education reforms in kenya for innovation

International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 3 No. 9; May 2013

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Education Reforms in Kenya for Innovation

Wanyama Pius Muricho

Dr. John Koskey Chang’ach

School of Education Education Foundations Department

Moi University Kenya

Abstract

Education is a vital tool in the development of any country including Kenya. Education plays a significant role in economic, social and political development of a country. Education development would lead to accelerated economic growth, more wealth and income distribution, greater quality of opportunity, availability of skilled manpower, decline in population growth, long life, better health outcomes, low crimes rate, national unity and political stability Otiato, (2009); Schultz, (1981); Harbison, (1973); Psacharopoulos,(1988); Abagi and Okech, (1997); Amutabi, (2003) among others. This belief has made many countries including Kenya to invest immensely in education to foster economic growth, productivity, contribute to national and social development thereby reducing social inequality. It is against this backdrop that the Government of Kenya since independence made education reform as its main objective since 1963. Arising from the above, education reform for innovation was investigated. Historical method of study was used which utilized mainly secondary and primary sources of data. The main sources of primary data were Government Commissions and other policy documents like Sessional Papers, Acts of Parliaments related to education in Kenya after independence. The first one being Ominde Commission of 1964 (GOK, 1964) up to Sessional Paper Number 1 of 2005 (MOE, 2005).The main sources of secondary data includes written documents such as books, journals, newspapers among others. They formed the basis of the discussion and analysis of the study. In this study, education reforms in Kenya has been investigated to find out whether the education reforms are yielding innovation in education in line with Vision 2030.

Keywords: Education, Reforms, Innovation, Kenya and Vision 2030

1.1. Introduction The motivation to focus on education reform is threefold; first, and foremost, since independence there have been education reforms and their recommendations have not been implemented hence not served Kenyans adequately. Secondly, 8-4-4 system of education reform was done in 1985; Kenyans are still calling for change to the education system to be relevant to the needs of Kenyans. The question everyone is asking is where is the problem? Are they the Kenyans? Educational planners? Political class? or Education system? Or the process of reform itself? Thirdly, since independence we have reformed education system as follows; in 1964 Africanisation and National goals of education (GOK, 1964), in 1976 national objectives of education and policies in Kenya (GOK, 1976); in 1981 the establishment the Second University (GOK, 1981), in1988 working party on education and training for the next decade and beyond (GOK, 1988), in 1999 Koech Report (GOK, 1999), Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET), but still there are challenges of relevance of education, educated unemployment, Kenyans are still yearning for change in education and they have also resisted the changes in education why?

The Government of Kenya pumps more than 30% of its budget to the development of education in the country in terms of recurrent and non-recurrent expenditure but education system has not solved major challenges of the nation. The question is do we really plan our education system? This is why this study is imperative to answer some of these questions. Today the world is witnessing a lot of changes in technological, political, social, economic aspects, are the Kenyans yearning to reform/change the education system because of the global motives or there are other motives which this study will highlight. From the documentary evidence, the study found out that the Government reform process focused on socio-economic, political conditions and problems to change the education system since independence with the hope of alleviating the challenges through education but ended creating new problems that continue to bedevil the country up today this is why the current study is important.

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The Government mostly used power coercive method to reform education and force administrators and staff to implement the reforms without question. The Government does focus education reform to problem solving which Havelock and Hubberman (1993) have noted is wrong hence yields nothing. The Government especially the political elites interferes with education planning and reforms by focusing education reform to meet the political objectives, fail to plan for change, fail to involve other stakeholders such as education administrators, teaching staff, parents and students. Lastly, the Government monopoly to change education for political expedience has led to resistance to education reforms which could have yielded very encouraging results for instance the Mackay Commission of 1981, which proposed 8.4.4 Education System, technical, vocational and practical education system. The recommendations have not been fully utilized and implemented which has prompted the research to study the challenges facing the country in educational reform since independence.

1.2. Theoretical Framework

Havelock and Hubberman (1993) surveyed the theory and reality of education reforms in the developing countries and Kenya. They stated that there is a tendency for education reforms to evolve ambitious major system transformation with what they described as “very rapid movement through the problem solving cycle from initial assessment of the need for change to the designed/designate of the solution and the implementation of that solution” (Havelock and Hubberman, 1993). For instance free primary education of 1970’s, school milk programmes of 1970’s and curriculum changes (for reforms to succeed) there must be initial state of thinking about change /reform and the implications of these changes in the education system. Thus there must be one year of the process of change where there is time for people /stakeholders thus educational planners ,educational administrators, political elites, teachers, parents and students to think of change, manage change and educate the stakeholders of the reform process and their roles for reforms to yield desired results. The stakeholders that include the political class, education planners, and government administrators of education reform are making mistakes by taking very short time to initiate and implement education reform disregarding careful study and planning for the process of change. This has contributed to the decimal picture of our nation bringing in a change process hence creating resistance to education reforms.

Havelock and Hubberman (1993) concluded that the practice of innovating or bringing in change requires drastic improvement if it is to succeed. Education reforms process is a long term process which should not be based on problem solving rather, change must be planned within specific time frame. It is important to note that the way reforms are introduced may have a major determining influence on the success of those changes and attempt has to be made to define some of the main key strategies for change in education to yield innovations.

Havelock and Hubberman (1993) argues that almost all developing countries including Kenya employs “power coercive strategy.” In this model, decisions are made at the top then communicated down. This strategy is highly centralized approach where changes are introduced and usually adopted in a highly centralized education system for educational development. A decision is taken by a central authority at high levels and is communicated downwards through the bureaucratic hierarchy to those whose responsibility is to carry the decision into effect. Those to carry out the decision include administrators and the teachers at the local level who have in theory no choice in the matter but to implement the decision as they are directed. For example, change of set books, examinations, fees structure, curriculum, and discipline procedures in schools (MOE, 2008, Namaswa, 1989).

All these are top down directives that the administrators and teachers must implement without question or input. The central authority has the capacity to compel the administrators and teachers to implement the decision through its position of a wide range of powerful sanctions such as contracts of employment control capacity to manipulate career structure, power to regulate the flow of financial support together with an administrative supervisory and evaluation structure to keep a fairly close eye on those who carry decisions into effect. This includes interviews for promotion, central authority posts teachers and head teachers to schools, the government control and direct school budgets and school fees in schools where the ministry of education implements these guidelines and maintains that this is the governments’ policy and position. These are extremely powerful instruments in theory and their use is sanctioned by customs and general acceptance of the necessity of planning educational to development to attain national goals of education. The strategy has mainly used in paperwork in education reform and development in Kenya.


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For example, it has been decided that boarding fees shall not exceed kshs. 18,000 per student per year. The issues of inflation, demand and supply, world economic meltdown as well as climatic conditions do not matter with the government! This strategy is simple and rational to the extent that its appropriacy in practice tends to be rarely questioned. Where changes are introduced using this strategy fail, then it is assumed that this is the consequence of simple inefficiency of those to implement the reforms. Thus the leadership introduces change through power coercive strategy and when the change fails, those in authority blame those implementing the reform like education administrators and the teachers on the ground or in schools. The widespread failure of such strategy to bring about meaningful reform required suggests that questions need to be asked about the nature of basic strategy of power coercive and the implementation structure of the strategy.

Challenge to this strategy is that the decisions made at the top of the system are often remote from the ground and therefore may be relatively insensitive to some of the realities of the local school and classroom situations. Surely, the leaders are not aware of what is happening on the ground. There is need to consult teachers, community or local people who may be familiar with problems of the structure and nature of the problem and their input may be required in making a decision. In areas such as curriculum methodological change upon which much demand from reform has centered, teachers are less at home and their occasional forays into this field often betrays a lack of understanding by the Government leadership. For instance, Strengthening of Science and Mathematics in Secondary Education (SSMASE) educational reform was a noble change in education to boost the teaching and learning of mathematics and sciences (MOE, 2007) but since it was implemented by top down strategy, it failed and has not worked because the teachers who were supposed to implement SSMASE were not involved in the planning to introduce and implement SSMASE which is a key area in relation to vision 2030 to prepare the country’s National Industrial Development. SSMASE reform in education has failed to produce results in many schools in the country.

By nature of top-down strategy, power coercive strategy is used for change to take the form of major changes in the education sector which may not be quite relevant. For example, change of an education system from 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4 adopted this strategy. The challenge to this strategy is lack of participation from down therefore, failure to support the changes. Moreover bureaucracies are not interpersonal instruments but consist of people with their own personal and group interests thus own capacities to interpret the instructions passed down through the bureaucratic system. Interpretation of implementers of policy/reform/change is different in areas where they are specialists in the interpretation that teachers give is cardinal to the success of the reform. In addition bureaucracies makes enforcement of instructions quite inconsistence and interpreting this instructions from the bureaucratic chain since they must work out the details of the implementations to be more extent adapt it to physical situations and the problems of which they are aware and which their supervisors cannot be expected to have taken fully into account. The degree of freedom they poses to interpret and modify the instructions will be greater where the original instruction is clear, implementers will be doing things differently. In this case, therefore, administration and the teachers affect education reforms positively and negatively.

Positively both administrators and teachers will make the intended goals of reform an integral part of day today business of education. Negatively, the administration that is not prepared to handle the reform changes, the reform into what it can handle. For example, discipline procedures, staffing norms, examination and fee structure, all the above are prepared and administered by top down strategy. An administrator may be unprepared both for reason of capacity and willingness. Fees structure is a top down strategy and has not worked because each school has its own fees structure that is different from the Government fees structure (MOE, 2008). The outcome of the reform that is transmitted down through the bureaucratic hierarchy and outward into the more geographical remote branches is steadily modified into something less threatening to the people who operate it and in the absence of the will on their part to change their ways more like what is being done. This is a process reversion. In this view, any change/reform undertaken in education, it is modified to look like what it was in the past (reversion) revert to the usual past. For instance, 8-4-4 education system is similar to the previous 7-4-2-3 since it has not served Kenyans in technical and vocational subjects and skills as it was intended in 1985 when it was launched, therefore educated youth unemployment is still rampant, it is not terminal at the strategies cycle of learning and moreover it is purely academic preparing students for white collar jobs. This is why it is not different from 7-2-4-3, hence Kenyans have rejected (8.4.4), are still yearning for relevant education system to serve the larger needs of Kenyans in the current 21 century.


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In historical perspective, since independence in 1963, Kenya has reformed the education system based on the following models, approaches or strategies; “social demand model, manpower requirements and rate of return education/cost benefit analysis approaches” (Namaswa, 1989) The social demand model is the sum total of individual demand for education at a given place, time under prevailing social economic and political conditions. It is the pressure that emanates from public for the demand of education thus quality and quantity of education. Namaswa calls it “popular demand for education” (Namaswa, 1989:49). The model is concerned with the consumption function of education rather than the investment. In this reform model, education is viewed as a service that is demanded by the public like other services and goods. Education should be provided for those who want it. The level of social demand of education is a good indicator of the desire by the population in the country to reform and develop education to meet this demand.

The main reason why there is high demand for more education are threefold; first, economic conditions, there is belief that there is a relationship directly between the acquisition of education and gaining better jobs for the betterment of economic situations (Psacharopoulos,1988;Schultz,1981;Amutabi,2003) The more one is educated the better more job opportunity one gets. Secondly, peristaltic reasons; this is a situation where a particular generation pushes its off spring’s upper the ladder of education. For example parents would want their children to get higher education than they had. Thirdly, social prestige value of education. Most people seek education for social honour or prestige in society. Therefore people climb higher and higher educationally for honour in society. In Kenya education reforms from 1963 and 1975 was mainly based on social demand model since after independence the colonialists left the country and went back home. The colonists had not developed African education adequately hence there was need to Africanize education and train manpower. The Government of Kenya reformed/changed education to increase participation rates by using social demand model. The reforms included; free primary education for those who never went to school would not go to school, could now attend since education at primary level was free in 1974. The Government provided incentives to attract students to schools, colleges and universities which also included Milk programme and Student allowances at public universities i.e. boom in 1980’s (Namaswa, 1989:251). From these incentives student enrolment in lower primary school stood at 2.1 million. By 1978 student enrolment was 3.2 million. This is in line with vision 2030, this increased access and equity through the education reforms as stated above.

The model was best for Kenya after independence where education was reformed from colonial to independent era to bring about social, economic and political development. However, social demand model of education reform underestimated the cost of education that was to produce enlightened personnel, led to great increase in schools and enrolment against scarce resources which affected quality and effectiveness of the education system. In turn, led to a new monster in the education system, the school leaver unemployment thus large number of school leavers cannot get employment in the modern economic sector. This forced the Government to think about the relevant education system that could solve the educated unemployed. Therefore, through the Gachathi Report 1976, Mackay Report of 1981 reformed/changed the education system of 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4 education in 1985 with the need to tackle the problem of educated unemployment by the introduction of vocational and technical subjects in primary education to make education terminal after primary school cycle. The Ministry of Education had this to observe on the new proposed 8-4-4 education system; “the main aim in changing Kenya’s educational system from 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4 is to improve the quality of education at all levels” (MOE, 1988).

As to whether the 8-4-4 system of education attained its objectives in the formative years was wanting because the 8-4-4 education system was resisted by Kenyans on the on-set of system because of the following; people were not involved in reform, force was used to implement it and there was no financial support. Parents were expected to meet the costs. Government did not commit resources therefore there was; no trained teachers for technical/vocational subjects, people to develop the new curriculum, it was trial and error and many students were wasted before the teachers were got. The 8-4-4 education is in line with Vision 2030 since it emphasized on mathematics, sciences, vocational/technical subjects for technical skills needed to revamp the innovation and growth in industrial and economic sectors. The 8.4.4 education system was intended to make education more relevant to the world of work thus produce skilled manpower and high level workforce to meet the demands of the economy (UNESCO, 2006). With resistance due to power coercive, top down strategy, 8.4.4 has failed to produce desired results hence the need to reform /change the education system.


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Manpower requirement model was another reform model used by the government to reform education after independence in 1963. Manpower approach is the analysis of the market needs of the country in human resources. Stakeholders examine human resource needs of a country available in the past, present and forecast for the future. The model considers the development of human resources through the educational system as an important requirement for economic growth. Musaazi, (1985) points out. “Any nation with reform for economic development has to consider the preparation of its human agents (Musaazi, 1985:134; Harbson, 1993 and Otiato, 2009)

It is argued that trained human resources would organize and utilize both physical and financial resources better hence generate the growth of the economy. This reform model provides communities/societies with correct number of suitable educated personnel to meet most of economic, social, political needs of all different manpower levels. The model links all institutions thus schools, tertiary colleges and universities about the number of students available, those graduating from all learning institutions, vacant places available in modern sector of economy. Sifuna and Otiende (2009) notes that, educational planners thus the Government and educational administrators at independence reformed education based on manpower model where secondary and tertiary educational levels were greatly emphasized because there was high demand for manpower to fill the vacant posts left by colonialists in Kenya, in addition, colonial authorities overlooked higher education for Africans they neglected secondary and higher education for Africans therefore, Africans after independence had the opportunity to correct the educational anomalies during the colonial epoch without focusing on quality and the relevance of the education system to the needs of an independent African person in Kenya.

They neglected secondary and higher education for Africans. They focused at the base for masses at the expense of higher education for Africans in Kenya (Sifuna and Otiende, 2009: 17). The labor force from education system cannot be accommodated in the existing labor market. This model led to the rapid expansion of secondary and tertiary education. This model produced the needed manpower which went beyond the industrial development in the economic sector between 1965 and 1980’s in Kenya. This created educated unemployment crisis in the country which is still a major challenge to date. In addition, the manpower model led to wastage whereby very many students were outside the school system thus non-informal, informal vocational skills which the reform process did not focus in their educational orientation. Sifuna (1976) posits that about 85% of the school graduates are rejected by the education system at primary level alone (Sifuna, 1976:160). The stakeholders in the reform process such as education planners, politicians and administrators focused on manpower model which prevented meaningful efforts to reshape educational system to promote skills such universalisation of education which will provide learners with proper learning skills and also to play a more productive role in development. In this view, parents and children are likely to continue looking for urban wage employment for the fortunate few who manage to go through the school system as Sifuna observes;

“Fewer than ten (10) percent of age-groups in a country complete school as long as jobs in the modern sector (however scarce their jobs maybe) pay up to 20 times the country’s per capital income school are likely to continue being elitist no matter the type of curriculum diversification undertaken” (Otiende and Sifuna 2009:13). The stakeholders in education reform wished to make education more efficient in order to realize productive manpower for the economy in Kenya. However the following questions are important to stakeholders; how can we make education more efficient? What input variables can bring about quality education?

In view of the above, the stakeholders in reform processes are moving towards education innovation phase to try to find a solution for educated unemployment amongst the youth. The reform process in education is changing the education system to move away from general education to a more practical, vocational oriented type of education designed to provide skills for self and salaried employment both in rural and urban areas. Education reforms taking place is to bring about more efficient system of education that brings about social, political and economic development. The third reform model handled by stakeholders in education in Kenya was the Cost Benefit Analysis or Rate of Return Analysis (RRA). Woodhall defined cost benefit analysis as: “a systematic comparison of the costs and benefits of some form investment in order to assess its profitability” (Woodhall, 1970). The cost benefit analysis focuses on the economic benefits of education. It is a comparison of the magnitude of costs and benefits of investment in education. Human capital denotes an investment in human beings and after acquiring the necessary skills yields benefits over the larger society of that human being. A human skill is the same as physical capital, therefore, human capital development is important than physical capital.


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Increase in educational investment derives benefits and costs of education in the society. The beneficiaries include society, government, and individual among others. Here, the government incur costs and enjoy benefits in education. Lastly, firms/ private companies employ the skills and enjoy skills from education. The concept of profitability depends on systematic comparison between benefits derived from expenditure incurred earlier in education. Stakeholders in reform examine various levels of education, primary, secondary and tertiary levels or general education Vs vocational and technical education. This involves an analysis of the cost incurred in their developments, and benefits accruing from them. A decision is taken where money is supposed to be invested. This was a case in Kenya’s 8.4.4 system which emphasizes, practical vocational and technical skills hence education was changed from 7-4 2-3 which was thought to be general in Kenya in 1985 (Namaswa, 1989:65) comparison of benefit and cost analysis show the rate of benefit to the individual, society and government because the graduates will influence individuals, society and government positively after going through the education system.

The conceptual framework of education reform was based on the four models shown with the main challenges of resistance to change, educated youth unemployment from 1963 to 2012. The educational stakeholders reform education as dictated by conditions prevailing at the time, thus time available, resources in form of human, financial and physical, as well as the political climate of the day. Education reforms were done through education commissions and policies. The key conceptual framework of the study includes; power coercive strategy, social demand approach, manpower requirement and rate of return analysis or cost benefit analysis.

1.3. Historical Analysis of Educational Commissions in Line With Vision 2030

In the colonial Kenya, there were various education forms and structure that was based on racial ideology (Lidundu, 1996) education was stratified based on three races in Kenya, thus Europeans, Asians and Africans in structure and form. The Africans were given inferior education for manual work thus to work for the whites and Asians. Asians were given education for middle level work such as artisans, trades & vocation (Shiffield, 1990). The Europeans were given specialized education system for leadership. This type of education was segregative and could not unite the three races in Kenya.

After independence in 1963, the government of Kenya undertook to reform education in line with the physical, political, social and economic conditions and challenges of the independent state of Kenya in 1963. The Government undertook to reform education through establishment of various educations commissions that have shaped or changed the education system since independence to date (Bogonko, 1991). The Government did this by making policy documents, policy is a statement of commitment by the government to undertake specific programme directed at the achievement of certain goals. It also constitutes a notice to citizens at large that reform/new revised programs of action on particular issues are intended within a given time frame. The education reforms after independence took two forms thus there were two methods used to achieve the process of education reforms (Otiende, et.al). First, there was the establishment of commissions to deal with matters of education on periodicals. Secondly, to use recommendations of these commissions to reform and develop education in Kenya. The current Kenya education framework has its basis in colonial education. The existing framework has build on this, and reformed or modified the education system to reflect the needs and aspirations of national development. The legislations, commissions and policies constitute the legal framework of the country’s education system. After independence in 1963, the government laid emphasis on education as a vehicle for human resource and national development. Indeed, education plays a key role in the development of human capital that is important input in production.

For this reason, educational reforms in post independence era through education policy documents have consistently stressed on the need to offer an education that addresses the importance of national development, national integration, economic growth and poverty eradication (TSC, 2005:6) these are in line with Vision 2030. Another theme that is focused in the policy documents is the need to promote equality and social justice in Kenya. In the colonial epoch, the colonial government perpetuated a system of education that was characterized by inequality, discrimination and racism. Policy documents on education commissions and committees at the time emphasized on curriculum for Africans that confined them to inferior roles such as menial work, religious codes and vocational training which Ochieng’ (1989) observes as “education for hewers of wood and drawers of water” education was supposed to equip them with skills to serve at the bottom of the social leader / hierarchy.


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In view of this, Phelps-Stokes Commission 1924 (Anderson, 1970) recommended the establishment of vocational post primary institutions across the country that would equip Africans with functional skills. This created Jeanes schools and former Kabete Technical Training institute and other vocational post primary institutions. In these vocational schools, curriculum revolved around courses such as carpentry and joinery, masonry, metal work, tailoring, agriculture and wood work among others (Burgman, 1990). This was purposely done to put an African at the lowest racial ladder so as to serve the colonial interests in Kenya. This is the type of education which Rodney (1972) argues is education for in subordination, subjugation and perpetuation of imperialism in Kenya. It is in this colonial context that the contemporary and current policy documents on education have sought to address in bid to reflect on the social economic and political realities of an independent Kenya and then focus education to realize vision 2030.

1.4. Analysis of Policy Documents on Education in Post Independence Kenya in line with Vision 2030

In Kenya before independence, there were various education forms and structure which included African traditional education, Islamic education, and formal/Western education brought by colonialism. After independence in 1963, the government of Kenya established various education commissions which has reformed and shaped the education system since independence to facilitate or address; shortage of skilled manpower, evils facing society thus ignorance, poverty, and diseases since independence. The Commissions were led by prominent scholars in and outside this country. The main education commissions and their findings since 1963 to the present, can they meet the Vision 2030 threshold? Thus; Ominde Report, 1964; Bessey Report, 1972; Gachathi Report, 1976; Mackay Report, 1981; Kamunge Report, 1988 and Koech Report, 1999.

In Kenya there are two types of schools in primary sector these are public and private schools. They are different in orientation, administration and results which is a threat to national unity. Other challenges of national unity include; Fundamental religions groups–Muslims and Christians, Quota admission procedures in educational institutions including schools i.e. 85% in the district for provincial schools, Posting trained teachers to teach in their districts of birth, quota for each district in teacher education enrollment, Kiswahili language unites Kenyans, however, previously it had less lessons than English language, Economic class, the haves and have-nots, hence the rich get better education and employment opportunities than the poor class who receive inferior education and training hence national unity is not attained, Political utterance which fuels ethnic tension, land and political clashes.

The MDGs and Vision 2030 targets that education has to continue addressing in independent Kenya, Ominde Commission in 1964, addressed the challenge facing Kenyans after independence, the same challenges are still facing Kenyans thus why the reforms have been undertaken for innovation in education to serve Kenyan challenges, conditions and problems of the time.

Gachathi Report of 1976 was the third reform commission in Kenya after Bessey Commission of 1972. It was known as the National Committee on Education Objectives and Policies (NCEOP). This committee enhanced educational goals in an attempt to restructure the educational goals in and the educational system to meet the demands of the country. Education was to relate to employment opportunities as it is pointed out; “the schools as they are today, do not have capability, time, even motivation to teach values of the society. This is because the schools are geared entirely to the passing examinations… The question now, therefore, is how the education system is build into an organized system of teaching the values of society to the youth” (GOK, 1976:11-12)

From the above, after a decade of independence, the education system was seen as being irrelevant and unmindful of the total process of socialization (Eshiwani, 1993:28). NCEOP emphasized the national goals of education, education for socialization and vocalization of formal education to meet the demands of the country then. The education system that was proposed by Ominde commission had brought on the local scene school leaver unemployment and education still being eliticism for white collar jobs in urban areas. Despite laying grounds for 9 years of basic, free primary education and vocational education system, recommendations were not fully implemented what Amutabi (2003) calls “punctuated reform implementation in Kenya” due to the following challenges:

Parents continued to finance education of the children in primary and secondary.

Kiswahili had not been made compulsory in early eighties


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Mother tongue continued to hinder national unity

Vocational education was not introduced; another Commission was established in 1985 when 8.4.4 was introduced mainly for vocational education.

Lack of qualified teachers to teach mathematics, science and vocational subjects.

Inadequate finance, many facilities were not put up in schools for practical and vocational subjects such as agricultural workshops, home science, art and design, woodwork, electricity, power machines among others.

Society, communities and part of stakeholders resisted changes since it involved cost which they were to incur especially parents, students resisted overloaded curriculum hence failure to implement fully.

Learning resources and classrooms were inadequate in most school due to social demand and man power requirement model which had expanded primary, secondary and college enrolments beyond the scope of many schools and the economy could not manage effectively. NCEOP recommendations stressed some salient issues earmarked by vision 2030 such as free learning in primary and secondary, vocationalisation of education to gain skills for the economy unite Kenyans through languages, social studies and its emphasis on science and mathematics, are hallmark for economic, social and political pillars of Vision 2030. The educational policy after Gachathi Report did not satisfy the Kenyan needs, aspirations and did not solve the challenges of the independent education system that emanated from education system this are: “Most school leavers could not be absorbed into employment; education was still elitist hence preparing learners for passing examination for white collar jobs (Eshiwani, 1993:28)

In view of the above, the government found it necessary to change the education approach which had existed after independence i.e. change the social demand and manpower models (approach) to a new approach that will address the realities of the time thus change the education system to self reliance in 1980s (Eshiwani, 1993:28) this forced the government to set up yet Mackay Commission or the presidential working party on the second university in Kenya 1981. The report stated that;

“Education is aimed at enabling the youth to play a more effective role in the life of the nation by imparting and inculcating the right attitude. In practice however, formal education has tended to concentrate on imparting knowledge for the sake of passing examinations” (GOK 1981:7) The Commission was required to investigate and report to the government on the need to establish the second university in Kenya. Mackay Commission went ahead to recommend radical reforms in the structure of education systems by stating. “Kenya has one fundamental goal for her education; prepare and equip the youth to be happy and be useful members of Kenyan society. To be happy they must learn and accept the national values and to be useful, they must actively work towards the maintenance and development of the society (MOE, 1988). The recommendations were not well thought of and implementation was done by force without involving the such as parents, teachers up today, there is a move to revert back to 7.4.2.3 or change the 8.4.4 as Daily Nation newspaper observes “the proposal to change 8.4.4 to 2-6-6-3. Teachers and parents rejected the change” (Daily Nation, 28th May, 2012). The only handicap for changing 8.4.4 has been the cost of the new system, parents fear extra payments of high cost and teachers fearing overloaded curriculum with less teaching and burden to students which could compromise standards. An in-depth examination of the rationale for introducing 8.4.4 system gives a hidden agenda, according to Amutabi (2003) 8.4.4 was introduced as a political self actualization by the Government… thus settling some imbalances and political scores” (Amutabi.2003).There was no crisis in education sector that would have forced the Government to change the education system to 8.4.4 system. This is “proved by numerous challenges such as lack of involvement of relevant stakeholders, infrastructures such as classrooms, workshops, curriculum, trained personnel, literature and pedagogy” (Sifuna, 1990, Amutabi, 2003)

The shortfalls of 8.4.4 as enumerated above, forced the Government and other stakeholders to set up many commissions to try to operationalize the new education system (8.4.4) in the country as per the foregoing. Overwhelming challenges of 8.4.4 after its introduction in 1985 forced the government to appoint a Presidential working committee on education and manpower training for the next decade and beyond chaired by an educationist Mr. Kamunge. The main factors were the shortcomings of 8.4.4 as highlighted, educated youth unemployment and examination oriented system.


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In addition social demand and manpower model were not serving Kenyans in education hence change to a new model known as the Rate of Return Analysis in education. The government and parents were investing heavily in education hence there must be the rate of return at the end, in the education system. In the essence, it is mainly the Kamunge Report of 1988 that laid the foundation for the components of the Vision 2030. The Kamunge Report stressed the need for education to solve challenges the society/community, access, equity, equality and the approach of the cost benefit analysis, thus the government pays 30% of budget to education which the government must come in strongly to ensure that education being given is concerned with vocational and technical to solve the educated unemployment. Most of the recommendations like centers of excellence, vocational education, early childhood education and special needs education are being handled in the education system today. These challenges forced Kenya to change its education policy in the late 1990’s. The government established a Commission of inquiry into the education system of Kenya. It was appointed by President Moi in 1998 to recommend ways of enabling the education system to facilitate national unity, social responsibility, accelerate industrial and technological development and lifelong learning. The commission was commonly called Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET).

The recommendations of Koech Commission are within the scope of the Vision 2030 since they touch on various areas such as access, transition rate, equity, equality among others. The objectives and Recommendations cut across all pillars of Vision 2030. There are those that are in political, social and economic pillars respectively. The recommendation focuses on the provision of education to marginally gifted handicapped, remote areas in line with current needs. The recommendation emphasizes the emerging issues such as gender, equity, equality, governance, human right, democracy and HIV/AIDS which correlates well with Vision 2030. However, different from 8.4.4 system, Sifuna (2000) notes that; “TIQET had some basic innovations namely; the expansion of access to basic education; elimination of disparities in education based on geographical, social and gender factors, introduction of manageable curriculum content; introduction of modular learning approach and credit accumulation in post secondary education; increased access to education through expanded alternative and continuing education; flexibility in university admission; introduction of early childhood, special and technical education and continuous assessment” (Sifuna, 2000).

The report had almost all education targets for Vision 2030, the report was not implemented by the then Government. It was perceived to be expensive and complex. The political class as usual was not enthusiastic to implement the Koech Report, yet the report was geared towards rejuvenating the education sector by making it more focused, manageable, relevant and cost effective as Amutabi observes; “these were avante garde recommendations that would have moved Kenya to higher levels of efficiency in education but which unfortunately were scuttled. (Amutabi, 2003:14). Otiato (2009) further argues “the reason for rejection of Koech Report was political rather than budgetary and logistical claims” (Otiato, 2009).Indeed, the political class was unhappy with Koech recommendations perhaps because may be the report did not agree with the political moves of the Government, two, it recommended scrapping of 8.4.4 education system, school milk programme and yet these were as dear to the political establishment of the day as the key legacy in the education system in Kenya. Moreover, Koech Report did not favour the Government `s position the way Mackay report did in 1981.

The Government rejected the Koech Report as stated above. Nevertheless, the ministry of education did introduce some cosmetic changes in the education system after rejecting the Koech Report why? Was it to divert the attention of the public not to focus so much on the challenges facing the education system or to show that the Government is committed in addressing the education issues at hand which was not true since those issues and challenges had been tackled by Koech report but the Government rejected hence failed to implement.

Sessional Paper No 1 of 2005 titled: paper on the Policy Framework for Education, Training and Research for 21st century in Kenya. It is a policy framework for Education, Training and Research which provides reforms or new directions on the provision of education and Training at all levels. In the document, the government outlined strategies to improve education thus: access; quality; equity and completion rates (TSC, 2005) The Sessional Paper was based on recommendations of the National conference on Education, Training and research held on November, 2003 attended by more than 800 key stakeholders in education. In the paper the Government committed to achieve universal primary education by 2005, achieve Education for all by 2015 in line with Vision 2030.


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Universal Primary Education (UPE) ensures that all children eligible for primary schooling have opportunity to enroll and remain in schools to learn and acquire quality basic education (TSC, 2005) from January 2003, already the Government has been implementing Free Primary Education resulting in an increased enrolment of children from 5.9 million in 2002 to 7.6 million in 2007. Another 300,000 primary school age children are enrolled in non formal learning centre (MOE, 2008).

The document points emphasis on quality education at all levels and calls for regular reviews of the curriculum to improve its relevance and incorporate emerging issues among other goals. The paper acknowledges that primary education still faces many challenges:

1. Many eligible children were still out of school

2. Congestion was common in school

3. Many schools are poorly managed leading to wastage

4. Shortage of teaching staff a main challenge.

To address the above challenges, the paper outlines the following interventions;

1. Review staffing norms to ensure equitable distribution of teachers and ensure optimum utilization.

2. Government plans to rehabilitate schools that are in poor conditions especially in arid and semi-arid areas.

3. Provision of science equipments in selected schools.

4. In-servicing teachers in various domains to enhance their subjects’ mastery and intensifying supervision to guarantee quality.

On low participation rates in secondary sector, as a result of poor transition from primary to secondary, the government will integrate secondary education as part of the basic education cycle from 2008. Secondly, the government will promote the development of day schools to expand access and reduce the cost to parents, the government has done this since 2008, and the government is paying secondary fees for all day secondary schools in Kenya. Third, the government will provide targeted instructional materials to needy public secondary schools, while encouraging parents and communities to provide infrastructure and operational costs. Fourth, the government plans to restructure secondary school teacher training to attain basic qualifications in the respective subject areas and subsequently undertake post graduate training in pedagogy or extend the bachelor of education degree programme to be five years like other professions, partly implemented since 2007. Lastly, national assessment system will be established to monitor learning from the competencies in secondary schools to enhance the capacity of school to carry out school based continuous assessment yet to be done.

Further, two centers of excellence, one for boys and girls will be established in each district in the country. It has being done since 2010. On special education, the paper identifies lack of clear guidelines on the implementation of inclusive education policy, lack of data on children with special needs, inadequate tools and skills in identification and assessment as major challenges. However the paper gives hope for rehabilitating and strengthening education of children with special needs.

The government will integrate special education programmes in all learning and training institutions and ensure that the institutions are responsive to the education of learners with special needs. The paper underscores the importance of adult continuing education and non-formal education. It observes that “currently the government is providing support to some non-formal schools that comply with Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MOE, 2005). The government has been funding the non-formal schools in the country especially those who comply with MOEST requirements. Daily Nation, 17th May, 2005 observes; “Education budget raised from 81.4 billion to 87 billion to help government to achieve targets set out in the Session Paper no 1 of 2005. Thus, the government had to widen access to education “formal and informal” (Daily Nation, 17th May, 2005). This has been done since 2008. The paper calls for the development of a national qualification framework to provide opportunities for linkage with formal education and training. Besides, it indicates that university education would be reviewed to make it demand driven, of high quality, technologically informed research supported, democratically managed and globally marketable. Currently there is inadequate capacity to carter for growing demand of school leavers seeking university education.


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Further; there is a mismatch between skills acquired by university graduates and the demands of the university. Moreover, so many students were enrolled in arts based courses as opposed to sciences that are key to vision 2030, therefore, education reforms focusing on mathematics, technical and sciences subjects are for innovation hence in line with vision 2030. Under the plan, the government will promote the expansion of university education and training in line with population growth and the demand for university places. This has been done in three ways: - first, the government has taken over colleges especially Teachers Training Colleges like Kenya Science to convert them to universities for example, Laikipia, Narok, Chepkoilel, Kisii and Maseno among others Secondly, double intake has been undertaken at Moi University and University of Nairobi. Thirdly, there are new private universities that have been established and the government has given them charters among others. Four, National Polytechnics have been upgraded to become universities offering degree courses since 2008. Fifthly, HELB provides loan to private university students since 2008.These document provides a framework of education development in line with Vision 2030.The reform process was participatory in a meeting of delegates to map out education strategies to develop education in response to current realities in political, social and economic aspects of Kenyans in the realm of vision 2030.

1.5.Kenya’s Vision 2030

This is the country’s current strategy in development which covers the period 2008 to 2030. Its main objective is to help Kenya transform into a middle income country providing high quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030 “the vision is based on three “pillars” the economic pillar the social pillar and political pillar (GOK, 2007). The vision’s adoption comes after the successful implementation of the Economic Recovery Strategy (CRS) for wealth and employment creation. The vision is to be implemented in successive five years medium term plans thus: 2008-2012, 2012-2016, 2016-2020, 2020-2024, 2024-2028 and 2028-2030 (GOK, 2007).

As the country makes progress to middle income status through this development plans, it is expected to have met its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015. Some of these millennium goals in Kenya have been met thus: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, achieve Universal Primary Education already met since 2006-2012, promote gender equality and empower women has been done since 2008. This has been met through the following: Affirmative action in education a third rule on administrative posts goes for women and JAB lowering university admission points for girls to 61 points where areas boys are admitted by 63 points. This is a great challenge to a boy child where every effort of the government is focused on a girl child at the expense of a boy child. There is urgent need to articulate the challenges affecting the boy child (Chang’ach, 2012). The new World Bank director praised Kenya for free primary education as a pace setter in this education initiative in sub-Saharan Africa (this was the first phase of education support frame work from donors.

This cash/ donor funds was for reforms in education from early childhood to university. The funds cover technical training, adult education and information technology. The funding from the budget i.e. 94.4 billion, 534.9 million was to be spent on education reforms (Standard, 31st March, 2005). The transition rate of primary to secondary is 40% but 2010 it should be 70%.The funds from the government and donors have steered education reforms to start achieving some of the Vision 2030 targets already within the time specified. The Vision 2030 was planned and structured in three pillars namely: Economic, Social and Political pillars. The Economic pillar was to raise Kenyan economic development and standards to all Kenyans. The Economic pillar should bring development targeting agriculture as strategic and Kenyans mainstay. The agricultural education and training from primary, secondary and university should be improved which calls upon education reform to focus on agriculture as the main stay of most Kenyans thus, more than 80% Kenyans are in rural areas. To emphasize on the economic pillar the following areas are key thus: agriculture, environment, financial revenue, systems of finance and ICT in schools and colleges.

The government has included these issues in education with a lot of success today. On social pillar, the vision focuses on social services such as education and training, health, gender, youth and urbanization, social welfare and services in the community. Education sector should emphasize these areas in line with Vision 2030. The vision aims to build a just and cohesive society with social equity in a clean and secure environment. The strategy further makes special provisions for Kenyans with various disabilities and previously marginalized communities. These policies and those in the economic pillar are anchored on all round adoption as an implementing tool. These are the targets fronted by education to fulfill the dream of the Vision 2030 in terms of education reforms.


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The political pillar aims to realize a democratic political system founded on issue based politics that respects the rule of law and protects the rights and freedoms of every individual in Kenyan society. The pillar hopes to transform equality in Kenya irrespective of one’s race, creed, ethnicity, religion, gender or social economic status; a nation that respects and harness the diversity of its people’s values, traditions and aspirations for the benefit of all citizens. The pillar deals with leadership, governance i.e. arms of government, judiciary, legislative and executive. Are the arms of government working based on the constitution, law and independent thus separation of powers. The leadership of this country, the political class and parties must reform/ change to improve the situation in this country. The leadership must reform to avoid the worst happenings like those happening in the Arab world and West Africa. The education systems have political objectives and reforms which are emphasized in line with Vision 2030.

The vision for education sector in Kenya for 2030 is, “to have globally competitive quality education, training and research for sustainable development.”While the mission for education sector in Kenya is to; “provide, promote, and coordinate the provision of quality education, training and research for empowerment of individuals to become responsible and competent citizens who value education as a lifelong process” (GOK, 2007). To achieve this vision, strategic areas namely; access, quality equity, science, technology and innovation have been identified for support based on their impact on the economic, social and political pillars. Therefore, the Vision 2030 education reform process targets include:

Improve access through increased enrolment Reduce illiteracy levels by about 80% Transition rate must improve in primary to secondary schools from 47% to 70% and basic education

should include secondary education. Special needs education should be integrated in school system where schools also admit all students even

those with special needs. Transition rates from secondary education to tertiary education should rise from 3% to 8% Expand access in tertiary or university education from 4% to 20% Improve quality of education Introduce environmental education to protect the environment. Expand teacher education and training

For Vision 2030 to fulfill its mandate, teachers are central to any successful implementation of education reforms and change. Kenya presently is experiencing societal changes, so does its needs and aspirations on education system and schools that are expected to be prepared to cope with these changes and also initiate education changes/ reforms in relation to the changing needs of the society. Society change, school read change and act accordingly through a teacher. Therefore, quality of teachers is important for improving and sustaining the quality of teaching and education in general for successful implementation of education reforms.

Education reforms in school or education system must reach the community and should emanate from the community so that implementation is without resistance. There is need to increase the relevance of education provided to the youth through environmentally related curriculum reforms based on community needs and conditions. This environment is in physical, social, cultural economic and political spheres which are in the context of Vision 2030. These are the environments that the education curriculum should relate to the community and its needs. For example, the education system has forced schools to phase out subjects or subjects not being taught, meaning that these subjects are not relevant to the community needs. Phasing out subjects in secondary schools such as Business studies, Art and Design, Music, Woodwork and other applied subjects as was done by the Ministry of Education in 2002. This militates against the goal of education i.e. education for national development which cuts across all the pillars of Vision 2030. According to the three pillars, agriculture is central but its not compulsory in the school system where more than 80 percent Kenyans get their livelihood in agriculture. Moreover, other applied and technical subjects such as Business Studies, Power Mechanics, Electricity, Computer studies have been given very limited space and sometimes removed from the syllabus as it was done in 2002. As UNESCO (2006) observes:


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“From January 2003 a new curriculum was implemented to reduce workloads for both teachers and students, and also to align education system to free primary education policy. The curriculum reduced the number of examinable subjects from 7 to 5 at primary schools and 10 to 8 in secondary schools. Between 2002 and 2005 vocational subjects were removed from regular primary and secondary schools following the review of curricular. The Sessional Paper no 1 of 2005 recommended that technical subjects who had been dropped from secondary school curriculum be re-introduced. This was done with immediate effect showing that education reforms are done for innovations” (UNESCO, 2006). Mathematics, sciences and technical subjects are key to industrial and economic development; therefore, the recommendations to remove them from school curriculum had been misplaced. Sessional Paper No.1of 2005 recommended the return of technical subjects to the school system because of their primary importance for innovation and vision 2030.

From policy documents since independence thus from Ominde Report to Koech Report, some of the education reforms and unified curriculum cannot achieve intended goals of the community as expected. For instance, previously, before Sessional Paper no 1of 2005, in Muslim areas such as Coast and North Eastern parts of Kenya, the main religious subject was Christian Religious Education (CRE) and not Islamic Religious Studies (IRE). This is totally different from community needs. In addition, fishing and agriculture taught to mainly pastoral groups of North Eastern and Northern Kenya and yet these environments favors livestock keeping. The curriculum should be environmentally friendly to the community needs hence the community should dictate the reforms in education to meet the community needs and challenges.

Relevance of curriculum of education to suit the needs of the Kenyans is paramount. In Kenya curriculum development is developed by Kenya Institute of Education (KIE), it cannot just change the curriculum without involving the community. There has been a belief that traditional education and imported formal education tended to impose thus to be at the middle as a cultural barrier between a child and his community. This meant that on leaving school, the child will find difficulties to reintegrate with the people among whom is to spend the rest of his life because the current 8.4.4 education system is still elitist for white collar jobs in curriculum from the west/ Europe/America because people will reject it. The current 8.4.4 education system was rejected because it was purely Canadian education system brought in Kenya by Mackay 1981 Commission (G.O.K, 1981). Moreover, missionaries brought and introduced formal education (Burgman, 1990) that was not relevant to the Kenyan needs because the formal/ Western Education served European interests in Kenya in the formative years of colonialism. Therefore, K.I.E came up to reform education curriculum to suit the Kenyans needs because formal education has been serving colonial interests in post independent Kenya.

There is need to reform the curriculum to suit the needs of Kenyan society. Curriculum changes are affected by the implementation of change and knowledge; to gain knowledge for use? Or for its own sake that is social demand for education. This why Kenyan and other developing countries established bodies known as curriculum development units or centers such as KIE in Kenya. The activities of these centres are limited, not merely to substitute local African materials for European materials without changing the structure or bias of the curriculum as a whole. However, what is known to be pure is not pure; everything has been modified, changed, transformed or reformed. KIE is changing what is there with the local or Kenyan materials for instance, the set books from African literary icons like Ngugi Wa Thing’o, Imbuga Francis, Wole Soyinka, and Chinua Achebe among others. KIE is reforming the Kenyan materials to suit the Kenyan needs. Graduates of 8.4.4 are not balanced persons in society. For example, in school we teach them to be independent and make independent decisions and choices. Consequently, while students may have found their learning more meaningful, the reformed curriculum may have been less academic and functionally irrelevant than the one it replaced.

The needs of an individual, when change is the denominator an individual retraces back to the original self since Kenyan needs keep on changing thus retrogressing to the mean. It has been suggested that, a truly community curriculum implies a change over, from one which is structured around various disciplines of knowledge to one based on an analysis of community learning needs. However, such as structure appears less suitable as a preparation for further education hence mastery of discipline may be more fundamentally important. For instance curriculum development where a person who is to be self employed, this is a terminal co-curriculum 8.4.4. The standard 8 and form four should go to the community to work or to continue with their education/ learning? Currently 8.4.4 is more academic than the practical and technical. For example Bachelor of Education (B.ed) learning leans towards Master of Education.


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Therefore the diploma teachers are prepared to teach secondary while the B.ed graduates are prepared to continue with their learning thus master or doctor of education programs. Indeed the current 8.4.4 education system was launched in 1985 to replace 7.4.2.3 for vocational, technical, practical skills and knowledge. Its objectives were noble for Vision 2030, but the reform process was political power coercive and did not involve people or stakeholders hence people resisted and rejected 8.4.4 education system. Although the Government implemented the Mackay Report of 1981 fully, the Government was not able to convince Kenya to accept the system because it was political rather than educational process hence had various challenges at its inception.

1.6. Discussion –Results of Policy Document in Line with Vision 2030

Form the foregoing, the present Kenya’s Education framework, policies, commission share their roots and foundation in colonial education. The colonial education was based on colonial goals serving the whites in Kenya as well as serving Missions. After independence, Kenyans, have reformed education since 1963 to date by the same colonial process, objectives and needs thus reforming education to solve challenges /problem facing the independent country .The education in Kenya inherited a lot from colonial education including goals and challenges, reform process i.e. Problem solving process among others. Analyzing the policy documents from Omind Report 1964, Gachathi Report 1972, Mackay Report (1981), Kamunge Report (1988) and Koech Report (1999), the main goals of education have evolved from Africanization, decolonization and man power provision to more dynamic goals of education that are derived from the philosophy, political ideology and social economic aspirations of the nation and emerging issues.

All the policy documents have re-emphasized the focus on national goals of education which are appearing in the social political and economic pillars of vision 2030. However, there are challenges on the grounds that are militating against Kenyans to meet the goals of education for instance the goal of promoting positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection. Education should inculcate in the youth the value for good health in order to avoid indulging in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health. Foster positive attitudes towards environmental development and conservation. It should lead the youth to appreciate the need for a healthy environment. This goal/objective has the following challenges that militate against it; moral decay among the youth including those in schools, colleges and universities, they take drugs and substances abuse which causes diseases, delinquencies hence affect their health and environment. They take cigarettes even when British American Tobacco has sensitized them that cigarette smoking is harmful to your health.

Secondly, economic policies on land and forested areas are weak hence people have settled in forested areas and encouraged large scale deforestation with a lot of side effects including global warming. Third, challenge of land grabbing. Large population lack of land hence people have gabbed public land, wetlands, rangelands, public utility land destroying the environment. Others include industrial pollution, garbage waste/waste disposal, HIV/AIDS prevalence among the youth and natural floods caused by environmental degradation– this is an objective in social and economic pillar of vision 2030 but these challenges will affect its realization by 2030.Despite some of these challenges, the national goals of education have evolved from 1963 to 2000 are articulated by vision 2030 hence all the goals of education reforms are for innovation.

From the policy documents since independence, education reform has been political rather than professional in the developing countries including Kenya. Mauley (2001) observed. “Education is always an extension of political purpose and must be seen as a primary perhaps the primer agent that is available to that position.” (Amutabi, 2003)

Political elites have been involved in education reforms politically directly or indirectly. Politicians interfere or facilitate education. In a democratic country, politicians work with educationists to develop the education sector in management& control. Politicians ensure that their political goals of education are fully met. For instance these goals include National unity, education for development, education for individual development cultures international consciousness and cooperation (Eshiwani, 1993; Castle, 1998). All these are political objectives of education hence the government and political elites ensure that education meet these objectives. This is a political aim because in all parties there is need for unity in the country with many ethnic groups hence these ethnic groups must be put together in a political system. Apart, from ethnicity, there are religious differences. These may threaten the cohesiveness of the country hence there is need for the political tool such as education to unify the people in a country.


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Political class facilitates education/reform to take care of political objectives. Since independence political education reforms in Kenya are as follow:

8.4.4 Education system.

Establishment of the second university Moi University.

Introduction of free education in 1974 &2003.

Curriculum reforms academic or vocational and technical subjects.

Financing education politicians play a leading role.

Recruiting and training of teachers.

Selection of students to join public universities and schools i.e. National and provincial.

Moreover names of universities are a political tool i.e. Kenyatta University and Moi University.

Promotion of teachers and management of secondary schools i.e. Appointment of BOGs and chairman of university council – all are political issues and reforms.

Prize giving during co- curriculum competitions, a politician graces the occasion.

School development especially building classes, school land, school buses, among others politicians play a big role in facilitation for schools to acquire them.

This is where the main challenge is, as regard reforms for innovations is concerned, the political class interfere with proper reform process which yields nothing unless professionals are left to plan carry out and implement reform in education in Kenya. Nevertheless, currently educationists recognize the role of political class to centralize, co-ordination and planning so that Government and society or community get returns in the cost of education. Education reforms since independence from1963 to 2010, through education commissions have shaped the education system to the level it is right now. However, the following are the main challenges that have gone against the spirit and objectives of education reforms:

Resistance to education change or reforms.

Political interference.

Cost of implementing education reforms such as free primary and secondary education.

Challenges of universal primary education and education for all.

Time, poor planning and non-implementation of reforms.

Poor method of change (power coercive strategy).

Changing needs of Kenyans – keep on changing putting that pressure on education.

Colonial government legacy – copying the colonial reform process, timing and procedure. Youth employment.

Physical facilities-inadequate leading to congestion in learning institution hence quality is negatively affected.

Population growth.

Reforms failed to yield results as desired thus changed to look like the former – retrogressing to the mean.

Reforms failed to be implemented in what Amutabi calls “punctuated reform implementation” process in Kenya (Castle, 1966, Amutabi, 2003).


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On resistance to reform in education, these came out strongly in (1981) after MacKay report on the second university thus Moi University, and 8.4.4 education system. The commission recommended the overhaul of the education system, from 7:4:2:3 to 8.4.4 to handle mainly technical subjects. Kenyans rejected these reforms as stated earlier; It was foreign education system from Canada hence which was rejected by Kenyans as they rejected missionary education serving the whites in colonial Kenya. It was hurriedly done without time frame to plan for change and implement the change, besides, students from standard seven went straight to eight, instead of gradual movement from standard one, year by year up to standard 8.On the political latitude, politicians took over educational reforms and left out other stakeholders and professional hence executed educational reforms to satisfy political class, these brought resistance from Kenyans, poor reform process and poor implementation of reforms. This added another challenge of reform process by power coercive which failed to yield results in education which has forced Kenyans always, yearning to change the education system within a short span because political interference, poor planning for reforms and poor timing as a result of colonial hangover, Sifuna (2000) observes “Education reform and development was influenced by industrialized colonial countries to produce manpower development model.”

This led to rapid expansion of secondary and tertiary education this did not match with the rapid growth of economy and industries hence precipitated as serious problem of school leavers’ unemployment. There were education reforms to change the formal education to technical and vocational education since formal education had created urban elites for white collar jobs. The education brought by missionaries from west, was for industrial work, produce workers for industries in Europe. This is why it is still the same education that is academic oriented for urban life to today even after launching 8.4.4 which was to be practical vocational and technical. Other challenges in the reform process have been inadequate, physical facilities such as classes’ laboratories, libraries, among others. Compounded to this is population growth, it is high and the needs of Kenyans keep on changing from time to time, since independence.

The main education reform was the introduction of the compulsory universal primary education Castle (1966) defines universal primary education as “all children up to the age of 15 years are compelled by law to go to school (Castle,1966: 125) it is universal because it is compulsory no fees is paid. The nation pays all the cost of compulsory education. The cost is too great hence; free education is not free since parents are still paying fees in Kenya in both primary and secondary school sectors.

Universal primary and free day secondary school programmes have the following challenges since their inception:

High enrolment.

Children in school of mixed ages.

Inadequate resources.

Shortage of teachers.

Inadequate physical facilities.

Indiscipline of children due to age disparities.

Corruption and mismanagement of UPE funds, 2008–2010 in Kenya. The donors stopped funding free primary and secondary education to date in the country.

Negative parental attitude towards building classes physical activities since parents argue that education is free.

Politics in school projects and interference.

Donor conditionality’s

Delay in government funding of basic education (Castle, 1966:126, GOK, 1988, 1999 and Sifuna, 1990).

These challenges have hampered access, transition rates, equity, and equality in education. These are targets of vision 2030.


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The government is trying to inject funds and other technical assistance with a lot of success since 2003 to 2010.The government and political will has been spending a lot of public funds to reform education sector from 2003 – 2010 as to daily news paper notes; “Education budget has increased to 87 billion in the year 2005/2006’’ (Daily Nation 17th May, 2005). The government raised the education from 81.4billion to 87 billion to help the government to achieve targets set out in the Sessional Paper no. 1 of 2005 thus “government to widen access to education “formal to non formal” The Sessional Paper has been the hallmark of vision 2030. Education target from the budget of 2005-2006, kshs. 534.9 million will be used for education reforms and 55 million on formal and non formal schools.

Early Childhood Development (ECD) programme is one of the recent reforms of education that mandates constituencies that receive community support to recruit ten (10) ECD teachers and pay them from the CDF grant from December, 2011. The Ministry of Education is going to give salaries per constituency. This is going pay dividends because employment of these teachers is long over due.ECD teachers role in molding and preparing the mind of pre-school children’s is very noble to vision 2030.The teachers are second mothers to the children as they are always with them throughout the day in respect of cognitive and affective domain development. E.C.D curriculum is complex and yet flexible hence the teachers are key to any educational level. Failure to implement the curriculum correctly can lead to poorly prepared post-primary children. Therefore the work of ECD teachers is vital and builds the foundations of other levels of education. Failure to implement the curriculum correctly can lead to poorly prepared post-primary children. In this case the work of ECD teachers is vital and forms the foundation of other levels of education.

Employment of ECD teachers will motivate them and hence lead to the quality, access, equality and completion rates of the ECD cycle of education by pre-school children. The major challenge here is the small number of ECD teachers to be formally employed by the government. Statistics reveal that ECD centers private and government funded are in every Constituency. Moreover, the number of ECD children stands at 3 million presently whilst the number of the teachers is about one million. Employment of only ten teachers is indeed a drop in ocean. Thus compared with the numbers available for pre-school students and ECD teachers can not assist much and those ECD teachers who will not be employed by the government will be de-motivated and demoralized which may have far reaching effects. Therefore the government and other stakeholders should source for more funds and resources to employ the many ECD teachers outside there. Free Primary Programme (FPE). Yearly since January, 2003 through National Alliance for Rainbow Coalition (NARC) party manifesto, every school going primary school children receives kshs. 1,020 for tuition. This policy for on free primary education is still enforce up to date .Education at primary have been enhanced thus access, equality, quality, retention among others. Children who were locked outside school due to lack of tuition fees now enjoy free education. Enrolment has increased tremendously for example 4.5 million children at the inception of the programme in January 2003 and 8.4 million in 2010. This reform has lead to less burden to parents and community in such that what this groups would have been used on primary education can go other useful areas of development leading to economic social and political developments. Besides, many children are completing the primary cycle of education and a lot more joining secondary schools and other middle level institutions than ever before. However there are various challenges which the government and other stakeholders need to address such as a lot of children are still outside free school due to other factors such as social, cultural, child labour, congestion, lack of physical facilities , lack of teachers and delayed government funding among others. Otherwise the political will of the current government underscores vision 2030 targets in education.

Reforms for Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE) came into force in the year 2008 after the government through the ministry of education realized a big raise in the enrolment in pupils in primary school for example, 5.9 million pupils in 2003 to 8.9 million at the present. The high number of primary school means expansion of secondary to absorb the high number from primary level. It is on this basis that the policy to provide free funds for day secondary education came into force. Consequently, enrolment in secondary schools has increased from 3.5 million in 2008 to 5.5 million currently. Pupils who qualify for form one intake are able to access secondary education hence lessening school dropout rate, retention, access, equity among others. Free day secondary education is one of the catalysts to realize Vision 2030 that will make Kenya a middle economy build on the principals of group solidarity, social cohesion and national consciousness.


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However, the challenges which the government and stakeholders must address includes; employment of teachers ,resources expansion of classrooms, delayed funding as well as high inflation forcing schools to levy more funds from parents which hampers the targets of vision 2030.

The national education policy framework for special needs of education of 2009 addresses critical issues as far as special needs education is concerned. The government gives grants under special needs education are “Quarterly grand’s for boarding, kshs. 2,000 for tuition yearly and supporting curriculum activities at district provincial and national levels”. Another critical area addressed under the national education policy 2009 framework for special needs is the expansion of training facilities for SNE teachers (GOK, 2007). Currently special needs education training is being realized in both public and private training institutions like, Kenyatta university, Moi University, Maseno University, University of Nairobi, Mt. Kenya University, Catholic University, Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) among others (Session paper no.1 of 2005).

In summary Sessional Paper no 1 of 2005, National Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities of 2006 and non Global Policy Framework on Education of 2009 underscore the importance of the Special Needs Education (SNE) for human capital development. Currently, any person can access special need education at any given level i.e. certificate, diploma and degree. As observed above, training facilities have increased tremendously and the number of trained personnel in SNE increasing year in and year out. The only challenge is the number of teachers available is minimal, integration of education with other school going children still a hindrance and the facilities need to be addressed to realize the targets of education of the Vision 2030.

The reform policy on university education of 2012 is the recent one on the double student intake Kenya Certificate Secondary Education joining universities. This policy by the “Joint Admission Board (JAB)” is to carry out double intake of the 2010 and 2011 KCSE candidates concurrently for university intake. Already Kenyatta and Moi Universities as public universities have enforced the double intake. Private universities among them Mt. Kenya has put in place structures to enhance student intake for the academic year 2010-2011 in its programs both regular and school-based. The bottom line of double intake is to lessen the backload of students to join university. Here, the double intake of students leads to quick/prompt access to high learning and it is a motivational factor for those students yearning for university education. The only challenges could be the university teaching staff, space, resources and accommodation to be addressed by the government and stakeholders to realize the Vision 2030.

Other recent education reforms in university sector include elevation of colleges (8) to constituent centers for university education for example Kenya polytechnic a constituent college of university of Nairobi, Mombasa polytechnic, a constituent college of Jomo Kenyatta University, Egoji teachers college a consentient college of Egerton University (MOE, 2009 ). All the above reforms are to enhance access, equality and transition rates to higher education that will produce adequate trained personnel for the country`s economic development in line with Vision 2030.

The education reform on child friendly schools came into force in 2010 which stresses for child friendly schools that are barrier free. The schools are encouraged to enforce hygiene by updating their sanitary facilities. Children are encouraged to wash their hands after long and short calls daily. This policy is emphasized in primary schools as children at this level are susceptible to diseases attack such as cholera, dysentery, typhoid among others. Corporal punishment is outlawed in the school sector and guiding and counseling remains alternative tools of correction of errant behaviors. The child friendly schools has led to retention and children love their schools however, the challenges here include: corporal punishment is still administered in schools, specialized guiding and counseling cannot take place in most schools because the teachers have heavy loads, lack of time for guiding children thus time is not allocated for effective guiding and counseling on the schools timetable.

The stakeholders and government did not give an alternative measure in place of corporal punishment hence a lot of confusion in the management of discipline in schools. This concerns need to be addressed to increase access, equity, equality and retention in school system as envisioned by Vision 2030. Another important education reform is the provision of sanitary towels in primary and secondary schools (MOE, 2007). The Ministry of Education and Science and Technology in collaboration of with other stakeholders Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) provides sanitary towels to girl-child in schools to enhance retention. Although this programme is yet to reach out in all schools, at least some schools are receiving the sanitary pads for the girls.


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The girls are now able to comfortably learn with boys and unlike before when they would be shy when their periods are on, for fear of ridicule from boys while in schools. This programme is to be rolled out in all schools in future and indeed the fear of girls to go to school when having periods will be a thing of the past. In a nutshell the provision of free sanitary pads to girl-child is enhancing their education. Are there any provisions for the boy-child to feel appreciated in the education system? Or a boy-child is facing extinction in school setting? (Chang’ach, 2012)

Education reform on the centers of excellence through Economic Stimulus Programs (ESP) and the Ministry of Education (MOE) has identified 2 primary schools one in urban and one school in rural area in every Constituency for infrastructure development. Each school gets kshs. 30,000,000 for the development and has had positive results as these centers of excellence are model schools in terms of service delivery relative to the rest. The Ministry of Education has also identified one secondary school a centre of excellence at constituency level to realize infrastructural development. Each school gets kshs. 30 million for this purpose. This is a realization of expansion of secondary education as articulated in Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005 on Education, Training and Research. The policy on establishment of centers of excellence at Primary and secondary levels have led to expansion of education (i.e. access equity, quality, retention) the two centers of excellence has had its challenges. One of the challenges is the parameters used to pick/select the two schools as centers. Some districts and constituencies have expressed dissatisfaction on the selection criteria some people expressing political connotations and community misrepresentations.

Some districts/constituencies have their schools far apart and hence future for children to benefit from such centers is not real. Initial problems include improper use of the grants given, where some schools have no laboratories or they are available with no equipments for effective teaching and learning, sometimes grants are used but the work is shoddy. The foregoing is defeating the initial intended purpose. What needs to be done is to bring all stakeholders on board and enforce strict supervisory work rules. In addition, the ministry should formulate a policy on centers of excellence to avoid challenges ahead. Otherwise it is a good programme that will lead to children being exposed to state of art learning materials/equipment within their reach and enhancing of quality education to achieve Vision 2030 education targets. Education reform on establishment of two national schools in every county correlates well with the policy on the establishment of centers of excellence. The Ministry of Education commits itself to elevate two schools to national level status; one for boys and one for girls in every County.

Each identified school will be given kshs. 50 million to expand facilities to be in line with national status like the current ones such as Alliance, Lenana, Kenya high and others. This programme is under the ESP and aims at increasing the quota of children selected to national schools. The children had merited but missed to join due to few chances. The more the number of those joining national schools will increase access, transition, equity and quality of education in each county. Suffice to say national schools are well endowed with better learning and boarding facilities compared to conventional schools. Given the colossal amount of money (kshs. 50 million) the government aims at using education as catalysts to realization of vision 2030. The hallmark of realization of this dream is feasible due to the anticipated number students that will acquire quality education through these national schools in every county. High qualified personnel will automatically turn the economy around and hence the realization of the vision.

The main challenges are as follows; first, to avail the said amount of the grant (kshs. 50 million) per two schools in the 47 counties in Kenya where the economy is still in doldrums and hence the likelihood of not funding all the 94 national schools in 47 counties. Further to sustain the national schools could be hard since the world is currently experiencing an economic meltdown. Secondly, the admission quota in form one intake has raised eyebrows between public and private academies with some quarters arguing that the quota of form one intake favours public at the expense of students of private schools with quality marks left out. Some students have expressed shock of the admission quota through suicides among others. Thirdly, the so called new national schools have raised fees to double/triple the fees charged by conventional schools hence this will turn away many children from poor backgrounds. Otherwise the policy is relevant and needs efforts and political good will to realize it to achieve Vision 2030 education targets.


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1.7. Conclusion

From the findings of this study, education is a key to any nation`s development and for it to play this role, education reforms should be inclusive, clearly planned, protected from political dictates, owned by stakeholders, adequately financed, subjected to periodic technical consultations, full implementation of the commission`s recommendations to achieve innovation. Secondly, education reform is for innovation especially the recent education reforms in Kenya, are realizing the vision 2030 if there is political goodwill by the Government of the day, the stakeholders in education get together, plan for the reform, handle the process together , implement the reforms as a group and based on the technical objectives of the reforms.

Education reforms have been handled by the government to achieve political objectives; politicians have handled education reform as a political tool rather than technical process. This led to resistance to reforms in education especially the Mackay Commission of 1981 and the creation of 8-4-4 Education System. This is why Kenyan parents and students have flocked Ugandan schools for ‘A’ level and colleges such as Bugema University, Kampala University, Busoga and Makerere. This shows that Kenyans are not so happy with education reform of 1981, more so Mackay Commission created Moi University as a technology based university in 1981, there were challenges such as inadequate facilities for training, lack of qualified staff and the personnel at the university could not accommodate technology hence not able to provide correct technical knowledge required then. Therefore, critics also argue that initially the school of medicine produced incompetent doctors, thus the curriculum of the school of medicine at the university taught and trained doctors to prevent diseases but not to treat the patients suffering from various diseases. Therefore many parents and students were not happy with these reforms hence they were forced to go Uganda and other countries that afford “A” level curriculum and specialized training in professional courses like medicine.

The study concludes that political education reform process has not served the Kenyans well. Therefore, Kenyans will always yearn to change the current 8-4-4 system with the only handicap being inadequate finance and resistance by parents and teachers. As one daily newspaper quotes: “the proposed education system to replace the current 8.4.4 to 2.6.6.3, teachers and parents rejected the change” (Daily Nation, 6th June, 2012). The government in their reform process after independence used power coercive approach to reform education sector with out involving other stakeholders. This led to the failure of reform implementation or the implementing agencies used the policy of retrogressing to the mean thus to fight reform or change hence the change did not achieve anything. Moreover, education reforms created more challenges than solving education problems such academically oriented and elitist education for white collar jobs in urban areas, school leaver unemployment up date from 1963 to 2012 which have been thorny issues in education, a power coercive strategy as failed education reform process in Kenya since independence.

Politically, the government has used education as a tool to achieve their political objectives hence failed to reform education to benefit the masses. The politicians have had a lot of impact in education reform than educationists or professionals or educational planners, which has affected the reform momentum and desire to change which has been resisted by majority in the country. Nevertheless, from 2003 to 2012, the NARC and coalition government have had a political will and positive toward education reform, this has led to education reforms through policies such as Sessional Paper no. 1 of 2005, acts of parliament and meetings or conferences to discuss education issues ,among them; education reform for current needs such as special needs education, national schools, sanitary towels for girls among others, these reforms have yielded innovations in education in realization of vision 2030.

Education reform from Ominde in 1964 to Koech 1999 Commission have developed and articulated national goals of education in line with vision 2030. Moreover, formal education can not meet the objectives of vision 2030 hence, there is need to change or reform education system towards informal and non formal system to realize the above objectives. However, government rejection in the full or partial implementation of education commission reports has been the main blunder by the governments bureaucrats since independence, what Amutabi (2003) and Kivuva (2005),calls “punctuated implementation of education recommendations” in Kenya, political intrigue as the main impediment to education reforms by the political elites in the country. Education reforms focused on the curriculum, process, results and solving problems of the country, but very important stakeholders were left out of the process and planning of reforms. These stakeholders include parents, teachers and students who are the people to carry out and implement the change to get desired results.


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Despite the fact that reforms in Kenya are a dictate of the circumstances prevailing at the time such as time, available resource, human, financial, physical and political climate of a country, those to handle and implement the reform are key to the success of the reforms planned in the education system, therefore, the teacher, parents, student and the community are paramount to the success of the reforms in education. Further, Koech Report/reforms have been implemented in peace meal. For instance there is great access to education (from pre-school, primary, secondary and universities through school based learning, e-learning among others in the universities. HIV and AIDS have been emphasized in the syllabuses as well as Information Communication Technology (ICT) in schools. Education at primary level was made free from 2002 and today we have what politicians call “free secondary education” from 2008. As to how “free” it is leaves a lot to be desired. Lastly, languages (Kiswahili, English), Mathematics, science and professional subjects, Information Technology (IT) or ICT have been introduced in schools proving that recent education reforms are for innovation in education in line with Vision 2030.

1.8. Recommendations

I. For education reforms to achieve innovation in education, the main stakeholder (Ministry of Education) should change the policy of education reforms. Plan and assess the need for change then design a strategy for change. Give time frame, call meetings of stakeholders, listen to issues on both sides then plan and execute the reform in a rational way without power coercive. Educate people on change, implement the change without force, political elites should also understand that education reform is a technical not a political tool hence reform education technically and professionally not political as usual.

II. Education reform is a very important process, therefore there is need to take time or plan for gradual change is important than taking a short time to think and implement change in education people will resist change.

III. The ministry should hold various seminars of education reforms stretching fro one county to all 47 counties to involve the masses in the desired change and the political will should be available like National Alliance for Rainbow Coalition (NARC) Government has done since 2003 to 2012 has propelled and financed the change/reform process in the context of Vision 2030.

IV. To realize Vision 2030 through education the following should be done; first, reform the education system from formal to informal and non formal, thus expand them and extend education to non formal schools such as prisons since some people in there are innocent people, to do exams, teach the sick in hospitals or bedridden patients. These will improve access, equity, retention, equality, among others. Improve on co-curricular activities by establishing schools that deal with these activities such as football schools, athletics, drama, theatre, music, fashion industry schools. Moreover establish more mobile schools, ICT learning and national schools this will improve quality, access, retention, transition rates among others.

V. There is need for education and training for teachers to change/reform because in the formal education there are teachers who are not properly educated but they are educating others. Therefore quality is compromised hence achieving vision 2030 is a mirage because the quality of teacher is paramount to implement the vision 2030 as Lukas (1999) pointed out: “There is no education system that will work without a teacher imparting knowledge, computer will do better but will not teach well like a teacher does…” (Karugu, Wamahiu & Otiende, 1998)

VI. Here a teacher facilitates a conducive atmosphere for learning and children stay at school as the extension of a family, therefore, reforms should capture teacher education, recruitment, deployment and training. Only train those who are interested in teaching but not what Sifuna (1990) calls “mercenaries in teaching” those who joined teaching after failing to get their first career then landed in teaching. In teacher education, should be integrated with school environment, research methods, teaching practice twice not once as the case before. In this case teacher trainee understand where they will teach thus the school not teaching process only, school attachment, teaching practice since he or she will be teaching at school environment.

VII. Performance in schools measured by the mean score is not serving the purpose. For instance, how do we compare results of Alliance high school and Sigalame secondary school? The comparison is not level because of uniqueness of each school, in resources, nature of students and other variables.


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Mathematics and sciences punishes very many students when they fail hence, they think mathematics and sciences are a punishment which has got no relationship, therefore, Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) using mean score to compare results in primary and secondary must find an alternative measure of school achievement, otherwise mean score has had the following drawbacks; “Cheating in exams, high rates of drop outs, Suicide cases, especially those who fail exams, repeating, extra tuition in school system and other challenges that go with ranking in exams.” Therefore, the evaluation should be based on the education system not to one examination.

VIII. Furthermore, education reform should focus on technical schools to impart knowledge, skills and trades to serve the economy. From these technical schools the country would get thinkers in production that will provide innovation, creating jobs after education, not searching for jobs after school thus job creators rather than job seekers. Moreover, reform must focus on quality education, curriculum, and relevance; broaden the curriculum not basing on science and mathematics alone, as KNEC does in Kenya. Curriculum delivery system should be based on project and inquiry methods not the old lecture method that is a teacher centered and bookish knowledge, “teacher syndrome” in education should be minimized, instead, give emphasis on educational trips, field study, and participatory learning and learner centred, all these are paramount in the realization of Vision 2030. Therefore schools should be developed qualitatively and quantitatively in line with Vision 2030.

X. Lastly, from independence, there has been a lot of political interference in the education reform process and the education policy making. According to Amutabi (2003) some of the education reforms that show political interference in Kenya`s education sector include; Presidential decrees on harambee school system, free education, school milk programme quota system, 8.4.4 system, centres of excellence, National Youth Service, sanitary towels for girls in schools among others. According to Amutabi they were introduced with little or no input from various stakeholders and were undertaken to respond to certain pressure and crises to wade off public concern. It is no wonder then that many of their reports were discarded immediately the crises waned (Amutabi, 2003) in this case, education reforms were undertaken to serve the political interests than technical and educational needs of the Kenyans. Therefore, education reform process is a technical and to achieve innovation, it should be de-politicized or legislation should be enacted to protect education reforms from political elites, to achieve innovation in Kenya.

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