneofMilwaukee’spoorestAfricanAmericanneighbourhoods,closebytothecity’slargestpublichousingproject.Asanon-profitorganizationandlandtrust,themissionofGrowing Power (2012a)is‘supportingpeoplefromdiversebackgrounds,andtheenvironmentsinwhichtheylive,byhelpingtoprovideequalaccesstohealthy,high-quality,safeandaffordablefoodforpeopleinallcommunities’.TheGrowing Power (2012b)farmsitehouses

Pierre Walter 579

20,000plantsandvegetables,100,000fish(tilapia,perch,bluegill),chickens,goats,ducks,rabbitsandbees,andsuppliescheaporganicfoodtosome10,000people.Growing Power makes400‘mobilegrocerystore’deliveriesof‘safe,healthyandaffordableproduce’tolocalpick-uppoints,managesacooperativenetworkofsmallfamilyfarmerspracticingsustainablefarming,suppliesfreshproducetosome25-40,000MilwaukeePublicSchoolstudents,isinvolvedinnumerouscommunityandschoolgardeninitiatives,donatesproducetolocalfoodpantries,andoperatestwofarmersmarketsinpoorneighborhoodswhichotherwisehavedifficultaccesstohealthyfood.TheorganizationhastaughtandemployedhundredsoflocalAfricanAmericanyouthandothersinurbanagriculture,buildingtheirprofessionalskillsandfoodknowledge,andenablingthemtopursuenew ways of attaining good health.

Growing Power’seducationalaimsareenactedinpartinitsfocusondevelopingcommunitycapacityforsustainableurbanagriculture.Thefarmisenvisionedasan‘educationallab’and‘CommunityFoodCenterandTrainingFacility’;itisa‘placetotrynewthings,learnwhatwedonotknow,andimproveonwhatwedo.Webelievethatfarmingshouldbesimpleandaccessibletoallpeople,sowecreatemethodsforgrowingandlivestockmanagementthatcanbereplicatedineveryneighborhood,fromDetroit,MichigantoGhana,Africa’(GrowingPower2012c).Tothisend,thefarmoffersdailytours,numeroushands-onworkshopsoncomposting,aquaponics,solarenergyandanimalhusbandry,long-term(fivemonth)trainingprogramsoncommunityfoodsystems,3-monthandyear-longapprenticeships,oneyearvocationaltrainingfor‘FoodSystemsSpecialists’,servicelearningandcommunityvolunteeropportunities,accreditedin-servicetrainingforschoolteachers,andyear-roundyouthleadershiptraining.Regularcommunityfeastsandcelebrationsatthefarmareacriticalpartoffoodeducationandcommunitybuildingaswell.Off-site, Growing Powerteachesaboutcommunityfoodsystemswithinanetworkofschoolandcommunitygardens,


urbanfarmsandsome16‘RegionalOutreachTrainingCenters’aroundtheU.S.(GrowingPower2012d).

Aspartofitsmissiontopromoteprogressivesocialchangeinthefoodmovement,andracialandeconomicequalityforpoorpeopleofcolour,inparticular,Growing Power has established the Growing Food and Justice for All Initiative (GFJI).AsleaderWillAllennotes:

‘Thepeoplehithardestbythecurrentfoodsystemareusuallypeopleofcolor–butevenadecadeago,farmingcarriedastigmainthesecommunities.Therewerememoriesofsharecropping,likeinmyownfamily.Today,folksarejumpingontothe“goodfood”revolution,andit’scrucialtheyseefacesthatlookliketheirown’(quotedinKaufman2010:17).ThemissionofGFJIisthusboth to encourage the participation of people of colour in the foodmovementandtoaddressracismandsocialinjusticeonabroadscale:GFJIis‘aninitiativeaimedatdismantlingracismandempoweringlow-incomeandcommunitiesofcolorthroughsustainableandlocalagriculture’(GrowingPower2012e).

GFJI’saimsareaccomplishedinthebuildingofanationalanti-racismnetworkthroughablog,newsletter,website,andsocialnetworking,provisionoffinancialandeducationalsupportforcommunityinitiativestodismantleracism,policyactivism,andtrainingofcommunity-basedanti-racismtrainers(GrowingPower2012e).Aboveallelse,however,isGFJI’sannualconference,and strong presence at Growing Power’s (2012f)urbanfarmingconferences.The‘IntensiveLeadershipFacilitationTraining’(ILFT)immediatelybeforethe4thannualGFJIConferencein2011,forexample,was‘designedtobuildacommunityofleadersandprovideintensivetraininganddialogueforparticipantstofacilitateanti-racistfoodjusticetrainingsintheirownregions/communities’(GFJI2011:7).DuringtheILFTtraining,participantsengagedin‘farmingactivities(atGrowing Power’sfarmsite)thatexplorehowtobuildajustfoodsystem,identifybarrierstoachievingjusticeandequity,historicalchallengesandcommunitybuilding’(ibid:7).Theyfurther

Pierre Walter 581

discussed‘examplesofinstitutionalandstructuralracismandhowitoperates…,practicalapplicationsoffacilitatingchangeandbecomingachangeagent’,andindividualrolesandprocessesofanti-racismwork,includingstrategiesandactionplans(ibid:7).Ingeneral,GFJIeducationalinitiativesaddresstheintersectionalityofvariousoppressions,includingracism,class,homophobiaandsexism.AttheSeptember2012GrowingPowerConference(upwardof3,000participantsexpected),forinstance,theGFJI(2012)TrackincludestopicssuchasRaceandFood;LGBTQPeopleintheFoodMovement;EnvironmentalInjustice;IndigenousRights:GlobalMovement,SurvivalandCulturalPreservation;OccupytheFoodSystem:Action,OrganizeandProtest;PracticalFoodJusticewithHandsonToolsandActivitiestoTaketoYourCommunity;andCommunityBasedPolicy.

No. 1: Milwaukee

Food production and the recovery of Indigenous knowledge and identity

Formerlyoccupyingsome6millionacresoflandinNewYorkState,theOneidaPeoplenowlivinginWisconsinwere,beforetheyweredispossessedoftheirlands,slashandburnagriculturalists,whorotatedcropsofcorn,squashandbeansthroughswiddenfields,huntedand‘farmed’deer,caughtfishandcollectedwildfoods(Loew2001:100-102).Inthelate1800s,theOneidawereforcedofftheirNewYorklandsbyhostilewhitesettlersandunscrupulouslandspeculators.Intheearly1800s,theymigratedtoGreenBay,WisconsinandpurchasedasmallstripoflandfromtheMenomineeNation,settlingalongtheFoxRivertopracticesedentaryagriculture(OneidaTribe2012a).In1838,theNationwasallotted65,430acres(263km2)ofland,butinafamiliarhistoryofdispossession,by1999,mostofthislandwasinprivatehands(Loew2001).However,by2009,withbuy-backoftraditionallandsbytribalgovernment,theOneidaNationregainedsovereigntyover22,398acres(90km2)oftheiroriginalreservedlands(Griffin2009).Today,thereare16,567


OneidapeopleinWisconsin,about6,000ofwhomliveonorneartheOneidareservation(WSTI2011).

From1893to1920,Oneidachildren,likemanyotherNativeAmericans,weresubjecttoforcedassimilationpoliciesinIndianboardingschools.Intheseschools(someasfarawayasPennsylvaniaandVirginia),Oneidachildrenwerepunishediftheyspoketheirnativelanguageorpracticedculturalrituals,werecladindrabandproperVictorianeraclothes,hadtheirhaircutshort,wereassignedforeignnames,fedforeignfoods,andtaughtacurriculumcomprisedofhalfacademictrainingandhalfmenial,andoftengruelling,manuallabour(Loew2001).The‘de-culturalising’aimoftheseschools,wherebynativechildrenwereforciblyremovedfromtheirhomestoridthemoftheirIndigenousculture,wassimilartoassimilationistpoliciesacrosstheU.S.,Canada,AustraliaandAotearoaNewZealand(Smith2009).FortheOneidapeople,aculturalrenaissanceofsortsbeganintheRedPowermovementofthe1960sand1970sinurbanMilwaukee(Loew2001).Bythe1980s,theOneidawereamongthefirstIndiantribestosignagamblingagreementwiththeStateofWisconsin,andsubsequentlyopenedathrivingcasino,hotel,restaurantandconventioncentrecomplex.FundsgeneratedweretheninvestedonOneidalandsina‘textbookexample’ofcommunitydevelopmentandculturalrevival:thisincludedlandbuy-backs,establishmentofahealthcareclinic,housing,acourtandpolicesystem,socialwelfareprograms,alibrary,anearlychildhoodprogram,eldercare,highereducationscholarships,atribalschoolsystem,andanintegratedcommunityfoodsystem(Loew2001;OneidaTribe2012b).

AsonestrandofOneidaculturalrevivalandeducation,theOneidaNationelementaryschoolwasestablishedin1994.TogetherwiththeOneidasecondaryschool,theschoolsystemnowenrolsover400students(WSTI2011),andoffersabilingualandbiculturalcurriculumbasedontraditionalOneidaculture,comprisingOneida

Pierre Walter 583

language,music,history,Indigenousknowledgeandcustomarytraditions.Includedinthiseducationistheelementaryschool’sThreeSistersGarden(corn,squash,beans),andmedicinalandherbgardens.Here,childrengrowIndigenousfoods,learnOneidafoodstoriesanddances,harvestcropsandlearntocookandpresentacommunityfeastoftraditionalfoods(Griffin2009;Vasquez2011).Asasecondmajorstrandinrecoveringandpromotingtraditionalculture,since1994,theOneidaNationhasdevelopedthe’OneidaCommunityIntegratedFoodSystems’comprisedofan83acrecertifiedorganicfarm,a40acreappleorchard(4,000trees),acannery,greenhouses,small-scaleaquaponics,afoodpantry,healthcentre,farmersmarket,amuseum,aretailstoresellingtraditionalfoods,andayouthprogram(OneidaTribe2012c).Withinthisfoodsystem,theTsyunhehkw^(‘lifesustenance’)programisa‘culturallyandcommunitybasedagriculturalprogramfortheOneidaNation’whoseaimistoplay‘apivotalroleinthereintroductionofhighquality,organicallygrownfoodsthatwillensureahealthierandmorefulfillinglifefortheOn^yote?aka (Oneida),and(be)thefacilitatorofpositivedietaryandnutritionalchange’(Ibid.).Thethreemajorcomponentsofthesystemareagriculture,thecanneryandretailsales.

JeffMetoxen(2005),managerofTsyunhehkw^,writesaboutthereason why traditional agricultural and food processing are being recovered,adaptedandtaughttocommunitymembersandothers:

ItisourOn^yote?aka(Oneida)CulturalBeliefthatwhenthehumanswerecreated,shukwaya?tisu(Creator)instructedthemthatallthatwasneededforagoodlifewasreadilyavailabletothem.Theywouldwantfornothing;therewaswater,food,medicines–everythingneededtosustainthem.Allthatwasaskedofthehumanswastogatherwhatwasprovidedandgivethanks…Overtime,wefailedtoprovidethisrecognitionandignoredourresponsibilities…theThreeSistersweregoingtoleavethisworldifthepeoplecontinuedinthisway.Thepeoplerecognizedtheyhad failed and began again to honor the Three Sisters in their


ceremonies…Wecontinuetodayinhonoringallofcreation,andwerecognizetheThreeSistersinourceremonies…AswecarefortheThreeSisters,wecontinuetolearnhowtoaccomplishthis,andsharethatknowledge.CaringfortheWhiteCorngoeshandinhandwithcaringforandrespectingournaturalenvironmentandallthatitprovidesinreturn.ItisourjobtorespectallthattheCreatorhasoffered,andwelookatfoodasthenaturalmedicinesandhealthprovidedforusbytheCreator.

CentraltotheseteachingsistherecoveryofIndigenousknowledgeoftheThreeSisters(corn,squash,beans),andinparticular,therevivalofOneidavarietiesofWhiteCorn,atraditionalprotein-richvarietyofcornattheheartoftheOneidadiet,culture,cosmology,healthandagriculture.TeachingsintheagriculturalcomponentofTsyunhehkw^areofferedtothecommunityinhands-onworkshopsongrowingoforganicheirloomWhiteCorn,creatingaThreeSistersGarden,andgrowingtraditionalherbs,berriesandvegetables.Intherevivaloftraditionalagriculturalknowledge,visitsbacktoOneidarelationslivinginNewYorkandCanadaarealsoimportant(Vasquez2011).Infact,theoriginalWhiteCornseedsnowplantedon-siteinWisconsinwereobtainedfromtheOneidaNationinNewYorkin1992(Metoxen2005).

AnothersourceoftraditionalknowledgeandeducationisTheOneidaMuseum:itexplainsthehistoryofWhiteCorn,theThreeSisters,theGreenCornStory,cycleofceremonies,theThanksgivingAddress,womenandmen’straditionalroles,thelonghouse,andOneidalanguage,music,symbolism,historyandart.Inthefalloftheyear,theannualTsyunhehkw^HarvestandHuskingBeeservesasafurtherpedagogicalsitewhereOneidapeople‘sharetheknowledgeofsnapping,huskingandbraidingourWhiteCorn.WithcommunitysupportthecornishandharvestedandbraidedtodryintheOneidatradition’(p.4).Eldersandhistoricalrecordsareconsultedtolearnmoreabout‘traditionalwaystocareforthecrops,land,andtheanimals’andmuchknowledgeisgainedaswell

Pierre Walter 585

throughtrialanderror(Metoxen2005:4;Vasquez2011).AttheTsyunhehkw^ Cannery,workshopsareregularlypresentedonhowtomakeculturallysignificantWhiteCornfoodslikecornsoup,cornbread,cornmeal,flouranddehydratedcornaswellascanningandpreservationoflocallygrownfruitsandvegetables(OneidaTribe2012d).Finally,educationalaimsofTsyunhehkw^ are put into practiceintheOneidaTsyunhehkwaRetailStore,whichsellsandteachesaboutawiderangeoftraditionalmedicinalherbsandoils,WhiteCornproducts(fromtheCannery),wildriceandherbalteas(OneidaTribe2012e).Inthiseffort,thestorerunsaninteractiveFacebookinformationandadviceblog,holdsanannualopenhouse,andoffersaBrownBaglunchseries,withregularworkshopsonholisticandtraditionalOneidamedicine.

Discussion

Bothofthecommunityinitiativespresentedaboveappeartoberichpedagogicalsitesinthefoodmovement.Eachaimstoconveyaparticularoppositionalknowledge,practice,ideologyandethicoflocal,sustainablefoodproductionandconsumption.Inexaminingtheirpublicpedagogy(i.e.,thedocumentationfoundintheirwebsites,reports,newsletters,blogsandotherpublicmediasuchasvideosandnewsaccounts),itisevidentthatthesesitesprovideaneducationalcurriculumwhichcouldbeusedtofostergrassroots,oppositionaladultlearning–inworkshops,demonstrations,hands-onexperience,culturalrituals,ceremoniesandfeasts,experimentation,andthesharingoflocalandindigenousknowledgeinstoriesandcommunitydialogue.

Thetwocasespresentaneducationalcurriculumwhichisinpartaboutlearning,re-learningandre-valuingtraditionalfoodwork–includinggrowing,preparing,processingandharvestingfood,butalsoeatingfood:asre-envisionedpractices,theseareinfactpedagogical acts. This pedagogy then helps not only to undo the


legaciesofracism,colonialismanddispossessionandthewhiteness’uponwhichtheUSfoodsystemisbuilt(Slocum2006),butalsotoestablishamorejustsystemoffoodsecurity,culturalidentityandhealthforracialisedgroupssuchtheOneidaandmarginalisedAfricanAmericanurbanyouth.Partoftheintentoforganizingthemanysharedmeals,ritualsandfoodceremoniesinthelifeofTsyunhehkw^ (e.g.theOneidaHarvestandHuskingBee),forexample,istoteachacommonOneidaidentitythroughtheactofpreparingandeatingtraditionalfoods.Thissortoflearning,asitisdescribedbytheOneidaorganizersandpublicdescriptionsofTsyunhehkw^,ispartlyabouttherecoveryoflostknowledgeandculturalpractices,butisalsoaboutembodied,relationalandspirituallearningalongsideothersinthecommunity;itismeansofrevivingcollectiveOneidaidentitythroughfood.

The teaching and learning which takes place through Tsyunhehkw^ mightthusbeunderstoodasadecolonising,politicalactofpopulareducation,inwhichnotonlyculturalrevival,butalsofoodandlandsovereignty,socialjustice,andcriticalplace-basededucationmeetataparticularjunctureofadultlearningthefoodmovement.Theconnectionoffoodandlandasasourceofidentity,sustenanceandcollectivehistoryisparticularlyimportantinthelargerprojectofre-possessingdispossessedterritories,placeandculture.PartofthehistoryofcolonisationofNativeAmericanpeopleswastotakeawaybothnativelandsandthenativefoodswhichflourishedupontheselands.Ascloseasacenturyago,mostAmericanIndianNationsproducedalmostalltheirownfood;todaytheytypicallyproducelessthan20%(HTE2009:19).NativeAmericanreservations,liketheurbaninnercity,areoftenfooddeserts,alongcarridefromthenearestsupermarketsandsourcesofhealthyfood.Partlyasaresultoftheirrelianceonimported,highlyprocessedindustrialfoods,manyNativecommunitiessufferhighratesofdiabetes,heartdiseaseandobesity.Thesediseasesareenduringlegaciesoflanddispossession,de-culturalisationthroughboardingschools,andtheconcomitant

Pierre Walter 587

lossofcultural,agricultural,spiritualandancestralknowledge(LaDuke2005;McGregor2004).InovercomingtheilleffectsofcolonialismthroughTsyunhehkw^,Oneidayouthandadultsmaydiscovertheirhistoryandculture,forexample,intheactofgardeningtheThreeSisters,learningtobraidandhangWhiteCornfordrying,participatinginOneidaritualsandceremoniesofplanting,growthandthanksgiving,orsimplylisteningascommunityeldersrecounttheOneidaCreationStoryorequally,thetraumasandviolenceofboarding schools. This learning in Tsyunhehkw^ clearlyinvolvesmorethanjustculturallearning:itisalsopoliticaleducation,andpotentiallytransformative.

In Growing Power,likeOneida’sTsyunhehkw^,therearenumerouscommunitymealsandeventsaspartofthepublicpedagogy;however,unlike Tsyunhehkw^,thesefarmmealsoftenbringtogetherpeopleofdifferentclass,racialandethnicbackgroundstoprepare,eatandcelebratethefarm’sfood,whichtheyhavecollectivelyhelpedtogrow.Intheraciallyandclass-dividedCityofMilwaukee,thesemealscanrepresentapoliticalact:whenlocalAfricanAmericanpeopleinapoor‘black’neighbourhoodworkalongside,sitdowntoeatameal,andtalktogetherwithmiddleclasspeoplefromthecity’snearby‘white’Eastsideneighbourhood,theprocesscanbetransformativeforboth.Thatis,itmayinvolvearealisationofsharedhumanity,butalsobetterunderstandingsofrelationsofpower,whiteprivilegeanddifferenceacrossrace,classandculture,andperhapsevenpromoteasharedcommitmenttopoliticalactivismforchange.Ontheotherhand,thereisalsothepossibilitythat‘white’peoplediningwith‘black’peoplemaybe(unwittingly)engagingintheculturalpoliticsof‘eatingtheother’,inanactofculturalcommodificationandappropriation(hooks1992).Asbellhooks(1992:21)tellsus,inthisformofcross-culturalconsumption,‘ethnicitybecomesspice,seasoningthatcanlivenupthedulldishthatismainstreamwhiteculture’.Alongtheselines,WisconsinnativeLisaHeldke(2001:78),forexample,writesofher‘adventures’in‘culturalfoodcolonialism’as


shesampledadiversityoffoodsatthe‘ethnic’restaurantsofChicago,MinneapolisandSt.Paul:‘IwasmotivatedbyadeepdesiretohavecontactwithandsomehowtoownanexperienceofanExoticOthertomakemyselfmoreinteresting’.Thepoliticaleconomyofurbanspace,food,raceandpovertyislikewiseanimportantconsiderationinunderstandingthepotentialforcross-culturallearninginGrowing Power.SharonZukin(2005),forinstance,examineshowahistoryof‘shoppingforethnicity’acrossspatialbarriersofclassandethnicityinNewYorkCityhasledtourbangentrification,forcingAfricanAmerican,Latino,Caribbeanandotherminorityandworkingclassresidentsoutoftheirownneighbourhoods.ThustheveryrevivalofaneighbourhoodthroughtheeffortsoforganizationslikeGrowing Powermightinfactsowtheseedsofitslaterspatialconsumptionbywealthier,‘whiter’outsiders.Howtheseissuesareaddressedinthepublicpedagogyofsocialjusticeandanti-racisminGrowing Power is animportantquestionforfurtherresearch.

Since Growing Power’seducationalpracticesarecentredsymbolicallyandmateriallyonempoweringmarginalisedpeopleofcolour,andnotprimarilyinthe(‘white’)alternativefoodmovement,theyare,however,well-positionedtoaddresstheracistandclassfoundationsoftheU.S.foodsystem,andthelikelihoodoffurther‘colonial’abuse.Tothisend,Growing Power offersacurriculumofsafe,skilled,andproductiveagriculturallabourandeducationforAfricanAmericanandotheryouth,promotesfoodsecurity,sustainabilityandsocialjusticeinthepoor,racialisedcommunitiesinwhichitoperates,anddirectlyaddressessustainability,racismandsocialjusticeinitspublicpedagogy.UnlikemuchofthenorthAmericanfoodmovement,Growing Powerisnotcentredonthenorms,peopleandfoodpracticesofmiddleclass‘whiteness’(Guthman2008;Slocum2006);butinsteadproposeseducationalalternativestothese.Inthis,Growing Power,andaboveall,itsGrowing Food and Justice for AllInitiative,joinothereffortsattestingtothepowerofanti-racisteducativeactivisminthefoodmovement,suchasMo’BettaFoods

Pierre Walter 589

inOakland,California,FoodfromtheHoodinLosAngeles,andJustFoodsinNewYork(Guthman2008:394).Assuch,Growing Power andtheseothersocialjusticeinitiativesappeartoembodyaspaceandpedagogyofhoperatherthanwhite,middleclassprivilegeinthefoodmovement.

Fromthisstudy,itisnotclearhowgenderrolesandrelationsplayoutin the public pedagogy of either Growing Power or Tsyunhehkw^,althoughtheseareimportantquestionsforresearchonpublicpedagogyinthefoodmovement.What,forexample,isgenderdivisionoflabourinthegrowingoffood,theprocessing,preparationandservingoffood,theorganizationalandproductivedecisions,thedistributionofincomeandbenefits?Howmightthesetwocasesofpublicpedagogybeoppressivetowomen,oralternately,asourceofincreasedcapabilitiesandfreedom?Doesareturntotraditionalfoodcropping,harvestandpreparationinTsyunhehkw^meananintensificationofgenderroles,anincreaseinwomen’sworkandadecreaseinpower,forexample?Oristheveryshapeofthisfeministanalysisoffoodworksimplyafurtherexpressionof‘whitestream’Westerncolonialism;amisunderstandingofthemanycomplexanddiverserelationsofgenderinindigenoussocieties,someofwhichholdwomenandtwo-spiritedpeopleinpositionsofgreatreverenceandpower(Grande2004;St.Denis2007)?Thesearealsoexcellentquestions for further research.

Conclusion

ItisevidentfromthisstudythatTsyunhehkw^ and Growing Power act as sites of public pedagogy which disrupt and create educationalalternativestodominantracialisedandclassedideologiesandpracticesintheU.S.foodsystem.Assuch,theycontributetomorecritical,sociallyawareconceptualizationsandpracticesofproduction,distributionandconsumptioninthefoodmovement,asitmovesawayfromitswhite,middleclassfoundationstowardmorebroadlyinclusiveincarnations.Thesepedagogiesarecognizant


ofhistoricallegaciesofracism,colonialismandclassoppressionandworktoovercomethem.Bycontrast,itisnotclearhowtheytake up an understanding of gender oppression in their educational work.Inbothcases,theimportanceofinformalandtransformativeadultlearningisevidentintheiraims,curriculumandeducationalprocesses.Howandwherethislearningoccursinpractice,andhowitmightbeencouragedbyadulteducators;thatis,howthesesitesmobilisepeopletosocialaction,whoismobilised,andwithwhatresults,isfertilegroundforfurtherresearch,bothintheseandothersitesofpublicpedagogyinthefoodmovement.

Note: ManythankstoanonymousreviewersandtoeditorsRickFlowersandElaineSwanfortheircriticalcommentsandsuggestionsonseveraldraftsofthispaper,particularlyinrelationtotheorisingsexismandracisminthefoodmovement.

ReferencesAltheide,D.,Coyle,M.,DeVriese,K.,&C.Schneider(2008).‘Emergent

qualitativedocumentanalysis’,inS.N.Hesse-Biber&P.Leavy(eds.),Handbook of emergent methods,NewYork:GuilfordPress:127-151.

Broadway,M.(2009).‘GrowingurbanagricultureinNorthAmericancities:TheexampleofMilwaukee’, Focus on Geography,52(3-4):23-30.

CityofMilwaukee(2012a).Redistricting,http://city.milwaukee.gov/Redistricting

CityofMilwaukee(2012b).Urban Agriculture in Milwaukee,http://city.milwaukee.gov/Urban-Agriculture.htm

Clover,D.E.(2002).‘Traversingthegap:Conscientizacion,educative-activisminenvironmentaleducation,Environmental Education Research,8(3):315-323.

Denvir,D.(2011).‘The10mostsegregatedurbanareasinAmerica’,Salon,http://www.saloncom/2011/03/29/most_segregated_cities/

DeVault,M.(1991).Feeding the family: The social organisation of caring as gendered work,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Flowers,R.&Chodkiewicz,A.(2009).‘Developingamoreresearch-orientedandparticipant-directedlearningcultureintheAustralianenvironmentalmovement’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,49(2):294-317.

Pierre Walter 591

Flowers,R.&Swan,E.(2011).‘“Eatingatus”:RepresentationsofknowledgeintheactivistdocumentaryfilmFood,Inc.’,Studies in the Education of Adults,43(2):234-250.

Foley,G.(1999).Learning in social action: a contribution to understanding informal education,NewYork:ZedBooks.

GFJI(GrowingFoodandJusticeforAllInitiative)(2011).Sacred soil: Cultivating the seeds of community transformation, 4th annual GFJI gathering(conferenceprogram),September9-11,2011,WisconsinStateFairPark,Milwaukee,Wisconsin.

GFJI(GrowingFoodandJusticeforAllInitiative)(2012).GFJI Tracks, http://www.growingpowerfarmconference.org/gfji/gfji-tracks/

Grande,S.(2004).Red pedagogy: Native American social and political thought,Lanham,Maryland:Rowman&Littlefield.

Green,J.(ed.)(2007).Making space for indigenous feminism, London,UK:ZedBooks

Griffin,R.(2009).Indigenous knowledge for sustainable development: Case studies of three indigenous tribes of Wisconsin. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Stevens Point, WI: College of Natural Resources, UniversityofWisconsin.

GrowingPower(2012a).Our Farms,http://www.growingpower.org/our_farms.htm

GrowingPower(2012b).Our Community Food Center,http://www.growingpower.org/headquarters.htm

GrowingPower(2012c).Bloom,http://www.growingpower.org/bloom.htmGrowingPower(2012d).Regional Outreach Training Centers, http://www.

growingpower.org/training_centers.htmGrowingPower(2012e).Growing Food and Justice For All,http://www.

growingpower.org/growingfood_and_justice_for_all.htmGrowingPower(2012f).Growing Power Conference September 7th to 9th,

2012,www.growingpowerfarmconference.org/Guthman,J.(2008).‘“Iftheyonlyknew:”Colorblindnessanduniversalismin

Californiaalternativefoodinstitutions’,The Professional Geographer,60(3):387-397.

Heldke,L.(2001).“Let’sEatChinese!”:ReflectionsonCulturalFoodColonialismGastronomica: The Journal of Food and Culture, 1(2):76-79.

hooks,b.(1992).Black looks: race and representation, Boston,MA:SouthEnd Press.


HTE(HonortheEarth)(2009).Sustainable tribal economies: A guide to restoring energy and food sovereignty in Native America, Minneapolis, MN:HonortheEarth.http://www.honorearth.org/sustainable-tribal-economies

Irving,C.J.&English,L.M.(2011).‘Communityincyberspace:Gender,socialmovementlearning,andtheinternet’,Adult Education Quarterly,61(3):262-278.

Jubas,K.(2011).‘Shoppingforidentity:articulationsofgender,raceandclassbycriticalconsumers’,Social Identities,17(3):321-335.

Kaufman,D.(2010).‘Expertadvicefromtheurbanfarmer’,Bon Appetit, June2010,http://www.bonappetit.com/magazine/2010/06/tips_from_urban_farmer_will_allen

Kelly,D.M.(2011).‘Thepublicpolicypedagogyofcorporateandalternativenewsmedia’,Studies in Philosophy and Education,30:185-198.

LaDuke,W.2005.Recovering the sacred: The power of naming and claiming.Cambridge,MA:SouthEndPress.

Loew,P.(2001).Indian Nations of Wisconsin: Histories of endurance and renewal, Madison,WI:WisconsinHistoricalSocietyPress.

Lupton,D.(1996). Food, the body and the self, London: Sage.McGregor,C.,&Price,J.(2010).‘Websitesascivictoolsforadvocacy:An

examinationoftwoCanadianadultliteracysites.’,The Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education, 22(2):27-46.

McGregor,D.(2004).‘Comingfullcircle:Indigenousknowledge,environment,andourFuture’,American Indian Quarterly,28(3&4):385-410.

Metoxen,J.(2005).Tsyunhehkw^. Toward a Sustainable Agriculture: Module II.CenterforIntegratedAgriculturalSystems,UniversityofWisconsin:Madison,Wisconsin.http://www.cias.wisc.edu/curriculum/modII/secb/Tsyunhehkwa2.pdf

Ollis,T.(2008).‘The‘accidentalactivist’:learning,embodimentandaction’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,48(2):316-335.

OneidaTribe(2012a).Oneida History,http://www.oneidanation.org/culture/page.aspx?id=5242

OneidaTribe(2012b).Homepage,https://oneida-nsn.gov/OneidaTribe(2012c).Oneida Community Integrated Food Systems,http://

www.oneidanation.org/ocifs/OneidaTribe(2012d).Tsyunhehkwa- Cannery Page,http://www.

oneidanation.org/tsyunhehkwa/page.aspx?id=3898

Pierre Walter 593

OneidaTribe(2012e).Tsyunhehkwa- Retail Page, http://www.oneidanation.org/tsyunhehkwa/page.aspx?id=3900

Sandlin,J.A.(2010).‘LearningtosurvivetheShopocalypse:ReverendBilly’santiconsumptionpedagogyoftheunknown’,Critical Studies in Education,

51:295-311.Sandlin,J.A.&Walther,C.(2009).‘Complicatedsimplicity:Moralidentity

formationandsocialmovementlearningintheVoluntarySimplicitymovement’,Adult Education Quarterly,59(4):298-317.

Sandlin,J.A.,O’Malley,M.P.&J.Burdick(2011).‘Mappingthecomplexityofpublicpedagogyscholarship:1894–2010’,Review of Educational Research, 81(3):338-375.

Sandlin,J.A.,Wright,R.R.&C.Clark(2011).‘Reexaminingtheoriesofadultlearningandadultdevelopmentthroughthelensesofpublicpedagogy’,Adult Education Quarterly,publishedonline2August2011,DOI:10.1177/0741713611415836

Schugurensky,D.2000.Theformsofinformallearning:Towardsaconceptualizationofthefield.NALL Working Paper No.19.Toronto,Canada:CentrefortheStudyofEducationandWork,OntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducationoftheUniversityofToronto.

Slocum,R.(2006).‘Anti-racistpracticeandtheworkofcommunityfoodorganizations’,Antipode38:327-349.

Slocum,R.(2007).‘Whiteness,spaceandalternativefoodpractice’,Geoforum38:520-533.

Smith,A.(2009).Indigenous peoples and boarding schools: A comparative study, PreparedfortheSecretariatoftheUnitedNationsPermanentForumonIndigenousIssues,DocumentE/C.19/2009/CRP.1.http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/E_C_19_2009_crp1.pdf

St.Denis,V.(2007).‘Feminismisforeverybody:Aboriginalwomen,feminismanddiversity’,inJoyceGreen(ed.),Making space for indigenous feminism,London,UK:ZedBooks:33-52.

Sumner,J.(2008).‘Protectingandpromotingindigenousknowledge:Environmentaladulteducationandorganicagriculture’,Studies in the Education of Adults,40(2):207-223.

Suzack,C.,Huhndorf,S.M.,Perreault,J.&J.Barman(eds.)(2010).Indigenous women and feminism: Politics, activism, culture, Vancouver, B.C.:UBCPress.

Vazquez,J.M.(2011).The role of indigenous knowledge and innovation in creating food sovereignty in the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin. UnpublishedM.S.thesis,Ames,Iowa:IowaStateUniversity.


Walter,P.(2007).‘AdultlearninginNewSocialMovements:environmentalprotestandthestrugglefortheClayoquotSoundrainforest’,Adult Education Quarterly, 57(3):329-345.

WSTI(WisconsinState-TribalInitiative)(2011).Oneida Nation of Wisconsin,http://witribes.wi.gov/docview.asp?docid=5637&locid=57

Zukin,S.(2008).‘Consumingauthenticity:Fromoutpostsofdifferencetomeansofexclusion’,Cultural Studies, 22(5):724-748.

About the author

Pierre Walter is an Associate Professor in the Adult Learning and Education (ALE) graduate program at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. His teaching and research focus on adult learning in community-based ecotourism in Southeast Asia, comparative and international education, and social movement learning in the North American environmental movement.

Contact details

Department of Educational Studies, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.

Email: [email protected]

educational alternatives in food production, knowledge and ...educational alternatives in food...

Documents