education policy formulation in tanzania:...

Education policy formulation in Tanzania: co-ordination between the Government and international aid agencies

Education policy formulation in Tanzania: co-ordination between the Government

and international aid agencies

by Lene Buchert

A Report from the I W G E

Paris 1997 U N E S C O : International Institute for Educational Planning

This study is based on official and unofficial statistics and documentation on educational policies. The views and opinions expressed in this volume are those of the author and should in no w a y be attributed to U N E S C O , the П Е Р or to any of the agencies which are members of the Working Group.

Financial support for this publication was provided by the Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency (Sida).

This volume has been typeset using DEP's computer facilities and has been printed in HEP's workshop

International Institute for Educational Planning 7-9, rue Eugène-Delacroix, 75116 Paris

Cover design by Blandine Cliquet © U N E S C O July 1997 IIEP/jn

Preface

Improving co-ordination between agencies and between aid agencies and governments is one of the main concerns of the international donor community. The great variety of multilateral, bilateral and non-governmental organizations intervening in m a n y developing countries has m a d e the issue increasingly complex. The need to stop fragmentation of development assistance and to strengthen co-ordination between donors at country level is widely accepted. Furthermore, it is also recognized that for such coordination to be efficient, close interaction has to take place with national governments and priority has to be given to the formulation of national policies and plans within which donor activities can be integrated.

Consequently, the question of h o w co-ordination between external agencies and national decision-makers can best be achieved, under what conditions and through what mechanisms has received significant attention from the International Working Group on Education for several years n o w , including during its last meeting which took place in November 1997.

In order to facilitate the discussions of the Working Group and to m a k e them as useful as possible, the present case study was prepared. Tanzania was selected as an interesting example of a country which has undergone significant changes in the performance of its educational system and in the involvement of external donors in the recent national policy formulation and implementation processes. Indeed, following the deterioration of the basic education services in the country during the 1980s and 1990s, the need for co-ordinated donor inputs has increased and the interaction with national policy makers has intensified.

T h e initiative to study the case of Tanzania was taken by Sida, in consultation with the other Working Group members . The study itself was carried out by Lene Buchert, an international consultant with previous experience in Tanzania.

v

Preface

I wish to express m y gratitude to Sida which financed the preparation of the study, the Government of Tanzania and the donor agencies, all of which gave the consultant open access to their files, facilitated her interviews, accepted her participation in co-ordination meetings, and commented on the first draft of the report. The statements and opinions expressed in the report are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of П Е Р / U N E S C O , Sida or the Government of Tanzania.

I also thank Lene Buchen for this excellent piece of research which will help scholars and practitioners alike, to better understand the constraints and opportunities relating to co-ordination between donors and national governments.

Jacques Hallak Assistant Director-General

Director, П Е Р

vi

Contents

Preface v

List of abbreviations ix

I. Executive summary 1

П . Introduction 4 1. Methodology 5 2 . Research questions 7 3. Restrictions on the policy analysis 7 4. Structure of the study 9

Ш . The context for government-agency co-operation in education in Tanzania in the 1990s 10 1. The magnitude of foreign assistance 12 2 . Education sector support 13 3. Education subsector support 16

rv\ International agency practice in and policy on education in Tanzania in the 1990s 18 1. International agency education project support 20 2 . Agency co-ordination of project support 26 3. Policy thinking of international aid agencies 29

V . Education policy thinking in Tanzania 34 1. The changing focus of education 35 Summary 42

vii

Contents

VI. The process of policy formulation on education in Tanzania 44 1. Education and training policy 46 2. Social sector strategy 51 3. Primary education. Master Plan. A framework 54 4. Summary and the next step forward 57

VII. Government and agency co-operation in education in Tanzania: some issues and lessons 61 1. Agency to agency co-operation 63 2. Government and agency co-operation 67 3. Government and inter-agency co-operation:

from formulation to implementation 69 4. Constraints and opportunities for government and

inter-agency co-operation 75

Appendices 79

Appendix 1. List of interviews 81 Appendix 2. Characteristics of education aid amongst international

aid agencies involved in education in Tanzania 84 Appendix 3. District-based education programmes in Tanzania 93

References 95

viii

Composition of the Planning Committee of the International Working Group on Education (IWGE)

The International Working Group on Education ( IWGE) is an informal group of aid agencies and foundations which come together at regular intervals to discuss issues of c o m m o n interest relating to international cooperation in the field of education. The Planning Committee of the I W G E is composed of representatives of the following agencies:

e Aga Khan Foundation ( A G K ) . e German Foundation for International Development (DSE). e Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency (Sida). « UNESCO. • UNICEF. « USAID. » World Bank (IBRD).

The Secretariat of the International Working Group on Education is provided by the International Institute for Educational Planning (ПЕР).

IX

List of abbreviations

ADEA Association for the Development of Education in Africa C B E Community-based Education CEF Community Education Fund США Canadian International Development Agency CURE Co-ordinating Unit for Research and Evaluation Danida Danish International Development Assistance D G I S General Directorate for International Co-operation (the

Netherlands) DRDP District Rural Development Programme E N R E C A Enhancement of Research Capacity ESRF Economic and Social Research Foundation E U European Union Finnida Finnish International Development Agency FY Financial Year GDP Gross Domestic Product GTZ German Organization for Technical Co-operation HRD H u m a n Resources Development I B R D International Bank for Reconstruction and Development I D A International Development Association IFI International Financial Institution ПЕР International Institute for Educational Planning I M F International Monetary Fund IMTC Inter-Ministerial Technical Committee IWGE International Working Group on Education JICA Japan International Co-operation Agency KfW German Financial Co-operation MSTHE Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education MOEC Ministry of Education and Culture NECTA National Examinations Council of Tanzania N G O s Non-Governmental Organizations NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation N U F F I C Netherlands Organization for International Co-operation in

Higher Education

XI

List of abbreviations

ODA Overseas Development Administration (United Kingdom) OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development P E P Primary Education Programme PMO Prime Minister's Office PS Principal Secretary SDC Swiss Development Co-operation Sida Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency S S R Social Sector Review SSS Social Sector Strategy TEE Tanzania Institute of Education TRC Teachers' Resource Centre U N E S C O United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization U N I C E F United Nations Children's Fund U S A I D United States Agency for International Development VETA Vocational Education and Training Authority

Xll

I. Executive summary

This study was commissioned for the International Working Group on Education ( I W G E ) by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and the International Institute for Educational Planning (ПЕР) with Danish International Development Assistance (Danida), Dar es Salaam, providing logistical support. Its primary aims were to examine the interaction between international aid agencies and the Government of Tanzania in recent education policy formulation in Tanzania and to analyze the translation of agency policies into practice in this concrete setting. Therefore, at the core of the analysis is the issue of co-operation amongst international aid agencies and co-ordination of international aid within the framework of nationally stipulated policies. Recently, policy dialogue, partnership and co-ordination and co-operation between national governments and international aid agencies have been identified as potential means of reducing the relative level of dependence of national governments on international aid agencies by ensuring higher consistency between national development policies and goals and international aid practice in specific contexts. Whether and h o w this has taken place in the case of Tanzania is the subject for this analysis.

T h e study was conducted for approximately three months during the period January to September 1996. It included visits to the headquarters of Sida, the General Directorate for International Co-operation (DGIS) and Danida, and two field trips to Tanzania. It is based on an analysis of relevant documentation collected at headquarters and field level, on oral data collected in interviews with headquarters officials of Sida, Danida, D G I S and the World Bank, officials of virtually all multinational and national aid agencies operating in education in Tanzania, Tanzanian government officials, and discussions held in three international meetings of the international aid agencies and the Tanzanian government.

It is a well-known fact that Tanzania is a country with long-term presence of international aid agencies and high dependence on international aid. In the education sector, national agencies, such as Sida, Danida, the

1

Education policy formulation in Tanzania: co-ordination between the Government and International Aid Agencies

G e r m a n Organization for Technical Co-operation ( G T Z ) and, more recently D G I S , have been particularly influential while the European Union (EU) and the World Bank are gaining importance in the 1990s. It appears in the study that co-ordination in Tanzanian education between the government and the international aid agencies and amongst the international aid agencies has been rather limited in terms of cofinancing of projects and co-operation in the different stages of the project cycle. Information sharing and dialogue have, however, become more important particularly in recent years.

In the present context in Tanzania, a n e w policy for the education sector, an Education and training policy, was recently formulated with simultaneous work on a Master Plan for Primary Education to provide the frameworks for future work in education. At the same time, a Social sector strategy was formulated with implications for the education sector. In the present study, the formulation processes of the two education papers (the wider education policy paper and the Master Plan) have been reconstructed, the linkage to the Social sector strategy has been established, and the relative roles and responsibilities of the Tanzanian government and the international aid agencies in their formulation have been clarified.

It is argued in the study that the wider education policy paper has a clear government imprint, while the formulation of the Master Plan and the Social sector strategy have been strongly influenced by agency officials, and their views and policies. There are overlapping areas of interest between the Tanzanian Government and some of the international aid agencies; the underlying issue in the study being whether these particular areas were Government priorities from the outset or whether they have become Government priorities due to the impact of the international aid agencies. Furthermore, in order to clarify existing and possible future inter-agency coordination and co-operation with the Tanzanian Government, the relative convergence or divergence in international agency thinking and practice has been analyzed.

T h e international aid agencies working in the education sector in Tanzania are influenced in different ways by present neo-liberal thinking and, thus, have put a different emphasis on the key issues of cost, efficiency and effectiveness, quality, equity and relevance. There has been a recent controversy in the education debate amongst the international aid agencies in Tanzania and within the Tanzanian Government based on these underlying different views and related to the liberalization and privatization

2

A report from the IWGE

of the education sector. At the present time, the debate has turned into a constructive dialogue with positive indications of co-ordination of future efforts in primary education. At the same time, education ministry officials have expressed commitment to co-ordinating work within the education sector guided by the n e w education policy and through establishing improved mechanisms for doing so. This m o v e is thus reinforcing the present general Government efforts to set a n e w stage for development in Tanzania.

The Tanzanian case, thus, highlights constraints to and opportunities for co-operation between the national Government and international aid agencies and amongst international aid agencies at a time of change in Tanzania. While the previous vacuum in terms of a general vision for the future has not yet been replaced by a reformulated development policy, there is a present strong Government commitment to do so. This is partly reflected in the formulation of the recent education policy. There have been achievements through dialogue within the international community and there are recent achievements in terms of a co-ordinated approach in primary education fulfilling both Government and international agency policy goals. Underlying these changes are n e w policy concerns and n e w attitudes to cooperation on behalf of both the Government and the agencies.

Whether the present commitment and m o m e n t u m will be upheld within the Government and amongst the international aid agencies, and whether the present seeds sown in terms of a n e w education policy framework will be implemented by setting priorities and designing strategies which reflect truly overlapping Government and agency interests and which work towards mutually acceptable goals for the education sector as a whole, are questions which will only be answered by future developments.

3

II. Introduction

In recent years, the issues of co-operation amongst international aid agencies and co-ordination of international aid within the framework of nationally stipulated policies have been identified as a potentially critical means to improving the efficiency and effectiveness of international aid. They have been raised in the policy formulations of a number of national and multinational aid agencies and have received increased international attention since Jomtien in 1990 by national Governments and in international working groups, such as the Association for the Development of Education in Africa ( A D E A ) and the International Working Group on Education ( I W G E ) . F e w analyses exist, however, of h o w national Governments and international aid agencies have interacted in policy making and in practice, including the preconditions, boundaries, realities and prospects for such co-operation. For two recent studies on Government and agency co-ordination in Bangladesh and Namibia, see (Magnen, 1994) and (Williams, 1995).

This study was set up to provide some of that knowledge based on the experiences in Mainland Tanzania of agency and Government interaction, firstly, in the formulation of the two most recent education documents, i.e. Education and training policy and Primary education. Master Plan. ' A framework' and, secondly, in the ongoing processes of project identification and formulation. The selection of the specific documents was based on the fact that they were recent and assumed to be completed at the time of conducting the analysis. There was no preconception of their relative value compared to other education policy documents in Tanzania or extensive considerations whether other documents in other countries would be more suitable for the analysis. Mainland Tanzania was selected as a case country, due to its long history of outside assistance and the large number of agencies working in education.

T h e study was commissioned for the I W G E on the initiative of and financed by the Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency (Sida) and the International Institute forEducational Planning (ПЕР), while

4


logistical and personal assistance during field work in Tanzania was provided by Danish International Development Assistance (Danida), Dar es Salaam.

The study is a sequel to an earlier I W G E report on education aid by the author (Buchert, 1995). In that study it was argued that there are apparent underlying differences in the conceptual understandings of education and development amongst multinational and national aid agencies which partly explain different overall purposes of, approaches to, and major foci areas for educational assistance amongst them. It was, furthermore, argued that the lack of c o m m o n approaches could inhibit interagency co-ordination and also impede the dialogue between international aid agencies and recipient Governments because of the lack of transparency and c o m m o n understanding of critical issues.

These and other arguments are highlighted in a concrete sense in the present study on education policy formulation and co-ordination of education activities in Tanzania. Central to the discussion is the ownership of the formulation process and the extent to which co-ordination of education activities has been determined by the government or the international agencies. The study seeks to highlight factors from both the government and the agency side which have constrained or promoted coordinated activities.

1. Methodology

T h e study was conducted for approximately three months during the period January-September 1996. It included visits to the headquarters of three of the major national aid agencies: Sida, Stockholm; the General Directorate for International Co-operation (DGIS), the Hague; and Danida, Copenhagen. Furthermore, two field trips to Tanzania were undertaken. At the headquarters level, interviews were conducted with, in all, seven officials involved in education or other aid to Tanzania and relevant official and unofficial documentation was collected. In addition, interviews were conducted with two World Bank World Bank headquarters officials in Stockholm.

T h e purpose of the first field trip to Tanzania was to discuss the processes involved in the formulation of the Education and training policy and Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework' and to gain an

5


overview of the involvement in the education sector in Tanzania of multinational and national aid agencies. Interviews were conducted with 15 officials of different agencies and 13 officials of Tanzanian Government ministries. In addition, 7 other persons were interviewed, some of w h o m had been part of the policy formulation processes of one or both education papers.

The second field trip focused on further steps taken in policy formulation and implementation by the Ministry of Education and Culture ( M O E C ) and on project identification and formulation amongst the different agencies seen in the context of the newly formulated education papers in Tanzania and of the agencies' o w n formulated policies. During this second visit, interviews were held with 13 agency officials, 8 Government officials, and 5 other persons involved in the initial or ongoing policy-making process. Eleven of the interviewees were met for the first time.

During both field trips relevant documentation was collected. A complete list of interviews is attached in Appendix 1.

In addition, the author took part in three international meetings focusing on the issue of co-ordination amongst international aid agencies. O n e was held in Stockholm with participation of representatives from the World Bank, Sida, the Norwegian Agency for Development Co-operation ( N O R A D ) , D G I S , the Finnish International Development Agency (Finnida), and an external consultant to Danida. The other two meetings were held in Dar es Salaam during the first field trip. The first meeting, which assembled officials of the M O E C and agency officials involved in the implementation of district-based primary education projects, aimed at presenting the experiences of the different projects. The other meeting concerned the issue of co-operation between the national Government and the international aid agencies and assembled representatives of the M O E C and most agencies involved in education in Tanzania.

The author acknowledges with gratitude the assistance of the m a n y respondents w h o gave generously of their time, views and understandings, and provided the basic documentation for the study. Further input was received from participants at the I W G E meeting in November 1996 w h e n a draft of the study was presented. The same draft was also circulated to all interviewees in Tanzania before the document was finalized. Valuable comments were received from the M O E C , M r Michael Kieman, D r Faustin

6


Mukyanuzi, Professor Issa O m a n and D r Reinhold Sauer which have improved the content of the published version of the study.

2. Research questions

The interviews conducted at the headquarters and field level concerning the process of policy formulation of the two Tanzanian education papers were guided by a semi-structured interview schedule which centred on the following three key research questions:

(i) W h a t was the nature of interaction between national policy-makers and donor agencies?

(ii) H o w did the Ministry view and adopt donor reactions and viewpoints during the process of preparing the documents?

(iii) H o w did the agencies view the preparation of the two documents? H o w do the documents relate to dominant agency policies? Can the donor experiences be generalized or are they specific to the Tanzanian context?

T h e analysis of the ongoing process of project identification and formulation in Tanzania was guided by the following research questions:

(i) H o w were the policies of the different agencies translated into action? W h a t are the differences between policy principles and practices?

(ii) H o w did the differences in policies among various agencies affect negotiations with the Government of Tanzania?

(iii) H o w did the differences in policies among various agencies affect the co-ordination among donors?

3 . Restrictions on the policy analysis

The study was complicated by the fact that the first field trip was conducted shortly after the establishment of the n e w Government in Tanzania following the October 1995 elections. Staff availability and turnover in the Government meant that interviews could not always be

7


conducted with officials w h o had been directly involved in the work on the education papers and in interactions with international aid agencies concerning project identification and implementation within the education sector. S o m e officials felt that they could not yet express Government opinion on certain matters. A similar situation was witnessed with respect to some of the agency officials w h o , in some cases, were n e w , had not been involved in the formulation processes, or felt uninformed and unable to speak on behalf of the agency in question concerning education policies and practices.

Another effect of the recent national election and the establishment of a n e w Government was that m a n y agencies, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMP7), postponed planned missions to Tanzania from A u t u m n 1995 to early 1996. The first field trip took place at a time w h e n Tanzanian officials felt inundated with agency representatives. Indeed, this situation m a y have led to more frankness, or a more critical attitude towards the role of the agencies, by some of the Tanzanian officials than would otherwise have been the case, because of their frustration over the lack of control of their o w n time-table and work situation.

Another major complication in the conduct of the study was the lack of written files to support the analysis of the processes involved in the formulation of the two education papers. Instead, the analysis had to be based on the m e m o r y of the interviewees which was often faltering or revealed serious discrepancies in the information provided by different actors. There were similar difficulties in the attempt to present a picture of agency involvement in the education sector. Basic data are deficient both in terms of overall figures and in terms of precise information concerning specific project activities.

Therefore, while it has been attempted in the study to cover all of the indicated guiding research questions concerning the formulation of the education policy papers and the translation of policies into action, some of the areas are dealt with in more depth than others. It was particularly difficult to obtain any detailed information concerning negotiations between agencies and the Government of Tanzania, except for the ongoing one between the Government and two of the national agencies. This was because key government actors were not available, either because they were no longer in government or had different positions there. In the case of agency staff, this was because responsibilities had changed or negotiations were

8


conducted by higher level people than the programme officers w h o were generally available for interviews. In its present form, the study is, therefore, a study of policy and practice in the education sector overall, with particular emphasis on those issues and projects where there has been most direct interaction between the Government and the international aid agencies and amongst the agencies. This stands in contrast to the Magnen (1994) study of which the focus was the interaction between the Government and the international aid agencies in one specific project.

4 . Structure of the study

The study focuses on the nature of policy-making as it was reflected in the formulation of the Education and training policy paper and Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework', and in the process of recent project identification and implementation amongst multinational and national aid agencies seen in relation to the existence of the two Tanzanian education papers and the formulated education and development policies of selected agencies. The analysis has been set in the context of overall education aid to Tanzania, of agency priorities to specific subsectors of education as depicted in their relative financial contributions, and of policy thinking within the multinational and national aid agencies which have been particularly influential in Tanzania. Besides the two education papers, the process of formulating the Social sector strategy will further highlight the context of the two education papers and the interaction between agencies and the Tanzanian Government in policy thinking. Excluded from the analysis are the processes of policy formulation within the vocational education and training subsector and the tertiary and higher education subsector.

Based on the analysis of these recent processes of policy making, a number of issues will be identified which have previously impeded Government and agency co-operation. They form the basis for the concluding discussion of constraints and opportunities for such co-operation in Tanzania, including steps recently taken in Tanzania to improve its prospects.

9

Ш . The context for Government-agency co-operation in education in Tanzania in the 1990s

Tanzania has a long history of involvement of international aid agencies in its development process. However , the conditions for agency participation has changed substantially since independence in 1961. After the formulation of the national development strategy in 1967, the assistance of the international aid agencies was primarily seen as supplementing the Government's o w n capacity, both in terms of resources and expertise, and thereby a means to reach the independently formulated goals for the political and economic development process at a faster speed. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, as a result of the prevailing economic crisis, international assistance instead became a necessity to undertake even the basic running of the country due to virtual financial bankruptcy. Assistance was , then, provided within a framework of economic and political reorganization which was largely determined by the I M F and the World Bank (Buchert, 1994).

With increased economic dependence came increased political dependence. Associated with the negotiations with the I M F in 1986 were conditionalities concerning the overall goals for the macro-economic policies and their implementation, the nature of the political system, and the purposes and relative priority of the social sectors in the development process, including that of education. The final acceptance of these conditionalities -generally associated with structural adjustment measures - was partly due to internal pressure within the Tanzanian Government and society for a departure from the still prevailing official strategy of Socialism and Self-Reliance which emphasized the role of the public sector in the development process. The I M F / W o r l d B a n k Economic Reform Programme of 1986 and the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Programme of 1989 instead put the key emphasis on the development of a market-driven society in which public and private initiatives would be blended, extensive liberalisation of foreign exchange allocations and internal marketing would be permitted, and general cuts in the extent of state expenditure and economic activity would be

10


undertaken (Gibbon ; Raikes, 1995). The economic and political reform programmes were followed by other institutional and civil service reform programmes in 1993 which are n o w in the process of being finalized and/or implemented.

International aid agencies have also played a key role in educational development in Tanzania since independence. Representatives of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ( U N E S C O ) had advisory functions already at independence and U N E S C O and United Nations Children's Fund ( U N I C E F ) played important roles in advocating and designing mass education programmes before independence. After independence, the number of international aid agencies involved in educational development has greatly increased, including numerous national aid agencies, non-Governmental Organizations ( N G O s ) , church organizations, and the World Bank. Their presence contributed to the large number of educational experiments, for example the functional literacy programme in the 1970s and the diversified secondary education programme in the 1980s (Buchert, 1994).

A s in the case of macro-economic and political development, the relative impact of the outside agencies increased as initial Government achievements within the education sector took a downward turn from the beginning of the 1980s. In the 1990s, the Government is faced with deteriorating quality at all education levels, serious underfimding of the total sector, declining enrolment and retention rates at the primary level, increasing illiteracy, one of the lowest transition rates to secondary education in Africa, a private secondary education sector which has outnumbered the public sector, and a total number of students in higher education which is smaller than one would usually find in a single major university in most countries. Underlying and adding to this is inadequate textbook production and distribution, underqualified teachers, low morale among education staff, loss of belief in Government provision of education by parents, and increasing gender and other disparities.

The following sections highlight the degree of Government dependence on foreign aid as expressed in overseas aid flows and relative financing of the education sector by the Tanzanian Government and international organizations, respectively.

11


1. T h e magnitude of foreign assistance

While national policy making in Tanzania has always been intertwined with the interests of outside agencies, the contention here is that the relative dominance of these agencies on internal decision-making processes increased with the increased dependence on foreign aid. H o w dependent Tanzania has become on foreign assistance is difficult to determine. Uncertainties about virtually all Tanzanian statistics explain different interpretations of facts and trends in the development in Tanzania. These uncertainties are partly due to incomplete compilation of basic statistics, often because all sources are not or cannot be accounted for at a given moment , or because indications of disbursements are not adjusted when time frames change and when money is not spent at all. Inaccuracies arise both because information within and from the international aid agencies is incomplete and because Government figures are deficient.

Table 3.1 (reproduced from Engberg-Pedersen et al., 1996) shows the variation in estimates on aid flows to Tanzania since independence. While all sources indicate a significant increase in aid from the earliest point (1960-64, 1984, 1985, 1986) to the highest point (1991, 1992), there is considerable variation in the actual figures. This concerns, in particular, the discrepancy between the higher Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development ( O E C D ) figures quoted in A d a m et al., 1994 and the lower World Bank figures. In the most extreme case (1988), there is a difference of more than half the aid figure quoted by the other two sources for the particular year.

Despite the indicated discrepancies, there is a c o m m o n upward trend in the amount of foreign aid and a significant increase after the agreement with the I M F in 1986 (unless this increase rather represents the demand for transparency of and accountability for foreign aid which became dominant at the time). In two cases, the amount of foreign aid is indicated as having doubled during 1986-90 (Netherlands 1994; World Bank 1991). According to Gibbon and Raikes (1995: 33), based on the higher estimates, the value of foreign aid has increased from about twice the value of exports in the mid-1980s to about two and a half times in the early 1990s. Based on the Netherlands estimates, official development assistance as a proportion of the gross domestic product ( G D P ) increased from about 12 per cent in 1975 to nearly 43 per cent in 1990 and from 39 per cent to 85 per cent of imports over the same period. Foreign funds pay for almost all of the development

12


budget and a significant proportion of the recurrent spending in Tanzania. Therkildsen (1996), with reference to Semboja (1992), indicates that foreign loans, grants and import support increased from 14 per cent of Government recurrent revenues in the financial year 1985 to 50 per cent in the financial year 1990.

Table 3.1. Overall aid inflows to Tanzania 1960/64-1992, various estimates (US$ million)

Year

1960-64

1966-73

1974-80

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

A d a m et al. 1994

24 52

386 650 657 673 579 549 477 675 882

1,012

917 1,171

1,081

-

Netherlands 1994

. -. -. . . .

384 410 760 863 872 843 910

-

World Bank 1991

.

.

.

.

.

.

. 288 357 388 551 653 741 748

.

-

World Bank 1994

.

.

.

.

. ----

622 679 719 799 817 840 826

Source: Raikes ; Gibbon, 1996, p. 243.

2 . Education sector support

T h e reliance on foreign assistance and inadequate Government resources have also influenced sectoral and sub-sectoral allocations to the education sector. The relative sectoral allocation of central Government expenditures has shifted since the 1970s, the most spectacular fact being that interest and principal payments on the public debt has quadrupled and n o w constitutes the largest item in the expenditure budget (40%) (Gibbon ;

13


Raikes, 1995: Table 3.2). With respect to education sector support, there are severe discrepancies in different sources concerning its relative size. O n e of the basic problems is the lack of accounting for local Government spending on primary and adult education after responsibilities were delegated in 1984. Thus, while trends m a y indicate declines in central Government expenditures around this time, reduced Government funding of education m a y have been counterbalanced by local money. This also explains disagreements concerning whether Government spending was reduced after the I M F agreement which demanded cuts in social sector expenditures, including to education. In the present situation (1996), the international financial institutions (IFIs) ( IMF and World Bank) reinforce the Government's o w n stated commitment to increase funding for the education sector.

According to the I B R D (1996: 39, 41), central Government expenditures as a share of G D P dropped from 4 per cent in the financial year (FY) 1980 to an estimated 2.2 per cent in F Y 1992. The share of education of total central Government expenditure (recurrent and development budget) has also been declining from the 1970s until n o w (Table 3.2).While the actual proportions differ in different sources, the general trend is a decline coinciding with the delegation of local responsibilities in the mid-1980s and increased relative proportions in the 1990s. Based on the budget speech for 1996, there is an indicated decline in the most recent allocation to education which shows the difficulty in fulfilling the stated commitment by the n e w Government and international pressure to increase funding for education in a situation of continued economic constraint. In actual terms, Government allocations to the education sector is indicated as having increased from Tshs. 16.6 billion in 1989/90 to Tshs 58.2 billion in 1994/95, the approved figure for 1996/97 being Tshs. 92.3 billion (Mukyanuzi, 1996: 4)?

1. Current (August 1996) exchange rate is Tshs 580 to U S $ 1.

14

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Government recurrent expenditures on education are still by far higher than the inflows from international aid agencies which have traditionally financed (most of) the development budget. The size of the development budget has, however, increased somewhat during the mid-1980s to 1990s as a proportion of the total budget for education, constituting 13 per cent in 1987/88,6 per cent in 1990/91 and 16 per cent in 1993/94 (calculated from Samoff with Sumra 1994: Table 8.2 and Mukyanuzi 1996: Table 2). According to Svantesson (1994a: 3), agency assistance to the education sector increased from approximately U S $ 2 9 million in 1991 to approximately U S $ 3 8 million in 1992 and decreased in 1993 to approximately U S $ 3 6 million. In recent years, agencies have increasingly funded the recurrent budget, but the actual amounts cannot be reliably determined. According to Svantesson (1994b: 18), in the primary education sector agencies financed 6 per cent of the recurrent budget and 88 per cent of the development budget in 1993/94 compared to 7 per cent and 92 per cent, respectively, in 1994/95.

3 . Education subsector support

There is generally consistency in interpretations of the relative importance of specific subsectors seen in relation to one another in the post-independence period. Disagreements concern actual allocations and, therefore, trends in development of the individual subsector over time. Primary education has always received the highest proportionate allocations compared to other subsectors, while there have been some fluctuations in the comparative size of the remaining subsectors. According to Samoff with Sumra (1994: 157), during 1982/83-1990/92 the highest proportionate share of the combined recurrent and development budget was given to primary education followed by university education {Table 3.2). Technical education and administration received an increasing proportion during the period, while those of secondary and adult education were declining. Teacher education remained at the same level.

There seem to be some marked differences in the actual distribution of recurrent and development expenditures for education between 1990/91 and 1993/94. According to World Bank figures (quoted in Mukyanuzi, 1996), of the total actual recurrent and development expenditures on education for 1993/94, primary education maintained its relative high proportion, technical and higher education declined substantially, secondary education increased, while teacher education and adult education declined. A s the student

16


population in primary education by far outnumbers that at the other education levels, there are extreme differences in the unit cost of education at the different education levels, in particular at the primary compared to the university level.

There are some contrasts in the relative subsectoral allocations on the recurrent and the development budget. While primary education has received by far the highest share on the recurrent budget, and also receives a high proportionate share of the contribution by the international aid agencies to the development budget, it is higher, technical and secondary education which receive comparatively higher shares on the development than on the recurrent budget.

Thus, it seems fair to conclude that education has remained of relatively high priority in total Government funding in Tanzania for most of the post-independence period although its relative share of total Government expenditures has dropped since independence (when it constituted approximately 20 per cent) and is lower than spending in other African countries where education expenditures m a y constitute up to 25 per cent of total Government spending. It seems that education's share of the G D P and of total Government spending was negatively affected by the I M F agreement in 1986, but that some increased amounts have been allocated in the 1990s. Primary education has continued to receive the highest priority. There are differences in opinions as to whether the relative allocation for primary education has been declining during the 1980s (Samoff ; Semboja, 1994: 157), or has been increasing (Therkildsen, 1996). The most recent figures seem to indicate increased attention to secondary education, but substantial reduction in Government support for higher and technical education.

The more specific agency support to education in Tanzania in terms of projects and programmes are presented in the following within the context of agency policy-thinking on education and development.

17

IV. International agency practice in and policy on education in Tanzania in the 1990s

There is a large number of international aid agencies involved in the education sector in Tanzania in the 1990s. Amongst national agencies, Danida, Sida, N O R A D and G T Z have been particularly influential in terms of number of projects and amount of funding followed by D G I S , Irish Aid and Overseas Development Administration ( O D A ) 2 . O f the multinational aid agencies, U N I C E F and U N E S C O have had programmes since before independence, while World Bank and E U support is more recent.

A n overview of agency-funded education projects and programmes in the 1990s is displayed in Table 4.1. The table is based on information provided by the individual agencies in Dar es Salaam on three different occasions: to the interagency group on education in Dar es Salaam (December 1994); to O D A/British Council (1996); and to the E U (August 1996). There are inconsistencies in the information contained in the three sources relating to the number and kinds of projects conducted by individual agencies and to the amount involved. The reproduced table lists all projects mentioned in any of the three sources. Individual project amounts have been taken from the most recent information available and are likely to, in some cases, represent actual disbursements while, in other cases, include actual disbursements and planned amounts.

T h e table should be seen as an overall indication of agency projects rather than a complete list with fully reliable information. For example, assistance provided by the agencies but not administered by the local embassies does not appear in the table. This relates, for example, to support for higher education links and research enhancement programmes which either take place through individual higher education institutions in the specific countries in the North and/or is administered by separate units often at headquarters level, for example university co-operation with Netherlands

2. After the elections in Great Britain in M a y 1997, O D A became a Ministry named Department for International Development. O D A has been maintained in this study which was conducted before the change of name.

18


Organization for International Co-operation in Higher Education ( N U F F I C ) and the Danida Enhancement of Research Capacity ( E N R E C A ) programme. These arrangements also appear in cases of agencies which are not listed at all, for example Finnida.

The list is also exclusive of a number of specific projects for which detailed information was not available. This includes N G O projects, volunteer agencies and integrated expert schemes, projects ran by churches and church organizations, and funding agencies, such as the Swiss Development Co-operation ( S D C ) and the German Financial Co-operation ( K f W ) . S o m e of these projects have major financial implications for the specific subsector within which the projects are conducted. S D C was, for example, a major financier in the 1990s for both tertiary and vocational education and training (contribution to the amount of U S $ 2 1 million for university education during 1986-1996) and K f W for secondary education; Churches and church organizations are also major donors (the inputs of the G e r m a n churches alone amounted to approximately U S $ 3 0 million within mainly secondary and vocational education during 1990 (Sauer, personal communication).

It appears from the table that the international aid agencies are involved in all subsectors of education and also conduct cross-sectoral activities. The listing of the projects in the individual subsectors has not, however, been undertaken according to a standardized classification of individual projects in the underlying sources. Particular difficulties relate to the lack of definition of 'basic' versus 'non-formal' projects and 'vocational and technical' versus 'post-secondary' projects.

There are projects, for example Folk Development Colleges, which are placed in one category in one source, but in another category in another source. Another example is the numerous management training programmes which, in some cases, appear under vocational and technical education and, in other cases, under post-secondary and tertiary education. In the table, individual projects have generally been placed in the subsector identified by the agencies. In cases of discrepancy between the sources, a best judgement has been m a d e .

19


1. International agency education project support

It appeared from the analysis undertaken above that education allocations have been increasing in actual terms and as a proportion of total Government spending since the end of the 1980s and that international aid agencies have increased their total amounts at the beginning of the 1990s. Primary education has maintained the highest proportion of total education spending and has received an apparent increased share in most recent years. There has been some increase for secondary education in the most recent years, while there have been severe cuts in the relative allocation for technical and higher education. Higher, technical and secondary education have received comparatively higher proportions on the development than on the recurrent budget, and comparatively more than primary education, indicating the preferred investment areas of the international aid agencies. In terms of unit costs, there are huge discrepancies between the primary and the higher education levels (Matera et al, 1995: 9) .

The picture appearing in Table 4.1 seems to support the trend on the development budget. The highest number of projects are in the post-secondary and tertiary subsector, followed, first, by vocational and technical education, and, then, by primary education. Relatively small emphasis has been placed on secondary and non-formal education.

From merely adding up the amounts, most support has been awarded to post-secondary and tertiary education (approx. U S $ 8 7 million), followed by vocational and technical education (approx. US$71 million) and primary education (approx. U S $ 6 0 million). However, the uncertainty concerning the classification of individual projects, the fact that several projects support more than one subsector, that projects supported by a number of agencies are not included, and that there are different time periods involved for the different projects prevent any final conclusions. Cross-(sub)sectoral support represents a very high figure (approx. U S $ 9 0 million) due to the E U Structural Adjustment Support Programme which has a more indirect than direct effect on education.

20


Table 4.1. Agency-funded education projects in Tanzania operating in the 1990s (US$ million)

Sector

Basic and primary

Secondary

Activity

1. Primary Education Support Programme, Phase I and П

2. Basic Education Songea Distria Project 3. Disabled People's Project 4. Private School Rehabilitation Project 5. Children's Book Project

6. Support to Education Sector within the DRDP

7. Pilot Progr. for Decentral, of Prim. School Teacher Management

8. Kilosa District Primary Education Project 9. Primary Education Mathematics U p

grading, Korogwe T T C 10. Rehabilitation of Schools, Karagwe

District, Kagera 11. District Education Support for Ulanga 12. Education Materials (incl. secondary and

teacher education) 13. Special Education

14. Education in Zanzibar (including non-formal adult)

15. In-service Teacher Training

16. Community Support -Child Dev. and Educ. (incl. pre-school)

17. National Support - Child Dev. and Educ. (incl. pre-school)

18. Child dev. and educ, Zanzibar (including pre-school)

19. H R D C E F Pilot (to include other pilots at other subsector levels)

1. School Maintenance Project 2. Pilot Project in Dar es Salaam 3. Pilot Project for French Teaching in 3

Secondary Schools 4. Chang'ombe School 5. Support to Christian Education Board of

Tanzania, Science Teaching at Secondary Schools

6. National Education Trust Funds for Secondary Schools

7. English Language Teaching Support Project, Phase П

Agency

1. Danida

2. Danida 3. Danida 4. Danida 5a Danida + 5b DGIS 6. DGIS

7. EU

8. Irish Aid

9. Irish Aid

10. Irish Aid

11. Irish Aid

12. Sida

13. Sida

14. Sida

15. Sida

16. U N I C E F

17. U N I C E F

18. U N I C E F 19. World

Bank 1. Danida 2. France 3. France

4. France 5. GTZ

6. NORAD

7. ODA

Period

1. 1992-98

2. 1993-96 3. 1991-95 4. 1991-95 5a 1993-96 5b 1992-96 6. 1995-98

7. 1996-97

8. 1991-97

9. 1994-96

10. 1995-96

11. 1996-98 12. 1992-96 13. 1992/93-

1994/95 14. 1992-96

15. 1992/93-1995/96

16. 1992-96

17. 1992-96

18. 1996-98

19. 1996-99

1. 1980-95 2. 1995 3. 1993-99

4. 1993-99 5. 1993-96

6. 1991-95

7. 1991-96

Amount

1. 1.5

2. 0.4 3. 0.3 4. 1.9 5a 0.5 5b 0.3 6. 6.8

7. n/a

8. 2.7

9. 0.9

10. 0.4

11. 0.2

12. 8.5

13. 0.2

14. 1.3

15. 0.9

16. 3.7

17. 1.7

18. 2.5

19. 20.0 1. 13.9 2. 0.4 3. 1.3

4. 0.05 5. 1.9

6. 8.2

7. 8.8

21


Table 4.1 (cont'd)

Sector

Vocational and technical

Activity

1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Training Fund for Tanzanian W o m e n , incL extension Link between Association of Canadian Community Colleges and various vocational and technical units in Tanzania Vocational Training Support Programme Girls' Dormitory Project, Zanzibar Reg. Train. Prog, in Managern, for Afr. Transport Managers Regional Programme in Logistics and Physical District Management for East and Southern Africa Teaching Methodology Improvement Project, Agricultural Tutors Training Centre (yet to be finalized) Ministry of Agriculture Training Institute ( M A T T ) , phase IV Technical College Arusha Tanzania Training Centre for Orthopaedic Technologists Kilosa District Vocational Centre Vocational Training Mikumi Dar es Salaam Maritime Institute Institute of Development Management

National Vocational Training Division

Morogoro Vocational Teacher Training Centre

Kihonda Vocational Training Centre

Moshi Vocational Training Centre

Rehabilitation of Tanga and M w a n z a Voc. Training Centres

Promotion of W o m e n ' s Vocational Training

1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Agency

CIDA

США

Danida Danida DGIS

DGIS

DGIS

DGIS

GTZ GTZ Irish Aid Irish A M NORAD NORAD Sida

Sida

Sida

Sida

Sida

Sida

1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Period

1989-97

1993-98

1992-97 1991-95 1990-94

1990-95

1992-96

1993-97

1986-95 1981-93

1985-95 1994-96 1991-97 1996797-1998/99 1991/92-1995/96 1991/92-1995/96

1991/92-1995/96 1991/92-1995/96 1991/92-1995/96

1991/92-1995/96

Amount

1. 3.4

2. 0.9

3. 17.6 4. 0.5 5. 1.5

6. 1.8

7. 1.7

8. 1.4

9. 3.3 10. 9.0

11. 5.9 12. n/a 13. 3.1 14. 4.6

15. 4.6

16. 3.8

17. 2.0

18. 3.2

19. 2.1

20. 0.7

22

A report from the

Table 4.1 (cont'd^

Sector

Post-secondary and tertiary

Activity

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20. 21.

22. 23.

24. 25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

Ardhi Institute Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Enhancement of démocratisation Economic Policy Research Bureau Project East and Southern Africa Management Training Institute Rehabilitation of the National Sugar Institute Water Resources Engineering Programme

Support to Tanzanian students in CIS and Eastern Europe Institutional Support to the East Africa Statistical Train. Centre Inst. Support to East and South Africa Management Institute H u m a n Resources Development Programme Institute of Kiswahili and Foreign Languages Sokoine University of Agriculture, Dept. of Horticulture Support to Faculty of Engineering, University of Dar es Salaam Institute of Production Innovation, University of Dar es Salaam Sokoine Agrie. Univ., DepL of Agricultural Engineering Univ. of D S M , Mathematics Dept Support Programme Univ. of D S M , Fac. of Engineering, Water Res. Eng. Progr. Univ. of D S M , Faculty of Commerce and Management Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre Institute for Continuing Education, Sokoine University Anaesthesia Training, K C M C Local Government Training and Development Project Training for Regional Commissioners Sokoine University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry Univ. of D S M , Chemical and Process Engineering Department University of Dar es Salaam, Chemistry Department Personnel Dev. Progr. in Animal Science and Produc, Sokoine M S c Programme in Soil Science and Soil Management University of Dar es Salaam (frame agreement) University Links

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20. 21.

22.

23. 24.

25.

26. 27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

Agency

Danida Danida Danida D G I S D G I S

D G I S

D G I S

EU

EU

EU

EU

France

France

GTZ

GTZ

GTZ

Irish Aid

Irish Aid

Irish Aid

Irish Aid Irish Aid

Irish Aid

Irish Aid Irish Aid

NORAD

NORAD NORAD

NORAD

NORAD

NORAD

ODA

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20. 21.

22.

23. 24.

25.

26. 27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

Period

1993-97 1979-94 1995-98 1992-94 1994-95

1993-96

1995-2000 1995-97

1994-97

1993-97

1993-97

1996-99

1995

1991-95

1991-95

-1998

1991-98

1984-97

1983-93

1991-95 1992-%

1994-96

1995-97 1995-96

1996-2000 1992-95 1992-95

1992-95

1991-95

1996-2000 1995-96

Amount

1. 4.4 2. 13.1 3. 1.7 4. 0.9 5. 0.3

6. 1.8

7. 0.6

8. 2.4

9. 6.3

10. 2.5

11. 9.0

12. 0.4

13. .003

14. 3.4

15. 3.4

16. n/a

17. 1.4

18. 2.3

19. 0.5

20. 1.1 21. 1.2

22. 0.6

23. 0.6 24. 0.08

25. 11.5

26. 3.3 27. 2.5

28. 1.5

29. 2.2

30. 8.4

31. 0.1

23


Table 4.1 (Cont'd)

Sector

Non-formal

Cross (sub-) sectoral support

Activity

1. Workers' participation dev. progr. for English-speaking Africa

2. Folk Development Colleges

1. Zanzibar English Language Improvement Programme

2. Technical co-operation training programme 3. Multiannual Microprojects programme 4. Structural adjustment support programme 5. Strengthening sector planning and

management 6. Improvement of education quality 7. Strengthening the mobilisation and effective

utilization of non-governmental resources and support for education

Agency

1. DGIS

2. Sida

1. ODA

2. ODA 3. ODA 4. EU 5. World Bank

6. World Bank 7a World

Bank + 7b NORAD

Period

1. 1993-97

2. 1992-96

1. 1989-94

2. 1994-95 3. 1993-97 4. 1995-97 5. 1991-

6. 1991-7a 1991-

7b 1991-

Amount

1. 1.4

2. 0.9

1. 2.2

2. 3.0 3. 2.1 4. 44.4 5. 7.5

6. 15.0 7a 7.4

7b 8.2

Source. Based on information contained in Svantesson 1994a; British Council 1996; E U 1996.

W h a t can be more realistically determined is the relative emphasis of individual agencies within specific subsectors, as displayed in Table 4.2. While, again, it must be pointed out that the individual figures are highly doubtful, that individual projects m a y represent support for more than one subsector, that there are different time periods involved for the individual projects, and that the provided information is not exhaustive, there are certain general characteristics in the support by the different agencies:

® Danida, N O R A D and Sida have provided the highest level of support amongst the national aid agencies, while the E U and the World B a n k have become recent important funders of education;

® Different agencies have supported different subsectors: Danida and D G I S have spread their support across most subsectors, but while Danida will be shifting from primary to vocational and technical education, D G I S will be shifting from higher to primary education; Sida is mamtaining its concentration in the primary and vocational and technical subsectors, while U N I C E F is focusing on the primary subsector, Irish Aid has been supporting the primary, vocational and technical, and post-secondary and tertiary subsectors with increasing emphasis on primary education; O D A has, so far, supported secondary and higher education, but is starting a programme for the primary subsector, N O R A D and G T Z maintain their support in the secondary, vocational and technical, and post-secondary and tertiary subsectors,

24


while France allocates minor support for the secondary and post-secondary and tertiary subsectors; E U and the World B a n k has started funding the primary subsector, besides their cross-sectoral funding.

With respect to the primary education subsector, highest support was planned for education materials, rehabilitation of facilities and contingencies (actual amounts were not available) (Table 4.3). There are some fluctuations in the indications with the same amount of money per year being planned for 1993/94 and 1996/97 (US$ 8-9 million) while the planned amount for the intermediate years is higher ( U S $ 13-15 million). The major part of the support is planned for the development budget.

Table 4.2. Agency-funded education project support in the 1990s, by subsector (US$ million)

Agency/'^

s^ Subsector

D anida

NORM)

Sida

GTZ

Irish Aid

DGIS

ODA

CIDA

France

EU

World Bank

UNICEF

Total

Basic and Primary

10.6

10.9

4.0

7.3

a/a

20.0(a)

7.9

60.7

Secondary

13.9

8.2

1.9

8.8

1.7

34.5

Vocational and

Technical

18.1

7.7

16.4

12.3

5.9

4.9

4.3

69.6

Post-Secondary and

Tertiary

19.2

29.4

6.8

7.7

3.6

0.1

0.4

20.2

87.4

Non-Formal

0.9

1.4

2.3

Cross sub-sectoral

8.2

5.2

46.5

29.9

89.8

Total

61.8

53.5

28.2

21.0

17.6

17.2

14.1

4.3

2.1

66.7

49.9

7.9

344.3

(a) Recent information indicates a reduction for the C E F project from U S $ 16 million to U S $ 2.3 million.

25


Table 4.3. Planned agency support to the primary education sector in Tanzania 1993/94-1996/97 (US$ in million)

Activity

Recurrent

1. Salaries 2. Education Materials

3. Teacher Training 4 . Inspectorate 5. Transport 6. Maintenance of facilities

Sub-Total

Development

7 . Rehabilitation of facilities 8. Construction of facilities 9. Procurement of vehicles 10. Curriculum dev.

11. Training, scholarships

12. Admin. , monitoring

13. Consultancies

14. Educational planning

15. Contingencies

Sub-Total

Grand Total

Agencies

1. UNICEF 2 . Danida, Irish Aid,

D G I S , Sida, U N I C E F , ША

3. D G I S , Sida, U N I C E F , ША

4. SEDA, U N I C E F 5. Danida, Irish Aid 6. Danida, Irish Aid,

DGIS

7. Danida, DGIS , Ш А 8. Irish Aid, D G I S 9. Danida 10. UNICEF 11. Danida, Irish Aid,

DGIS 12. Danida, Irish Aid,

DGIS, UNICEF 13. Danida, Irish Aid,

DGIS 14. Danida, DOIS, Sida,

UNICEF 15. Danida, Sida

Amount

1993/94

2,736,200

1,020,060 24,620

4,031 71,540

3,856,451

3,606,600 233,600

38,000

59,130 4,380

2,506

492,400

246,200

4,682,816

8,539,267

1994/95

148,000 2,635,480

1,394,370 328,200

60,980 95,960

4,662,990

4,055,300 433,600 100,000 25,000

365,290 172,300

151,900

240,000

3,141,999

8,685,389

13,348,379

1995/96

3,018,240

755,500 151,200 208,420 126,640

4,260,000

3,899,800 640,900 120,000

272,270 167,300

181,900

120,000

5,567,690

10,969,860

15,229,860

1996/97

3,231,538

755,500 235,200 239,068 212,905

4,674,217

1,136,000 1.035,976

140,000

410,792 199,272

217,816

389,300

656,430

4,185,586

8,859,797

Source. Adapted from Svantesson 1994b.

2 . Agency co-ordination of project support

Agency officials generally reported consistency between the formulated policies on education by their o w n agency and its application in the Tanzanian context. There was, however, generally little awareness amongst the agency officials of the policies of other agencies. There was a tendency amongst the multinational officials to view the bilaterals as one block, and only a few of the national agency officials indicated a perception of changes in the policies and practices of other national and multinational aid agencies. There was , similarly, little awareness of the underlying policies of the different agencies amongst the interviewed Government officials. S o m e of

26


them had, however, a clear sense of differences in practice amongst the agencies.

It appears from the information provided to the E U in August 1996 that agency co-ordination is far from predominant in terms of cofinancing of projects and involvement of several agencies in the different stages of the project cycle: identification, design, appraisal, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. T h e co-operation which has taken place, so far, seems to have been determined by the content of a specific project within a specific subsector, but does not seem, in general, to indicate continuous co-operation among specific agencies which could develop into c o m m o n programmes or approaches. This m a y be because of the lack of c o m m o n knowledge of agency policies within the international community.

The only example of wider co-operation is the Children's Book Project which is cofinanced by Danida, Sida, D G I S and two N G O s with full participation in all phases of the project cycle. Otherwise, there are a few examples of projects where the lead agency (Irish Aid) has other, but different, agencies associated with a specific project and participating to different degrees in the different phases of the project cycle:

• Support to Water Resources, Civil Engineering Department, University of Dar-es-Salaam is provided by Irish Aid while D G I S and Belgium are associated with the project, have close involvement in identification, design and appraisal, full involvement in implementation, and informal involvement in monitoring and evaluation;

• The Local Government Training and Development Project supported by Irish Aid has the World Bank associated with full participation in identification, design, and appraisal and a close role in implementation, monitoring and evaluation;

• Kilosa District Primary Education Project supported by Irish Aid also has the World Bank associated with the project without being involved in identification, design and appraisal and with an informal role in implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

A number of projects target the same subsector and/or group without being cofinanced and with different degrees of involvement of all parties in the project cycle:

27


• Danida and Sida in the case of the Vocational Training Support Programme with close involvement in the project cycle;

• E U , С Ш А , D G I S , United States Agency for International Development ( U S A I D ) , and Commonwealth Secretariat in the case of Institutional Support to the East and Southern Africa Management Institute with informal involvement in identification, design, appraisal and implementation, but none in monitoring and evaluation;

• E U , International Development Association (TOA) and O D A in the case of the Structural Adjustment Support Programme with informal involvement in the project cycle;

• D G I S , Danida, Irish Aid and U N I C E F in the case of the Support to the Education Sector within the District Rural Development Programme ( D R D P ) with close involvement in the full project cycle;

• D G I S and E U in the case of the support to the East and Southern Africa Management Training Institute with no involvement in the project cycle.

This list is not complete - recent cofinancing and co-operation has, for example, been established between the World Bank and N O R A D in the Girls' Secondary Education Support Pilot and there is informal incorporation in the different stages of the project cycle of different agencies in a number of other projects. There has also been informal sharing of information in the interagency meetings since 1992.

Nevertheless, because of the long presence of the international agencies in Tanzania, one might have expected that efforts would have been more strongly rather than loosely co-ordinated at the present time. This, partly because of the international push for co-ordination and co-operation of the international aid agencies as a means to improving the efficiency and effectiveness of aid and, in particular, as a strategy to achieve Education for All, but also because of the relative emphasis on the importance of donor coordination in the policies of most of the involved agencies.

The lack of co-ordination of the projects, both in terms of government direction and in terms of agency co-operation, has contributed to the creation of pockets of development scattered across the country with little or no multiplier effect. The following analysis highlights whether, in the underlying policy thinking on education and development of the involved agencies, there are any immediate impediments for increased co-ordination in the future.

28


3. Policy thinking of international aid agencies

There is a general trend in the policy formulation of multinational and national aid agencies in the 1990s in terms of a key concern for poverty alleviation in developing countries. This poverty focus, in most cases, includes specific emphasis on social sector development and support for basic education. It has come about partly because of the recognition that the introduction of structural adjustment programmes had a negative impact on social sector development in m a n y countries. Basic education has also increasingly been seen as a cost-effective means of poverty reduction despite contrary evidence that gains at the primary education level are minimal and tend to disappear with age while higher levels of education are positively related to human well-being (Omari, personal communication). The poverty orientation has led to an increasing concern about the balance between economic growth versus social welfare strategies, and the relative role of the state and the private sector in educational provision. The relative emphasis on economic growth and social welfare strategies often lead to a different focus on the key educational issues of cost, efficiency and effectiveness, quality, equity and relevance (Buchert,1995).

In the previous work by the author for the I W G E (Buchert,1995) which was based on informal information provided by the agencies and their most recent policy documents, the basic characteristics of education aid amongst most international aid organizations were displayed according to the following parameters: Development and Education Policy Themes ; Education Priority Areas; Geographical Distribution; Modality/Principles; and Prospects/Concerns. A n adapted version of this information is contained in Appendix 2, focusing on most of the international aid agencies involved in education in Tanzania.

It appears from this Appendix that h u m a n resources development is considered to have central importance in the solution of global poverty problems and in ensuring economic growth, political participation, and mitigating social and other inequalities. It also appears that most of the agencies already have or will have in the future a major emphasis on basic education. It was argued in the previous study, based on an analysis of these characteristics, that there seemed to be underlying differences in the conceptual understandings and general thinking on education and development which might explain different purposes of, approaches to and priority areas of education aid amongst the agencies in particular contexts.

29


These differences were associated with four different core concepts: h u m a n capital development; h u m a n development; h u m a n capacity development; and h u m a n resources development - the characteristics of which were displayed in a matrix (reproduced as Figure 4.1).

It was, furthermore, argued that few, if any, agencies could be associated with only one of the concepts, but that different agencies were differently influenced by more than one of them and that their practice would reflect the mixture of the different concepts. The relative impact of each m a y change over time as policies are formulated and reformulated and due to n e w knowledge based on concrete experiences in particular contexts.

With the risk of highly oversimplifying developments in policy thinking and practice as they are expressed at present in Tanzania, there seems to be more convergence than divergence in the policy thinking of the agencies as a group. However, in contrast to the self-perception of a number of the agencies, it is here argued that, at present, there is a gap between formulated and implemented policies amongst a number of the agencies working in the education sector in Tanzania. This is expressed in their subsector focus and relative emphasis on key issues.

A s mentioned before, the major agencies in terms of funding projects in the education sector in the 1990s are Danida, N O R A D , E U and World Bank (in the area of U S $ 50-70 million, see Table 4.2) followed by Sida, G T Z , Irish Aid, D G I S , and O D A (in the area of US$15-30 million). The remaining agencies, U N I C E F , С Ш А and France, provide funding at a lower level (US$ 2-8 million). W h e n comparing policy thinking amongst these agencies {Appendix 2, excluding С Ш А and France), virtually all are guided to some extent by the concept of h u m a n resources development, focusing on mixed social welfare and economic growth strategies.

30

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31


Most of the agencies blend the concept of h u m a n resources development with the concept of h u m a n capital development, the latter representing an economic growth strategy, while a few of the agencies blend the concept of h u m a n resources development with h u m a n capacity development.

However , whereas all of the agencies have a higher focus on the concept of h u m a n resources development in their policies, m a n y of them are more influenced by h u m a n capital development in their practice in Tanzania. A few of the agencies are mostly influenced by h u m a n capacity development both in formulation and in practice in Tanzania.

T h e discrepancy between formulation and practice can partly be explained by the fact that, in some cases, practice has been altered since the formulation of the wider policies. This concerns, for example, Danida's m o v e from support for primary education to support for vocational education and training in the context of private sector development, despite the emphasis in the recently formulated Danida strategy towards the year 2000 on h u m a n resources development and basic education. Or , because practice has not yet caught up with newly formulated policies as in the case of O D A which will m o v e resources from secondary and higher education in support of primary education in its n e w programme support from 1997 in consistence with the recent O D A education policy emphasis on basic education; and in the case of Irish Aid which only recently m a d e the first step towards a policy paper emphasizing basic education and which will lead to a reinforcement of the district-based primary education programme.

Differences in policy and practice have also been reflected in a different emphasis on the key issues of concern in the different concepts (see Figure 4.1), in particular those of cost and quality, and in the relative emphasis on supply versus demand approaches to education with an underlying different focus on financing versus learning. These different interpretations will be discussed in more depth in the concluding part of the study.

Nevertheless, international policy thinking seems to support rather than impede agency co-operation in Tanzania. This likely scope for improved cooperation amongst the international aid agencies will, however, only have utmost impact on education development if, at the same time, there is correspondence with formulated Government policies and priorities in

32

A report from the fWGE

education, and if the implementation of agency policies is undertaken in cooperation with the Tanzanian Government. The degree of consistency with and agency impact on Tanzanian education policies appear in the following Sections.

33

Vo Education policy thinking in Tanzania

A number of education documents and statements have been directing education policy in Tanzania since independence in 1961. A selection of these have been displayed in Figure 5.1 as a basis to analyze development in the key education purposes, priority areas and issues from independence until the 1990s. O f particular interest in this study, are the Education and training policy, 1995, Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework', 1995 and Social sector strategy, 1995. A s appears from the discussion, on the process of formulating these documents, ТЪе Tanzania education system for the 21st century, 1993 was an important step in the production of the Education and training policy, 1995. T o form the basis of a comparison of educational thinking in the 1990s as expressed in these documents, Education for self-reliance, 1967 and Educational system in Tanzania towards the Year 2000, 1984 were selected. O f the listed documents, the Tanzania education system for the 21st century and the Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework' are not official Tanzania Government publications.

In contrast to the Education for Self-Reliance document which was mostly a reflection of presidential thinking, the remaining documents in Figure 5.1 have been commissioned nationally to be written either by ministry officials or academics. External experts and agency representatives have interacted differently in the formulation process of each paper and, therefore, had varying impacts on the contents of the documents.

In the present study, most emphasis is placed on an analysis of the interaction between Government and agency officials in the formulation of the Education and training policy (1995), which is the present official education policy of Tanzania, and Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework' (1995) which, as mentioned, has no official status and for which work has not been completed. The documents will be seen in relation to the Social sector strategy which emphasizes cross-sectoral, including educational activities, in order to determine the relative consistency in the educational priorities contained in the various documents. Moreover, the

34


likely relationship between the Social sector strategy and the World Bank Tanzania social sector review (1995) will be examined. The analysis is based on an examination of the mentioned documents and on responses gathered during the interviews with Government and agency officials.

1. T h e changing focus of education

A s can be seen in Figure 5.7, the major contrast in the context for education policy making in Tanzania during 1967-1990s is the m o v e from emphasizing the formation of a socialist state and public responsibility in education to emphasizing the development of a market economy which blends public and private initiatives. Since 1984, cost-sharing, partnership, and devolution of responsibility to lower levels have been central education policy themes, themes which have all been reinforced internationally since the conference on Education for All held in Jomtien in 1990. There has been a continuous emphasis on the need for vocational, technical and science education and training, including the development of entrepreneurial skills, with key managerial issues for the education system as a whole being those of cost, management and quality.

There are, however, also differences in the focus of the individual policy documents and in their contextual understandings. The unofficial document The Tanzania education system for the 21st century (1993) was produced by a predominantly academic Task Force set up in 1990 and headed by the, then, Dean of Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam and supported by Danida. The document analyses educational needs in light of a future Tanzanian society which is able to cope in an increasingly globalized world. The emphasis is, therefore, not only on political liberalization and sustainable social and economic development, which are n o w truly familiar terms, but on the need for a long-term energy policy (solar energy, bio-gas), a long-term industrial strategy, and expansion of the trade, transport and communication sectors (telecommunication). While the themes identified as immediately critical are well-known (negative enrolment, literacy, and transition trends; poor quality; etc., cf. Figure 5.7), there is a m u c h stronger focus in this than in any of the other documents on the need to support research and development and the higher education subsector as well as to conduct fundamental curricular changes in support of the envisaged society of the 21st Century.

35


This focus has disappeared in the n o w authorized Education and training policy (1995). A s will be discussed in more detail below, the policy formulation process for this document was lengthy, originating from the fact that the 1993 Report was never acknowledged as official policy. S o m e of the explanations given for this during the interviews were that the Report was far too ambitious and unrealistic, and paid no attention to the resources needed if the recommendations were to be implemented.

During the formulation process of the 1995 document, it was decided to produce a separate Higher education policy which came out in 1995 published by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education ( M S T H E ) . A chapter on higher education was maintained in the general education and training document. The need to produce two separate documents was explained during the interviews by the fact that the M S T H E was producing its part of the broader policy document at too slow a pace and by 'institutional jealousies' between the M O E C and M S T H E .

There is also a separate policy document for science and technology, the draft of which was published in December 1993 by the M S T H E . A strategic action plan has been developed for vocational education and training and was published in June by the Vocational Education and Training Authority ( V E T A ) . A chapter on vocational education and training was maintained in the broader education and training document. According to one of the Government officials, all policy papers are fully consistent and he, personally, preferred that there was a separate policy for higher education. Other officials, however, regretted the fact that there is not just one policy for the education system as a whole, a fact which m a y also have an impact on the future of inter-agency co-ordination and co-operation between the Tanzanian Government and the international organizations, as will be discussed further below.

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T h e Education and training policy, while focusing on the whole education system, puts emphasis on two areas, namely pre-primary education and vocational and technical education and training, and on the need to integrate formal and non-formal education. However, the key issues and instruments mostly have to do with formal basic education (defined as primary, secondary and adult). In Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework' also financed by Danida, the focus is, as the title indicates (formal) primary education. The Master Plan makes the general statements of the Education and training policy tangible in terms of setting priorities and strategies for primary education. The Social sector strategy focuses on basic health and education without defining the concept of basic education.

Summary

There is, then, both convergence and divergence in the evolution of the official and non-official education policy documents since 1967. The emphasis in the Education for self-reliance document on primary and adult education has been replaced in the n o w official Education and training policy by pre-primary and vocational and technical education and training, while the specifics of primary education are presented in Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework'. The cross-sectoral activities outlined in the Social sector strategy includes basic education with emphasis on the benefits of investing in basic education for girls and w o m e n . A key difference between the wider education policy paper and the Social sector strategy is the design of financial strategies in the latter document which introduces a stronger focus on private participation in the education sector than in the education policy paper.

In the intermediate documents (1984 and 1993), there is, on the other hand, more emphasis on academic, science, higher education and research and development - areas which are part of the wider education policy document but nevertheless left for specific treatment in separate documents and by other ministries than the M O E C . This undoubtedly complicates the understanding of the status of all the papers and their use when dealing with specific subsector issues, particularly in the agency community.

A s analyzed above, the major difference between Government distribution of expenditures from its combined budget and agency investments in the education subsectors in Tanzania has been the relative

42


emphasis on primary education. O f the individual subsectors, primary education has sustained the highest, but fluctuating, support by the Government, whereas project support by the external agencies has focused more on the higher and tertiary education subsector and on technical and vocational education. This m a y be changing in the 1990s w h e n the planned indications for agency support of primary education during 1993/94-1996/97 and the reorientation of a number of agencies towards primary education is likely to lead to an increase for this subsector at the expense, particularly, of higher and tertiary education.

The following is an attempt to clarify whether this apparent overlapping interest in practice was also expressed in a fruitful interaction between Government officials and agency representatives in the formulation of the Education and training policy and Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework'which are to guide work in education, and particularly primary education, in Tanzania.

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VI. The process of policy formulation on education in Tanzania

In Tanzania, as in m a n y other countries, education policy formulation is highly centralized with some degree of involvement of subnational levels in the formulation process. Policy implementation, on the other hand, has relied on the active participation of different stakeholders in the education sector, including at the subnational levels. A s argued above, the international community has played different roles in policy making depending on the relative dependence of the Tanzanian Government on international aid.

Overall education policies approved by the National Assembly are implemented centrally by the M O E C and the M S T H E . With respect to primary and adult education, all general education matters, such as curriculum, examinations, and training of teachers is the responsibility of the M O E C , while Local Government in the Prime Minister's Office ( P M O ) is responsible for implementation in terms of establishment of schools, classroom construction, enrolment, materials, budgeting and payment of salaries, and supervision. Yet other ministries cover specific education areas: community education schemes and Folk Development Colleges are under the Ministry of Community Development, W o m e n ' s Affairs and Children; workers' education schemes under the Ministry of Labour and Youth; and farmers' education schemes under the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. Parastatals like the Tanzania Institute of Education ( Т Ш ) , Institute of Adult Education, the National Examinations Council of Tanzania ( N E C T A ) and others all have specific responsibilities within their areas of expertise (see also Samoff with Sumra 1994: 141-142).

T h e impact of international aid agencies on policy formulation and implementation is partly exerted directly by themselves and partly indirectly in their use of a wide range of co-operating ministerial partners. Different agencies have used different ministries as their entry point to working in education in Tanzania which has increased the number of ministerial actors

44


in the education sector. According to the interviews, the specific entry point is often predetermined by the nature of the assistance (loans versus grants) or h o w bureaucratic procedures are perceived to be working most smoothly and effectively by the individual agency seen in relation to the individual project.

While some of the bilateral agencies, for example Irish Aid, prefer to work directly with the line ministry, M O E C , others, for example, D G I S have worked with Local Government. Sida has worked mainly through M O E C but, depending on the project and subsector, also through the P M O , V E T A and the Ministry of Community Development, W o m e n Affairs and Children, with the Planning Commission playing a co-ordinating role. B y contrast, multinational aid agencies like the World Bank and the E U have worked through the Ministry of Finance, the Planning Commission, and the P M O in order to settle the borrowing conditions for specific projects of which the content has been discussed with the line ministry.

There are, in addition, m a n y stakeholders in education at the subnational levels: for example, education officers at different administrative levels (regional and district education officers), headmasters, teachers, parents and pupils; and stakeholders outside the public education system, for example, national and international N G O s , church organizations and community organizations.

T h e following analysis attempts to clarify the impact of the different stakeholders on the two education papers under scrutiny here and on the Social sector strategy. It must be pointed out that the primary sources for opinion included only two of the groups of actors at the central level: Government and agency officials, since the underlying question is related to the constraints and opportunities for increased co-operation and coordination between the Tanzanian Government and the international aid agencies in the education sector in Tanzania. While opinions were also gathered from a number of academics, other representatives of civil society were not included and no interviews were conducted at the regional and district level. Conclusions concerning ownership and the nature of participation in the formulation processes, particularly at the subnational levels, are, therefore, limited.

Furthermore, the gathering of opinions based on which a reconstruction of the policy formulation processes could take place was far from a straight-

45


forward matter. Lack of knowledge among some of the interviewees, inconsistencies in responses, and different interpretations of particular matters by both Government and agency officials complicated the analysis. D u e to the lack of files containing, for example, minutes from meetings held in relation to the policy process, oral data were the predominant, often sole, source of information and could not be crosschecked with or supplemented by written data. The generalized description presented below takes into consideration the sources of information and their relative role in the process, including possible vested interests. T o the extent possible, inconsistencies in responses were crosschecked with n e w interviewees and during second rounds of interviews with the same source. The presentation is most likely only a partial, but hopefully sound, picture of the full process.

1. Education and training policy

There was generally consistency in the responses concerning w h o played the leading role in the formulation of the two education papers analyzed here. In the case of the Education and training policy, there was widespread agreement that it came about both because of an internally felt need of the Tanzanian Government and because of outside agency pressure. This pressure was due to the fact that some of the national agencies found it untenable to provide assistance without an explicit policy framework to determine the direction of aid while, in other cases, it was impossible for agencies to increase the amount of aid and m o v e towards sector programme support without a policy to guide such work. Tanzania Government officials had a declared ownership of the paper and agency officials generally attributed the paper to the Tanzanian Government. Only a few of the respondents considered the paper to be the result solely of Government initiative or solely of agency pressure.

A s mentioned previously, the need for the paper arose after the production of the Tanzania education system for the 21st Century which was completed in 1992 and printed in Leeds under Government seal without any previous discussion of the draft document within the Tanzanian Government and without, therefore, being officially recognized as a Government document. It was argued by a key Government official that, from the very beginning, the purpose of the Task Force Report was to review the education sector, it was never intended as a policy paper. It was decided at a meeting in Morogoro in 1992 with M O E C and other educationists, politicians,

46


agency representatives and academics that the data and analysis of the Task Force document should provide the basis for a new education policy paper.

The process of formulation

In February 1993, a policy drafting committee consisting of 16 members was set up together with three sub-committees covering formal education (10 members from M O E C , TIE, and N E C T A ) , non-formal education (9 members from M O E C , M S T H E , Planning Commission, Labour, and one academic) and programmes and projects (12 members from M O E C , M S T H E and Planning Commission). The policy drafting committee was headed by a professor of the University of Dar es Salaam w h o had not been involved in drafting the previous document. It was assisted by 7 resource persons and an editorial committee of nine members. M a n y of the participants were members of more than one committee. The exchange of members from the Task Force was explained by some of the interviewees by the fact that there were jealousies between M O E C officials and some academics, and that the review document was considered to be far too radical by the ministry.

In September 1993, an internal seminar was held with all directors of education and in Morogoro with approximately 60 representatives of the M O E C , M S T H E , other ministries, education parastals, agency officials, and one representative of the University of Dar es Salaam to discuss the first draft of a new document entitled Tanzania integrated education and training policy, dated July 1993. In the same month, a summary paper focusing on policy directions and strategies was discussed at the University of Dar es Salaam. The summary paper covered the following areas: teachers and conditions of service; rationalization of school curriculum; teaching and learning environment; decentralization and improvement of management and administration; access and equity; and financing. S o m e 80 people, including M O E C officials, education experts, administrators and general educationists, academics, politicians, including Principal Secretaries (PS), and agency representatives gave inputs which, according to one of the involved authors, had an important impact on the content of the document. The discussions centred, in particular, on the medium of instruction, the

47


quota system3, the diversification programme in secondary schools, and whether technical schools should be abandoned in favour of vocational schools. S o m e of the recommendations on this occasion was to use English as the medium of instruction, abolish the quota system, and place technical schools as part of the vocational and training system.

A reworked draft was afterwards presented at a number of meetings with key stakeholders in the education sector: in Arusha with up to 100 headmasters of private and public schools; in Iringa with around 40 principals of teacher training colleges; in Moshi with approximately 20 regional education officers; and in Bagamoyo with about 100 district education officers. The purpose of these workshops was to share the content and to receive feed-back on the direction and critical issues of the draft paper. There was, according to one of the authors, no direct impact from all of these meetings on the content of the policy document in terms of reworking the draft.

The Tanzania integrated education and training policy dated August 1993 had both the M O E C and the M S T H E as authors. It is an extensive document (132 pp.) covering the whole education system. Besides the preamble which states the overall purpose of education in the national development process, the role of the Government, and the need for an education and training policy, there are 10 chapters. They cover the following areas: aims and objectives of education and training; system and structure of education and training; formal education and training; school curricula, examinations and certification; vocational education and training; tertiary and higher education and training; non-formal education and training; access and equity in education and training; management and administration of education and training; and financing education and training. Compared to the summary paper discussed at the University of Dar es Salaam, the full document maintained four of the areas as separate chapters (curriculum; management and administration; access and equity; and financing), while the other two areas formed part of the discussion in individual chapters.

3. The quota system was introduced as a means to promote socio-economic and regional equality in education by allocating form I places in relation to the total number of primary school leavers m each region and district

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The paper was, first, discussed in the Cabinet Secretariat which decided that it was far too detailed and that the M S T H E should formulate its o w n policy paper. The full text of the policy paper dated March 1994, but n o w entitled Tanzania education and training policy. Implementation policies and strategies and authored by M O E C , and a brief paper entitled Tanzania integrated education and training policy. Policy statements (and a Kiswahili version of same) dated September 1994 and also authored by M O E C were, then, presented to the Interministerial Technical Committee ( I M T C ) consisting of all P S ' and sent to all ministries. According to officials of some of the ministries, for example a key actor like Local Government, their involvement was limited to giving comments on a paper which they had no real part in formulating and little awareness of in general. The same papers were discussed in the Cabinet chaired by the President approximately two weeks later in September 1994.

It was decided by the Cabinet that the document should be limited to raising policy issues, not define strategies. With respect to the issues raised previously at the meeting at the University of Dar es Salaam, the Cabinet was influential in two respects in particular according to one of the interviewees: while some of the academics had argued in favour of access to education by merit, the politicians were hesitant to abolish the quota system; furthermore, technical schools were to remain under the M O E C while vocational schools were under V E T A .

A reworked paper entitled Education and training policy (117 pp.) authored by M O E C and with a foreword by the Minister of Education and Culture was approved by the Cabinet in February 1995. Compared to the Tanzania integrated education and training policy (1993), all individual chapters were maintained, but the sequence was changed. The key difference between the two documents is the removal in the final one of strategies for implementation of the identified policy issues. The relatively limited detailed rewriting concerns the chapters on curriculum and financing. The impact of the politicians on the issue of the quota system is reflected in a change of wording in the two documents from 'abolish' to 'phase out'. A n abbreviated version (46 pp.) entitled Tanzania education and training policy was presented to Parliament in March 1995. Being already approved by the Cabinet, Parliament could not disapprove of the paper, but only raise further comments. The paper was re-submitted to Parliament in June 1996 in order to familiarize the n e w members with the content of the n e w policy.

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A n amendment to the still prevailing 1978 Education Act was approved in October 1995 reflecting some of the changes in the n e w policy paper, in particular those relating to the liberalization of the education system which had taken place since the original law was enacted in 1978: ownership of schools; empowerment of local education officers; and acknowledgment of school boards. S o m e of the outstanding issues, in particular concerning the pace and extent of reform of the education system, have been left to be solved during the implementation process.

While the draft paper was shared with key actors in the education constituency, the group did not reach below the level of headmasters or include the wider public. Despite the meeting at the University of Dar es Salaam, some of the interviewed academics had no awareness of the existence of the paper which seemed not to have been discussed in the press or created widespread debate in Parliament. It was seen by some of the academics as the product of the 'technocrats'. Only the meeting at the University of Dar es Salaam had a direct impact on its content, while the other meetings had sharing of information as their primary purpose. There seems to have been no responsibility put upon the participants in the process to share their knowledge more broadly, for example wider dissemination within individual ministries. The fact that it is written in English sets a natural boundary to the widespread participation which is called for by the, then, Minister of Education in his Foreword to the policy paper.

Impact of agency representatives

According to many of the agency representatives, they had a chance to comment on the paper during the process and to discuss it in the interagency meetings which have taken place on a fairly regular (bi-monthly) basis in Dar es Salaam since 1992. These meetings have included most of the agencies working in the education sector (Danida, Sida, D G I S , Irish Aid, N O R A D , GTZ, UNESCO, UNICEF, EU and World Bank). Government officials have been invited for the meetings when relevant for the discussion. It appeared from the interviews that Irish Aid and N O R A D had little involvement in the formulation process. With respect to the World Bank, comments were provided by the headquarters rather than the local representative.

According to a ministry official, it was important to include agency representatives in the formulation process because of their "valuable

50


experiences". It was mentioned that they had "helped to sharpen the thinking in the paper". According to several of the agency officials, their comments related to key areas which they felt were inadequately dealt with in the policy paper and which reflected their ongoing work in Tanzanian education. In contrast to the areas identified above, in particular the issues concerning the quota system and diversification, agency representatives identified areas such as equality, gender, local autonomy for primary education, relevance and textbook publishing. It was affirmed by one of the involved ministry officials that, for example, gender had been strengthened in the policy paper due to the interaction with the agencies.

T h e clear overlap between core areas of some of the agencies and the relative emphasis in the policy document (for example, gender which is a key area for most of the agencies, for example U N I C E F , and the push for local autonomy in primary education which is an important agenda for agencies such as Danida, D G I S and the World Bank) raises the issue whether the relative emphasis on certain educational areas in the document truly reflects the predominant views of the Tanzanian Government and have been adequately internalized. O r whether they are expressions of compromises in a situation where the Government has to balance off a number of agency interests in the education sector in Tanzania. This is equally important w h e n comparing the relative emphasis of a specific issue in the different education documents.

Thus, while Government officials generally claimed full ownership of the education policy paper, there was inconsistency in the responses a m o n g all interviewed groups concerning the extent to which certain areas were truly reflecting Government thinking as compared to being imposed through agency pressure. There were also doubts expressed by some of the interviewees about the extent to which ministry officials saw the full consequences of what they were proposing in the document. These issues related particularly to the financing concept, the national organizational structure, in particular the capacity at the local level to monitor education, and the legal consequences of doing so, issues which will be discussed further below.

2 . Social sector strategy

O n e of the controversial issues in the recent history of Tanzania is privatization and liberalization of the education sector. Cost-sharing and

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partnership were put forward already in the 1984 Presidential Commission document, but was not translated into a practical policy. While some Government officials maintained that privatization was n o w a fact, that the Education and training policy reflected the reality as it had developed within the secondary education sector, and that the Government had n o w realized that it cannot alone provide for education, other officials and representatives of the international aid agencies and the academic environment saw a determined World Bank hand behind it. A s one interviewee put it: "it has been stuffed d o w n the throat of the Government by the I M F and the World Bank". During 1994 and 1995, the World Bank held a number of education seminars in Africa and in Washington for key Tanzanian educators which had a direct and indirect impact on Government thinking on education.

There is, however, no detailed discussion in the Education and training policy document of the specifics of the envisaged privatization and liberalization. There are general statements in the document, such as: Financing education and training shall be shared between Government, Communities, parents and end users; Government shall provide incentives to individuals, communities and NGOs to establish and develop pre-primary, primary, secondary, vocational, technical, teacher education and tertiary institutions; The unit cost of education and training shall be rationalized (undated: 91,93). Thus, while the interviewed officials pointed to the need for sharing of financing of the education sector and to the fact that the secondary education sector had mushroomed due to private initiative, there is in the official policy document no stated Government responsibility for particular parts of the education system, of the relative envisaged shares of Government compared to private funding or of contributions by the international aid agencies.

This stands in contrast to the Social sector strategy in which the key emphasis is the interactions amongst the Government, international aid agencies and households in the financing of the social sector. This document, printed under Tanzanian Government seal, was considered as a Government product by only those Government officials w h o had been directly involved in its production. It was argued by them that the document reflected Government understanding of the need for a general approach to the social services which was dominated by a recent focus on macroeconomic planning. B y most of the other respondents, it was considered as a document which linked directly with the World Bank Tanzania social sector review. The production of the latter caused major

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concern amongst some of the national aid agencies due to its likely distraction from the work on the education policy paper and because of uncertainties concerning the possible linkage between the different documents.


T h e need for the Social sector strategy was first voiced at the Paris consultative group meeting in November 1993. It can be seen in the context of the m o v e from project to programme and sector approaches which has taken place in a number of multinational and national organizations, including the World Bank. But, as mentioned above, it should also be seen as a realization by the Tanzanian Government of the need for a coherent approach to social services delivery.

A steering committee for the strategy work was set up in July 1994 led by the deputy P S for planning and involving top officials from the concerned ministries. The work on the strategy was discussed amongst top officials both in Washington and in Tanzania and was finally completed in February 1995. The underlying data for the development of the strategy were taken from the Tanzania social sector review which was conducted by a World Bank team constituted by Washington head office officials and Tanzanian consultants. This work, which also took place in 1994, was co-ordinated by the Planning Commission and financed through a grant from the Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA) administered by the World Bank. There is full consistency between the content of the Tanzania social sector review and the Social sector strategy.

A s stated in the Social sector strategy (SSS), "The S S S is expected to be a point of reference for donor agencies as they plan future investment programmes in Tanzania. It provides donors with an idea of h o w the Government plans to finance the social sectors and the expected role of donors. B y highlighting Government priorities, the S S S indicates to external agencies the types of activities and modes of service delivery that are most suited to the Tanzanian setting in the current situation" (p.l). Besides donors, private households are identified as the key unit for increased investment in h u m a n capital. The Government is identified as having "a special role to play in complementing, not substituting for investments in h u m a n capital that are made by the household. In particular, the Government has the responsibility of investing in the priority areas that have the greatest

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social payoffs and that benefit the poor. This means broadly concentrating public resources on preventive and basic curative health services, and basic education" (pp. 15, italics added). S o m e of the strategies outlined in the document are the introduction of user fees in education, devolution of authority to local Government, and facility-based management - issues which are also all important in the context of the education policy paper.

Thus, while the Education and training policy paper is general and unspecific with respect to targets and strategies, the Social sector strategy has clearly defined strategies to reach goals in the short and medium term. Both documents are more concerned with the issue of resource provision and cost-sharing than with pedagogy and learning, although the latter issues do have some focus in the education policy paper. While the former paper can be seen in continuation of previous policy documents in terms of generality and writing style, the scope, focus and language of the latter is different and closer to the Tanzania social sector review than to the previous education papers. The impact of World Bank thinking is stronger in the Social sector strategy than in the Education and training policy, although one agency official maintained that the strategy document was more radical than the World Bank alone could have m a d e it.

3. Primary education. Master Plan. ' A framework'

The Primary education. Master Plan. ' A framework' was clearly seen as a 'donor' document by the interviewees and seems to have seriously raised the issue of ownership. O n e ministry official expressed that "the agenda had been hijacked by the donors" while m a n y agency officials indicated that it was a result of the Danida presence within the M O E C . A s can be seen in Table 4.2, Danida has supported a Primary Education Programme (PEP) since 1992. A Danida adviser has been attached to the P E P unit within the M O E C , amongst others to advise on policy development. According to most of the interviewees including the adviser himself, he played a key role in the attempt to formulate a Master Plan without which the originally stipulated twelve years' P E P programme could not be implemented.

However , as mentioned by some, the fact that, in their opinion, the Government (i) lacked a vision for the education sector (ii) took a long time in developing an education policy paper, and (iii) did not take and maintain the initiative in the process of designing the Master Plan by making it the

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responsibility of senior ministry officials, left a vacuum which made the impact of the international aid agencies equally stronger whether or not this was their intention. Other interviewees also questioned whether the Government truly felt the need for the Plan and had the capacity to develop it. Without clear Government priorities, strong leadership, and thorough knowledge of the reality of the educational situation, any policy and plan could be 'hijacked' and attuned to vested agency interests, it was argued by some of the agency officials.


A s mentioned before, the Master Plan was to be a planning tool for primary education aiming at setting priorities and designing strategies for the subsector. In the initial stage of the work (1994), it was pushed along by P E P because the continuation of this programme depended on the design of a national strategy. This situation changed with the Danida decision in 1995 to phase out of primary education by the year 2000.

A committee was set up in 1994 consisting of three internal people from the M O E C and the P M O . The committee was supported by a Technical Secretariat which provided consultancy services through U N E S C O , U N I C E F , Danida and Sida. A first working draft document was produced which was discussed in the ministry. This document was unavailable to the author and unknown to most of the interviewees, even one of the key people in the Technical Secretariat. According to another interviewee, the document merely repeated earlier ministry views and was unrelated to an analysis of the existing situation in the education sector, a situation which was untenable at the time because of the simultaneous work on the Education and training policy paper and the Social sector strategy. The document was rejected by the ministry and it was decided to, instead, undertake a major review of primary education as a basis to identify the major issues to be tackled in the subsector. This work was commissioned to an academic from the University of Dar es Salaam.

D u e to the lack of c o m m o n ground between members of the original internal team and one of the external persons, the original committee was officially dissolved by the Director of Planning and a n e w subcommittee was established in early 1995 consisting of two Government officials, one academic from the University of Dar es Salaam, and the Danida adviser w h o acted as a facilitator for the process. This team produced another draft

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document in March 1995 entitled Primary education master plan. A framework and strategic action plan which was discussed at the joint Government-agency review meeting of primary education held in the same month. Another draft was printed in July 1995 entitled Primary education. Master Plan. 'A framework'.

Further work was not undertaken on the Master Plan since July 1995, officially "due to financial constraints". In February 1996, the new PS took the initiative to revive the plan by setting up a small steering committee consisting of three top officials from the M O E C , P M O , and Planning Commission and by appointing a technical committee which was to set up programme teams. The technical team was to develop the format for each of the programmes and report to the steering committee. A draft of the Master Plan was circulated to the Acting Commissioner of Education for comments, the final draft was also to be circulated upon which a national conference was to be launched to present the final Primary Education Master Plan.

The Technical Secretariat for the preparation of the plan, consisting of nine internal officials, was reconstituted in April 1996 and a team of educationists was appointed "to review the previous work done and has produced a Synopsis of Issues, Programmes and Projects to be included in the Master Plan". At the same time, the M O E C approached the international aid agencies with an application for assistance to complete the work on the Master Plan as the P S for education had requested the Master Plan to be presented at the meeting in Arusha in September 1996 (see further below). A two week's workshop was planned to be held and 10 educationists were appointed to undertake the work supported by local and external experts. T w o agencies responded positively to the application in July and August 1996. It was expected that a document framework would be ready by mid-October followed by a first draft by November 1996.

According to one of the interviewees, the synopsis forwarded to the agencies with the application for funding was the result of the work in the original committee and, thus, two years old. The synopsis has the character of a 'shopping list' of projects that are needed to deal with specific issues within specific programmes. The programmes and projects relate to the following issues: teachers; primary education curriculum; community-based management of primary education; primary school physical infrastructure; research, monitoring and evaluation; and financing primary education. The identified issues, programmes, and projects are unrelated to a broader

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analysis of the subsector which stands in contrast to the drafts of the Master Plan Frameworks produced in March and July 1996. W h a t is attempted in these analyses is, by contrast, to develop strategies based on an analysis of the following key issues in primary education: access and equity; quality; policy, planning, organization and management; and financing. The drafts, furthermore, contain a discussion of the preconditions for the implementation of a master plan seen in relation to its overall function and in the context of other policy development in Tanzania.

Impact of agency representatives and others

Besides agency support of the initial Technical Secretariat which produced papers on specific issues, some agency officials participated in workshops and discussions in the interagency meetings where certain weaknesses in the draft Master Plan document were pointed out, for example the lack of innovative approaches to literacy and adult education, the lack of relevance in non-formal education, and the fact that retention, quality, and equity were considered to be more important problems in primary education than access.

With respect to other groups, it appeared from the interviews that during the process of formulating the Plan, there were few reactions from Government officials, ministries outside the M O E C were not involved, and m a n y agency officials had less sense of the process and intention of the Master Plan than of the wider education policy paper. The plan was considered by one of the agency officials as a very important document which ought to become a national programme. O n e of the academics was, however, skeptical about the extent to which a Master Plan could be written in Dar es Salaam and expressed that there ought to have been involvement at the regional and district levels. Developments between February/March and September 1996 seem to indicate a revival of the work of the initially dissolved committee at the expense of the work of the second subcommittee - the question of ownership, rather than the substance of the document, undoubtedly being at the core of the matter.

4 . S u m m a r y and the next step forward

W h a t seems clear, therefore, is that the process of formulating the education papers has been far from a rational, structured and consistent one involving all stakeholders in education in Tanzania. Rather, it has been

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influenced by the reality that, in Tanzania as elsewhere, certain stakeholders are more influential than others, whether as a group or as individuals within a group. There was no uniform perception across the interviewed Government and agency officials of the policy processes involved in producing the various education papers, the overall picture of which has been pieced together above.

There are obvious differences in the purposes, scope and design as well as the primary authorship and ownership of the two education papers, and as compared with the Social sector strategy. While the wider policy paper is an acknowledged education and training policy with a clear imprint of the Tanzanian Government with respect to content and emphases, the Master Plan document is an unacknowledged framework for work in the primary education sector influenced by vested national agency interests. The Social sector strategy is set within the framework of World Bank thinking and has been produced in an active co-operation with World Bank staff whether or not it is considered to be a World Bank document.

N o n e of the papers seems to have relied heavily on an interactive formulation process to shape the papers. Rather, they have been produced as drafts by a working group or by particularly powerful individuals within the group, upon which some discussion has taken place with different constituencies which has led to some modification of the initial drafts. In the case of the education policy paper, a previous document (1993) put forth the critical issues in the education sector, and there was some interaction with the professional and other interests in the sector during the process of formulation. In the case of the Master Plan, the work was placed within the M O E C , even if the impact of ministry officials on the development of the plan m a y have been limited. A primary education review was conducted after initial work was interrupted and as a launching pad for a second draft of the document. W o r k on the plan was in a stalemate for about half a year, but was resumed by the n e w ministry. Except for agency representatives, the incorporation of various interest groups seems to have been non-existent. With respect to the Social sector strategy, the work was placed outside the M O E C with the Planning Commission and only a few top ministry officials from the different ministries, including the M O E C , were involved in its development. The work was apparently never broadly shared either within, across, or outside the concerned ministries.

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The implication of this m a y be that only the Education and training policy will become an accepted framework within which both Government and agency officials are willing to work even though one must question the guidance it provides in its present form. A willingness to use it as a policy framework was expressed by a number of Government and agency officials during the interviews. With respect to the Master Plan, it has reached the stage of having to be reproduced, a situation which has caused considerable questioning amongst the agency officials, in particular. The Social sector strategy is intended to guide work in social services delivery in a number of areas, including education. Within the education sector, the Government is particularly concerned with providing basic education services, whereas secondary and higher level education is seen in the light of anticipated increased private participation. The question here is whether the pronounced strategies for education work are compatible with those of other agencies in a situation where the Government has considered them as being "in line with the Government's policy framework for general education, which is to increase resources for education in a sustainable manner" and is negotiating a financial credit from the World Bank to this effect.

This possible scenario is likely to have an immediate impact only on work in primary or basic education. It would seem to be necessary, however, for the Government to follow up the work on the education policy paper with the design of specific goals, targets, priorities and strategies for short, medium and long term work within the education sector as a whole and for all of the subsectors. Furthermore, Government solutions to certain critical issues that are raised in the document have to be delineated and possible links to the other existing subsector policy papers must be made in order to ensure coherence and holism within the education sector, m a x i m u m impact on the broader development process and to expand the opportunities for improved co-operation between the Government and the international aid agencies.

Arusha Education Conference, September 1996

W o r k along these lines was initiated by the M O E C in M a y 1996, the result of which was presented at an education conference in Arusha in September 1996. This four days' conference had approximately 200 participants representing all constituencies involved in education from the President d o w n to heads of school boards. There were no agency or other

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external representatives present, except for two external consultants w h o assisted in the design of the conference.

According to ministry officials, the conference took place at the initiative of the M O E C and sponsored by Sida and the World Bank. T w o external consultants planned the substance of the conference which was arranged by the Economic and Social Research Foundation ( E S R F ) , an independent non-profit non-Government research institute concerned with capacity building in economic and policy analysis and located in Dar es Salaam. The purposes of the conference were: to share and reach a c o m m o n understanding of the n e w education policy and discuss critical issues; and to begin to design implementation strategies. Background papers were prepared by local specialists on the following themes: policy issues; liberalization; decentralization; financing; role of supporting institutions; and gender. It was the hope of the ministry that a small group, including the external resource persons, would be able to finalize a first design of strategies shortly after the completion of the workshop based on which action plans for all subsectors of education were to be developed. It was the intention of the ministry to share this work with the aid agency community at another meeting, probably in November 1996. M o r e sharing with the broader education constituency will undoubtedly be needed because the policy document is in English.

This continued policy work aiming at reaching broad consensus on the interpretation and enactment of the education policy paper m a y provide an improved basis for future Government and agency co-operation and is also likely to assist interagency co-operation in the education sector in Tanzania. S o m e of the critical issues which have impeded such co-operation in the past are highlighted below. This is followed by a discussion of recent initiatives in project identification and implementation amongst some of the international aid agencies which reflect a more interactive Government-agency and inter-agency co-operation.

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V u . Government and agency co-operation in education in Tanzania: some issues and lessons

Co-ordination between Government and international aid agencies and amongst agencies is a complex and difficult undertaking. It presupposes that agencies accept to work in specific areas which have been identified beforehand by a national Government seen in relation to specified national policies, priorities, goals and targets within a specific sector and related to an overall development strategy. In the ideal case, the efforts of a given agency must be supplementary to those of the Government and complementing the work of other agencies.

There was a strong sense amongst many of the interviewed Government officials that the installation of the n e w Government provided a valuable opportunity to establish an improved co-operation between the Government and the international aid agencies based on firm guidance by the Government. There was an expressed realization by many of them that Tanzania had become far too dependent, "it is the donors w h o run our country" and that the high degree of dependency was killing local initiatives. In the education sector, there was a wish by a number of officials, including the most high ranking ones, to 'control' future agency inputs, i.e. for the M O E C to decide in which areas and locations external agencies should be working in the future, instead of the existing situation where some agencies presented preferred projects as a matter of fact which the Government could either take or leave. A s one of the Government officials remarked in this respect: "some of the donors have gone from bad to worse". O n e of the effects of agency preferences is lopsided development in terms of themes, areas and geographical location of projects.

S o m e of the agency officials also expressed the need for "the Tanzanian Government to be put in the driver's seat" and their willingness in trying to achieve that. However, other interviewees pointed to some of the barriers they saw which might prevent this from happening even in the instance of good will: the fact that there was still a vacuum in terms of a general

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development policy with a clear vision in Tanzania and that there was uncertainty about the capacity and relative responsibility of the n e w M O E C and other ministries. With respect to the latter issue, both agency and ministry officials were awaiting the recommendations of the Organization and Efficiency exercise of the civil service reform which was , amongst others, to look into the consequences of inter-ministerial involvement in the education sector.

Furthermore, agencies have their o w n restrictions which m a y limit the possibility for open dialogue and implementation of policies in accordance with the wishes of the recipient country: they have to operate within the framework of the development policies of their o w n country; the relative authority of the headquarters compared to the field offices differs from agency to agency and m a y set limits to agency interaction and co-ordination at the field level; there m a y in specific instances be demands for particular levels of disbursements and for specific time frames to be held; and the demand for transparency and accountability towards the h o m e Government has increased substantially in recent years which m a y restrict the kind of educational enterprises individual agencies m a y undertake. A case in point is the Danida decision to cease work in the primary education sector after initially committing in all 12 years support and, according to the interviews, disregarding Tanzanian Government preference in negotiations concerning priority sector choices.

A heightened understanding and acceptance of the need for an improved dialogue does not, however, solve the fundamental state of inequality between the partners. The Tanzanian Government is still strongly dependent on the external agencies, both national and multinational ones. S o m e of the Government officials, for example, expressed the Government's difficulty in fulfilling all conditionalities related to I M F lending and in achieving the Government's preferred terms of support: budget rather than project support, and debt relief rather than grants and loans. Fulfilment of such terms would obviously leave the initiative with the Tanzanian Government w h e n allocating m o n e y to different sectors and subsectors. A s mentioned previously, it has sometimes been difficult for ministries, such as M O E C , to direct the agencies to areas and locations of the Government's choice because the agencies often have their o w n agenda when entering into a co-operation agreement. Agencies would, however, often claim that agency preference prevails partly because the Government is not firm enough in its choices.

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Furthermore, understanding and acceptance of the need for an improved dialogue between the Government and national and multinational aid agencies does not in itself remove the apparent w e b of underlying multi-ministry bureaucratic procedures and preferences within the (Tanzanian) Government, or similar problems within the m a n y different international organizations and amongst them. This is, again, witnessed by the Danida P E P decision which, by some of the respondents, was interpreted as a largely bureaucratic and pragmatic one which contradicted the wishes of professional Danida staff at headquarters and field level and, as mentioned, those of the Tanzanian Government. In a situation of strong aid dependence, the reliance on outside inputs to specific sectors is paramount and an important part of the planning process. For a proper dialogue to be fulfilled, there is a need not only for agreement on content and process, but for fulfilment of the stated commitment by both the agency and the Government. A policy framework, such as the one developed in the Education and training policy, might assist in directing the Government and agencies towards a c o m m o n course but, in addition, there has to be full acceptance of priorities, goals, and strategies amongst Government and agencies.

In the following discussion, some of the issues related to Government and agency as well as inter-agency co-operation which were raised at the three international meetings in which the author participated are presented in order to illustrate some of the previous difficulties in inter-agency cooperation in education in Tanzania and which reflect the different emphases in the policy thinking and in practice amongst some of the agencies outlined above (Section IV.3). It is followed by an analysis of the first indications of Government steering within the sector and by recent examples of heightened interagency and Government co-operation determined by overlapping priorities amongst the involved parties.

1. Agency-to-agency co-operation

A s mentioned above, most of the agencies working in the education sector in Tanzania are influenced by the concept of h u m a n resources development in their formulated policies but by the concept of h u m a n capital development in their practice, while a few other agencies are more influenced by the concept of h u m a n capacity development both in theory and in practice. This is reflected in the most recent controversy amongst the international aid agencies working in education in Tanzania concerning

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supply versus demand-side approaches to education with underlying different understandings of economic and social welfare strategies and the relative roles of the state and the private sector in educational development.

With respect to the Tanzanian Government, it concerns the privatization and liberalization of the economy in general and the education sector, specifically. The controversies have been between the I M F and the World Bank, on the one hand, and the Tanzanian Government and a number of the national aid agencies, on the other hand. However, the Tanzanian Government is n o w expressing more accordance with I M F and World Bank views and demands, and the World Bank has also moved closer to the position of some of the national aid agencies that advocate a supply approach to education. A s one Government official remarked: "there used to be antagonism between the World Bank and the Tanzanian Government and between the World Bank and other donors in Tanzania; n o w there is a marriage of convenience".

The meeting in Stockholm in January 1996 can be seen as a n e w starting point for agency co-operation in Tanzania. The meeting was organized by Sida and included representatives from the World Bank, all the Nordic agencies, and the D G I S but, interestingly, had no representation from the Tanzanian Government. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss ways for improved co-operation in the field of education between the World Bank and the national aid agencies, with particular reference to Tanzania where co-operation had been halted since 1991 after the work on the Teachers and the financing of education study had been completed. A s explained by one of the agency officials, this was largely due to "miscommunication" or "lack of communication" between the World Bank and the national aid agencies. It was also explained by the lack of understanding amongst the national aid agencies of n e w World Bank approaches to education which were determined by the World Bank m o v e from structural adjustment to poverty alleviation.

W h a t appeared from some of the interviews and from internal documents was, in fact, substantial scepticism, if not suspicion, on behalf of some of the national aid agencies concerning the underlying intention of the World Bank's educational work in Tanzania, a suspicion which seemed to be directed at specific World Bank officials more than the World Bank as an institution or at its formulated policies. The scepticism had to do with recently instituted pilot projects which formed part of an overall Human

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Resources Development ( H R D ) Project designed within the framework of the S S S . They encompass: the Community Education Fund (CEF) Pilot; the Girls' Secondary Education Support Pilot; the Social Infrastructure Development Funds; and the Policy, Operations, Research, and Beneficiary Assessment Component. The controversy with some of the national aid agencies related to the C E F project which addresses the last of the six strategies in the S S S , namely to m o v e resources closer to the household and promote household investment in h u m a n capital, the underlying tension being between the implementation of the concept of h u m a n capital development versus those of h u m a n resources and h u m a n capacity development.

According to the World Bank, the H R D project aims at: "increasing high payoff h u m a n capital investments by raising enrolments in primary school; improving the quality of primary schooling; increasing enrolments in secondary schools, particularly for girls; and improving the learning environment for girls in secondary school". This is expected to be achieved through: "improving the balance of inputs; supporting the decentralization of authority to the school, community, and district levels; encouraging private sector participation in provision of social services; and promoting higher quality standards through a number of methods, but depending heavily on increasing the accountability of schools to their clients".

A s described in a background document for a meeting between the World Bank and some of the national aid agencies in Washington in September 1995, the C E F Pilot is a "matching grant program for primary schools designed to increase enrollment, improve the quality of schooling, and increase parental and community involvement in monitoring school performance". The Tanzanian Government is to pay the same amount as previously to the project primary schools, while the school is to raise as m u c h money as it can from parents. The pilot is to match the contributions of the parents according to a specific formula. The head teacher and the school committee is allowed to spend the money on what they consider is most needed, while the project will audit overall performance.

The reservations of some of the national aid agencies were formulated in March 1995 in relation to discussions of the S S S in which the idea of C E F was initially introduced. The reactions of the agencies reflect, in particular, the approaches and policy themes of the concepts of h u m a n resources and human capacity development: (i) the relative responsibility of

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the state for funding of primary education which by some of the bilateral agencies were considered as a h u m a n right and the responsibility of the state. The project was considered to depart from previous World Bank views on the balance between Government and private investment in education and to represent yet another experiment in a country which needed it the least; (ii) the implicit or explicit bypassing of the local Government in the establishment of C E F and, therefore, the likely disregard of democratic reform of the local Government; (iii) the lack of attention to supply-side problems, for example provision of school materials and teachers; (iv) the fact that the Funds had been established without consulting key interest groups, including using recent national aid agency experiences in district-based education; (v) the fact that the project seemed not to be linked to the Education and training policy; and (vi) that the central concept of parental choice did not reflect the reality of the Tanzanian situation where, in most cases, there was no choice of schools and, if so, where the development of one school would usually be at the cost of another.

S o m e of these issues reappeared at the meeting in Stockholm in January 1996. Meanwhile, a critical dialogue between the World Bank and the national aid agencies had brought the parties closer together in some respects while differences of interpretation were maintained in others. A higher degree of understanding developed between the World Bank and some of the national aid agencies of the need for both supply and demand approaches, the critical issue n o w being h o w to blend them. This development instead brought disagreement amongst some of the national aid agencies that have traditionally worked closely together, in particular one which can be associated with the concept of h u m a n capacity development.

With respect to inter-agency co-operation, some of the national aid agencies continued to be concerned that the World Bank did not consider their experiences with district education programmes. A s displayed in Table 4.1, in addition to the World Bank, Danida, D G I S , Irish Aid and U N I C E F conduct district-based education programmes in different regions and districts in Tanzania, and Sida has two pilot projects focusing on procurement and distribution of education materials at the district level. The district-based projects (except the ones by Sida) were presented on two occasions in Dar-es-Salaam in the meetings attended by the author, the purpose being to analyze their strengths and weaknesses as a basis to formulate a national strategy. A brief presentation of these projects is attached in Appendix 3. S o m e of the agencies involved in the projects were

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hesitant to co-operate in a suggested joint appraisal mission of the World Bank H R D project in March 1996 as long as the World Bank did not join in similar appraisals of the national aid organizations' projects. Others felt that, without joining, they would have no chance of altering World Bank approaches with which they might disagree.

A s a lead up to the Stockholm meeting, another non-participating national aid agency expressed great concern about the future prospects for co-operation in Tanzanian education. In the case of the World Bank H R D project, discussions between the World Bank and the national aid agencies continued after the conduct of the March review. The persistence of, in particular, one of the national aid agencies, influenced by the concept of h u m a n capacity development, m a y be one of the reasons for reducing the size of the project (from U S $ 1 6 million I D A credit to an estimated U S $ 2 . 3 million). It remains a criticism of the project, however, that it is "non-educational by nature" and that "the demand-side, the parents, is the focal point". A n expectation that education should be predominantly financed by the parents was considered to be a dead end by some of the national aid agencies because of the high level of poverty in Tanzania, particularly in the rural areas.

At the Stockholm meeting, which included top officials of several of the organizations present, there was an expressed determination not to discuss previous differences, but instead to find a w a y forward in education cooperation in Tanzania. The meeting resulted in a request from Sida addressed to the M O E C to host a meeting in Dar es Salaam in early March 1996 to discuss co-operation between the Tanzanian Government and the international organizations. It was stated in the Report from the meeting which was enclosed with the request to the M O E C that a future co-operation should be set within long-term sector priorities and goals and should facilitate their realization. It was underlined that the M O E C should play the key co-ordinating role and that mechanisms for future co-ordination of education support should be established.

2. Government and agency co-operation

T h e M O E C did host a high-level meeting with the international aid agencies in early March 1996. At the meeting, the n e w education minister referred to the Education and training policy as the framework for education work in Tanzania. The minister indicated that the present Government had

67


education on the top of its agenda, that it was planning to increase budget expenditures significantly which, together with stricter supervision and good co-ordination of agency support, was expected to highly improve the impact within the sector. T h e Director of the Social Services Division argued that "the implementation of the Education and training policy would lead to the expected sectoral outputs of the Social sector strategy and indirectly influence the outcomes of programmes in other sectors in the social services".

In accordance with the Education and training policy document and as analyzed earlier in this study, the minister limited the subsector emphases to pre-school, primary education, adult education, secondary education, teacher training and inspectorate - thereby excluding from the discussion higher education and vocational education and training, areas under the mandate of M S T H E and V E T A , respectively. A number of critical areas were identified which cut across the subsectors, namely the status of teachers, quality of education, teaching materials, infrastructure, management, girls' education and special education. A m o n g these areas, the following listing of priorities was put forward: quality of education, teaching materials and management were identified as areas for immediate intervention; infrastructure improvement (in particular primary schools), girls' education, and special education were identified as requiring additional resources, intensified efforts, and improved intervention methods; the status of teachers was identified as an area where minimal support by international aid agencies was required but where management improvement would ensure improved results. Compared to the policy paper, a number of key areas were left out of the discussion, in particular decentralization, equity, and financing (see Figure 5.1).

The ministry identified the primary education subsector as the target for co-ordinated Government and agency activities. The Department of Planning was to be the entry point for all agencies, and sharing of information, for example by arranging review meetings every six months, was identified as an important means of interaction a m o n g all concerned. The programme directors at the M O E C were to be the key supervisors of implementation. According to the Director of Social Services Division in the Planning Commission, the next step to be taken was to translate the policy into an operational setting by preparing programmes and projects, detailing implementation steps, performance outcomes, financing pattern, source of funds, and proposing further amendments to existing legislation in order to

68

A report from the WGE

facilitate smooth implementation. While presented in general terms and relevant for all social services delivery, the context was the Social sector strategy. There was no reference to the importance of the Master Plan in the fulfilment of the policy objectives for primary education.

Furthermore, according to the same Director, this was the stage when international aid agencies would be called upon to assist the Government in providing technical assistance to work out programmes of implementation and/or financing implementation of the programmes. H e also indicated that, in order to facilitate information and co-ordination of social sector activities, a Social Sector Technical Committee had been formed under the chairmanship of the Director for Social Services in the Planning Commission and with project directors as members. The Technical Committee refers to the Social Sector Steering Committee composed of the P S ' from the P M O and the relevant sector ministries (education, health and water).

3 . Government and inter-agency co-operation: from formulation to implementation

It seemed clear from the international meetings and from many of the interviews with Government and agency officials and with the academics that there is high awareness of the need for the Government to set its strong mark on the direction of the development process in Tanzania through a clearly formulated vision and through continuity in implementation of carefully designed strategies. S o m e of the agency officials expressed that the situation in Tanzania was different from that in many other countries where Governments, instead, determined the room for manoeuvre of the international aid agencies and where they could more easily reach agreements concerning co-operation with other agencies. A n example of this is analyzed in the study by Williams (1995) on Namibia.

The situation in Tanzania was considered by many to be extreme partly because of the long tradition for agency presence in Tanzania which had led to certain vested interests among some of the agencies which they were hesitant to give up. According to one of the interviewees, this would also explain w h y some of the agencies were unwilling to "allow a thousand flowers to bloom" with reference to the World Bank application of the innovative approaches in the C E F pilot project. In the Stockholm meeting and in several of the interviews, some of the agencies acknowledged their responsibility for failed achievement of development goals in Tanzania

69


which, in combination with their sympathy for the development of the country, explained their continuous strong interest and support.

Education sector co-ordinating committee

The relative dominance of certain agencies can, therefore, only partly be explained by lack of strong Tanzanian Government direction and policymaking. However, the stronger capacity for policy development, macro-economic analysis and monitoring of aid funding within the Government, the lesser the likelihood of agency dominance. In an attempt to achieve stronger Government steering in education sector work, an education sector co-ordinating committee, or think tank, was set up in August 1996 consisting of 17 top officials from ministries and departments concerned with education: M O E C ; M S T H E ; P M O , Local Government Department; Planning Commission; Civil Service Department, Central Establishment. Ministry of Finance; Ministry of Labour and Youth Development; and Ministry of Community Development; W o m e n Affairs and Children. The committee has a full-time Secretariat which is headed by a former professor of the University of Dar es Salaam w h o also has extensive experience as a practitioner in the education sector. The work of this committee is supported for a 6 months' period by the E U , but it is the intention of the M O E C to keep it functioning beyond that time. While the committee has clearly defined work areas of its o w n , it can also be understood as filling a vacuum in a situation when a n e w Director for Planning and Commissioner for Education are yet to be appointed.

The function of the co-ordinating committee is, according to its Terms of reference: to identify key issues in education policies and strategies which need assessment/evaluation for action; to review studies submitted by consultants; to submit to the Government recommendations based on findings of studies; to liaise with relevant ministries and institutions concerning specific education issues; to contribute to the preparation of background papers; and to follow-up on key education sector activities and recommendations. It might be expected that the committee will be the future entry point for agency work in the education sector instead of the Department of Planning as suggested by ministry officials in the March meeting in Dar es Salaam. The E S R F will provide a backstopping function for the think tank which, according to the Terms of reference, seems to be largely administrative.

70


At the present m o m e n t , the inter-ministerial representation does not include, for example Ministry of Health, implying that there is no immediate co-ordination within the M O E C of the Education and training policy and the Social sector strategy, except for the participation of the Director of Social Services of the Planning Commission in the Committee. Since there is no newly formulated development strategy which could provide the broader national framework for the co-ordination of education sector activities, there is a risk that, while co-ordinated work within the education sector m a y improve, m a x i m u m impact of education on cross-sectoral and wider development work m a y not be achieved.

The co-operation with the E S R F m a y explain w h y the think tank does not have representation from outside the Ministries, for example, currently employed university academics and other education experts. According to one of the interviewees, the backstopping function of the E S R F involves, besides financial administration, the provision of expertise to the education sector co-ordinating committee through its Secretariat. The E S R F has a small number of staff, of w h o m one conducts social sector analysis but is not an education expert and, in addition, draws upon a network of 200 people w h o are likely to include education experts. The E S R F can also identify people outside its o w n network for specific tasks related to the work of the Education Sector Co-ordinating Committee. B y contrast, there has been no mention of the possible role of the Co-ordinating Unit for Research and Evaluation ( C U R E ) in the M O E C .

Therefore, while the arrangement m a y meet short-term needs within the ministry, it m a y lead to ad hoc rather than continuous analyses and, more importantly, to lack of policy and analytical capacity building within the ministry. Another consideration is the responsibility for provision of basic educational data. A n underlying reason for unequal dialogue in the past between the ministry and international aid agencies is that the agencies have better capacity and more resources than the ministry to secure up-to-date information on the educational situation as a basis for the design of projects, programmes and approaches within the sector and for policy analysis. The E U has been negotiating support for the M O E C to upgrade data management facilities and capacity in the M O E C . However, the active use of the data by researchers within rather than outside the ministry is more likely to lead to the realization of possible deficiencies and to quality improvement in their collection and compilation. This again, could support improved information within the ministry. Research conducted within the

71


ministry might also lead to the establishment of a m u c h needed central documentation unit which would ease ministerial decision-making.

Government priorities and agency project identification

A s discussed before, successful co-ordination by the Government presupposes a willingness amongst the agencies to be co-ordinated on terms put forward by the Government and to work within the immediate priority areas of the Government. A s presented at the international meeting in Dar es Salaam, these immediate priorities concern the primary education subsector and a focus on quality, teaching materials and management.

Seen in light of the policy emphases in Tanzania since independence (see Figure 5.1), the existing serious conditions at the primary level, and the expectation amongst Government officials that liberalization and cost-sharing will highly contribute to educational cost problem-solving at the secondary, higher and tertiary level as well as in vocational education and training, it is understandable that particular attention was paid to the primary education subsector. This emphasis was further supported by international developments since Jomtien in 1990 which set the case for Education for All worldwide focusing particularly on the fulfilment of basic learning needs. While the discussion on the education policy paper and the Master Plan raised other issues than quality, education materials and management as critical to primary education, for example gender, equity, and financing, it was generally acknowledged by all parties involved in education in Tanzania that the immediate priorities of the Government are sound.

The international aid agencies generally found that they already complied with the Government priorities in terms of subsector and issues focus. A s mentioned previously, a high number of agencies work in primary education (in particular Danida, D G I S , Irish Aid, U N I C E F , World Bank and Sida) while other agencies will do so in the immediate future (in particular O D A and, likely, E U ) . Quality of education is the key focus in the district-based education projects conducted by Danida, D G I S , Irish Aid and U N I C E F . It is also the stipulated purpose for the World Bank C E F pilot although, as mentioned before, some agencies would argue that the World Bank project differs by being a financing rather than an education project. Provision of teaching materials has been a key Sida agenda for the last decade, Sida being the predominant financier of the book management unit in the M O E C and influential in designing a n e w textbook policy. Other

72

A report from the WGE

agencies also support the provision of teaching materials, for example Danida and D G I S (World Bank supports at the secondary level). Management issues are critical in the district-based education programmes and is central in future O D A support.

These clearly overlapping priorities of the Government and a large number of agencies have paved the way for more highly co-ordinated interagency co-operation at a time when the new Government is making an effort to set its mark on agency activities. The following outlines the most recent developments in this respect and links directly with Government emphasis on quality of primary education.

Towards a co-ordinated effort

At the same time as some of the national agencies were hesitant to join in the appraisal of the World Bank H R D project in March 1996, a joint Government-agency review of the district-based education programmes initiated by Danida, D G I S , Irish Aid and U N I C E F was conducted. The review covered the programmes undertaken by Danida, D G I S , Irish Aid, U N I C E F and World Bank. The core team consisted of officials from the relevant ministries ( M O E C , PMO/Loca l Government) and representatives from Irish Aid, Danida and D G I S . The core team was supported by resource persons from Irish Aid, U N I C E F and D G I S . Field trips were conducted to some of the districts where programmes were undertaken: M b e y a (Danida), Mbulu (DGIS), Kilosa (Irish Aid), and Kibaha (World Bank). A visit to Morogoro (UNICEF) had to be cancelled.

The objective of the review was to "explore similarities and differences in light of the perceived needs of districts and to m o v e towards [...] a national strategy for primary education development". A s discussed previously, in the view of some of the national aid agencies there are more commonalities than differences in their projects, while there are more differences than commonalities between the district-based programmes of the national aid agencies and the World Bank C E F project. A constructive dialogue has been going on between some of the national aid agencies and the World Bank concerning the World Bank project since the completion of the review of the World Bank test phase in June 1996. The basis for this is a deliberate effort by the World Bank to share information directly with the agencies and in the interagency meetings, an effort which is generally acknowledged by the national aid agencies.

73


A s expressed by one of the national aid agencies, there is mutual understanding between the national aid agencies and the World Bank concerning "the decline in access and quality of primary education; the need to strengthen the financial base of schools; the need for school planning; and the need for improved parents' participation and accountability towards parents with regard to their financial contributions and increased decisionmaking of parents in issues of use of school funds and improving quality of teaching and learning". S o m e of the areas where the national aid agencies and the World Bank still differ, according to the same source, can be understood in the context of the characteristics of the agencies outlined in Appendix 2 and a different mixture of the four key concepts presented in Figure 4.1: the relative emphasis on demand-side versus balanced demand-side and supply-side approaches (high versus low emphasis on h u m a n capital development or h u m a n resource development); the relative importance of working through the existing structures, having capacity-building as an integral component, and seeking to achieve local ownership (highly emphasized in h u m a n capacity development); relative focus on output versus process; difference in conditions of funding (loans versus grants), time perspective (short-term versus long-term, and geographical scope (narrow versus wide) (the major contrast being h u m a n capital development versus h u m a n capacity and h u m a n resources development); and relative attention to equality, sustainability, and general contextual experiences (highly emphasized in h u m a n , h u m a n capacity, and h u m a n resources development).

In the effort to develop a national strategy for primary education, two of the national aid agencies (Danida and D G I S ) were jointly preparing the next phase of their support to the primary education sector. This work came about more because of consistency in implementation of policy and cooperation between individuals than because of overlapping formulated policies. The two agencies undertook a joint appraisal of a M O E C proposal for Support to Primary Education in late September 1996. They were hoping that their combined effort could be co-ordinated at a later stage with the other actors in the sector, in particular Irish Aid, U N I C E F , World Bank, and perhaps O D A . Several of these agencies have consistency in formulated policies, all have a co-ordinated effort high on their agenda and were positive towards a future co-operation.

74


At the same time, the M O E C stated that "at the appropriate stages, M O E C would also involve other major donor/agencies in the process". The M O E C and the two national aid agencies would jointly decide in which districts the programme was to be implemented. There was an ongoing dialogue concerning the relative involvement of the central and local levels as well as key ministerial concerns related to equitable distribution of programme support, needs of girls, capacity building at district and sub-district levels, controlling of recurrent cost expenditures, and quality teaching and learning. S o m e of the initial problems related to the bureaucratic procedures of one of the national aid agencies, in particular finalization of specific steps in the project cycle in order for specific time schedules to be met concerning internal decision-making and disbursement of funding.

4. Constraints and opportunities for government and inter-agency co-operation

Tanzania is likely to be a special case in terms of the vast number of external agencies with long-term involvement in its development process. It is also special because, in contrast to m a n y other countries, it formulated its o w n development strategy after independence, a strategy which was given up after the onset of the severe economic difficulties in the late 1970s. Under the impact of the EFIs, liberalization and privatization of the political and economic spheres were accepted as guiding political principles. The macro policies formulated by the Planning Commission for 1993-1997 provided a short-term framework within which sectoral policies should be situated, but did not provide a m u c h needed long-term vision for the development process. A n e w Education and training policy was formulated in 1995 in replacement of the Education for self-reliance policy of 1967.

Therefore, since the 1980s, m u c h of the work of the international aid agencies in the different sectors of the Tanzanian economy, including education, has been undertaken in a vacuum for lack of Government direction and formulated policy principles. In education, the work of the international aid agencies can be characterized as having been largely ad hoc projects determined by individual agency choices and un-co-ordinated with those of other international aid agencies. The lack of Government direction and co-ordinated efforts of the international aid agencies are likely to have impeded the development prospects in the country.

75


There are indications that this situation m a y be changing in the 1990s as far as education is concerned. T h e M O E C has expressed, as has the President and other Government officials, a commitment to taking charge of the development of the country, including the responsibility for coordinating the work of the international aid agencies in support of Government priorities for the education sector. The newly established Education Sector Co-ordinating Committee is a means to this end. T h e committee m a y be used as the future entry point for work in the education sector by all international aid agencies, thereby eliminating some of the previous difficulties in terms of inter-ministerial responsibility and holism in education implementation. T h e establishment of a comprehensive and transparent database will be critical for the successful work of the committee.

With respect to the international aid agencies, previous differences in terms of policy formulation and implementation have been softened. At the present m o m e n t , there is scope for increased co-operation particularly amongst a core group of national aid agencies with relative consistency in general views on and priorities for educational development. The degree of co-operation amongst the international aid agencies has been affected by the relative room for manoeuvre of agency officials within the different agencies at the field level and, to some extent, by staff turnover and inter-personal issues - factors which m a y continue to influence the nature of co-operation as they can be considered to be generic rather than incidental.

T h e issue of co-ordination of aid is high on the agenda of most of the international aid agencies and most of them speak in favour of Government steering of external assistance. T h e rather loose interaction amongst the agencies in terms of information sharing since the early 1990s is likely to be replaced by more co-ordination based on improved knowledge of what other agencies are doing, h o w co-operation could take place, and h o w specific experiences could be turned into national programmes for educational development in regard of both Government and agency policies and priorities. T h e newly expressed Government commitment in terms of formulated strategies, goals and targets for implementation of the Government education policy and a strengthened Government machinery for managing external assistance are critical in this respect.

76


The serious under-funding of the education sector continues, however, to be a severely limiting factor. Only if it can be resolved through some of the measures which are already in place (cost-sharing), increased budget allocations and, particularly, increased economic growth, will there be reason to envisage that the newfound m o m e n t u m in Tanzania can assist in "building a n e w education bridge into the 21st century", and that past achievements within the education sector will again be reflected in present and future efforts.

77

Appendices

Appendix 1 List of interviews

Agency officials, Headquarters

M s Joke Brandt, Central and East Africa Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague. M s Hanke Koopman - van den Boogerd, Senior Adviser Basic Education, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague. M s Marian Kroon, Gender Specialist, formerly Tanzania WTO-Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague.

M r Jan Bahnson Jensen, Head of Section, Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Copenhagen. M r Knud Mortensen, Education Adviser, Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Copenhagen.

M r Abdi Foum, Senior Programme Officer for Tanzania, Education Division, Sida, Stockholm. Dr Christine M c N a b , Deputy Head, Education Division, Sida, Stockholm.

M r Charles C . Griffin, Senior H u m a n Resources Economist, Population and H u m a n Resources Sector Operations, Eastern Africa Department, The World Bank, Washington. M r Jack Maas, Division Chief, Population and H u m a n Resources, Eastern Africa, The World Bank, Washington.

Agency officials, Field Office

M s Pauline Conway, Chargé d'Affairs, Development Co-operation Office, Embassy of Ireland. M s Sara Clancy, Programme Officer, Development Co-operation Office, Embassy of Ireland.

M s Maaike van Vliet, First Secretary, Regional Adviser, Basic Education and Vocational Training, Royal Embassy of the Netherlands.

M s Catherine D o m , E U Adviser, Planning and Budgeting, (Local Government Support Unit, Prime Ministers' Office), European Union.

81

Appendices

M r Mark Todd, European Union.

Dr Reinhard Sauer, G T Z Representative, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) G m b H .

M s Jacqui Booker, Third Secretary (Aid), ODA/British High Commission.

M r Mark V . Jensen, Minister Counsellor, Royal Danish Embassy. M r Mike Kiernan, Regional Education Adviser, (Primary Education Programme, Ministry of Education and Culture), Royal Danish Embassy. M s Mette Knudsen, First Secretary, Royal Danish Embassy.

M s Marit H . Vedeld, First Secretary (Development), Royal Norwegian Embassy.

M s Maria Stridsman, Programme Officer, Education, Royal Swedish Embassy.

Dr M a m Biram Joof, U N E S C O Representative, U N E S C O . M r Raphael J. Murinuka, U N E S C O Programme Officer, Dar es Salaam, U N E S C O . Mrs N . Muzava, National U N E S C O Secretary General, U N E S C O .

Dr Emmanual Malangalila, Country Representative, The World Bank.

Tanzanian Government officials

Mrs Rose Mangénya, Principal Secretary, Ministry of Community Development, W o m e n Affairs and Children.

M r Charles Kalugula, Head, Book Management Unit, Ministry of Education and Culture. M r Judas Mruta, Head, Teacher Training, Ministry of Education and Culture. M r Solomon Odunga, Principal Secretary, Ministry of Education and Culture. M r Siwingwa, Act. Director for Planning, Ministry of Education and Culture. Dr E . B . Temu , Head of Secretariat, Education Sector Co-ordinating Committee, Ministry of Education and Culture.

M r E . M . Masanja, Commissioner, Foreign Aid Division, Ministry of Finance. M r Gray Mgenja, Deputy Principal Secretary, Ministry of Finance.

Ambassador M . M . Matiko, Director for International Co-operation and Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co-operation.

Professor Joshua Doriye, Deputy P S , Prime Minister's Office, Ministry of Local Government.

82

Appendices

M r Herbert Gondwe, Commissioner for Local Government, Ministry of Local Government (PM Office). M r Severin Kahitwa, Planning Officer, 8 I D A Project, Ministry of Local Government (PM Office). M r Francis Liboy, Project Co-ordinator, Education Co-ordination Unit, Ministry of Local Government ( P M Office).

M r Titus Mteleka, Director for Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. M r A . M . Ngororo, Principal Secretary, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education.

Dr Faustin Mukyanuzi, Deputy Director, Social Services Division, Planning Commission. M r Katawi, Assistant Director, Co-ordination and Monitoring Division, Planning Commission (President's Office). M r J. Zayumba, Director, Social Services Division, Planning Commission (President's Office).

Others

M r K . Kiragu, Civil Service Reform Commission.

Dr Paula A . Tabandabage, Research Fellow, Economic and Social Research Foundation. Professor Samuel W a n g w e , Executive Director, Economic and Social Research Foundation

M r E . Mwenisongole, Director, M w e n g e Open Academy High School (formerly, Director for Planning, Ministry of Education and Culture).

Professor G . Mmari, Vice-Chancellor, The Open University of Tanzania.

Dr Justinian Galabawa, Dean, Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam. Dr G . P . Mpangala, Director, Institute of Development Studies, University of Dar es Salaam. Professor Issa M . O m a n , Professor, Faculty of Education and World Bank Consultant, Bureau of Educational Research and Evaluation, The World Bank. Dr Joseph Semboja, Associate Professor, Economic Research Bureau, University of Dar es Salaam. Dr Suleman A . Sumra, Associate Professor of Education Research, Bureau of Educational Research and Evaluation, University of Dar es Salaam.

83

Appendices

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Appendices

92

Appendix 3 District-based education programmes

in Tanzania

The following information is based on the review report issued March 1996:

The Danida supported Primary Education Programme (PEP) programm e started in 1993 as a test phase in M b e y a Region and has n o w expanded from Mbeya Rural District to 14 districts in three regions. It is implemented by M O E C through the Directorate of Planning and in collaboration with district authorities. The main objective is the improvement of the quality of primary education. It has five components: school-community relations improvement; school management development; the introduction of school clustering and the establishment of Teachers Resource Centres ( T R C ) ; professional and academic upgrading of teachers; and rehabilitation and maintenance of school buildings.

The D G I S P E P is one component of the District Rural Development Programme ( D R D P ) of which the main aim is an improvement of the well-being of the rural population. The education component was strengthened in 1993 with a pilot project for district-based primary education planning in Mbulu district and n o w covers 12 districts. The D R D P is under the responsibility of the district administration, while the central government approves and is kept informed. A D G I S programme adviser is placed at the district level. The major areas of the district education plans are: infrastructural development of schools and T R C s ; needs-based in-service training of teachers; upgrading of academic levels of teachers; learning materials for pupils and teachers at the school and T R C level; training of school committees; and capacity building of district education staff.

The Irish supported P E P programme operated as a pilot until the end of 1993 and has since 1994 been undertaken in two districts in Morogoro Region aiming at improving the effectiveness of pupils' learning. It is an integral part of the Kilosa Rural Development Programme which started in 1991. Communities are encouraged to discuss, decide, plan and implement

93

Appendices

their prioritised project with the programme co-ordinator as an adviser, while the central government approves and is kept informed. The major areas are: support to the District Education Office and the Inspectorate in terms of training and transport; provision of critical resources and in-service training; capacity building of local parents, school committees, and W a r d Education Co-ordinators; educational service for handicapped children; re-activation of school medical service; establishment of school clustering and T R C s ; and gender equality.

U N I C E F ' s community-based education programme (CBE) is part of an integrated child survival protection and development programme which is implemented in four districts in Morogoro region. It aims at strengthening the capacity of communities to assess their o w n needs, identify priority actions, and implement them supported by the ward and district level structures. The central government approves and is part of the planning. Major activities are: training of ward education co-ordinators, school committees, pre-primary and primary school teachers; support to T R C s , provision of education materials; and technical guidance in implementation of C B E .

The World Bank C E F pilot pre-test phase started with 4 schools in mid-1995. With effect from January 1995, 6 more schools were added, all in Kibaha district. T w o other districts have been included, each covering 10 schools. The pilot phase was completed in June 1996. Six programme trainers have been trained to assist in the implementation. The objective is to promote school enrolment and school attainment by enhancing the quality of education. Targeted primary schools are provided with a universal matching grant and a targeted subsidy. Schools are free to use the incremental resources on any school-related expense provided the village government approves.

94

References

Â . Secondary literature and official documents

British Council. 1996. Donor scoping study of assistance to the education sector in Tanzania. Jariuary.

Buchert, Lene. 1995. Recent trends in education aid: towards a classification of policies. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).

Buchert, Lene. 1994. Education in the development of Tanzania 1919-1990. London: James Currey Publishers.

District-based Education Planning. 1996. Review Report on Donor-supported approaches in primary education development initiated by Danida (Denmark), D G I S (the Netherlands), Irish Aid, and U N I C E F .

Farrell, Deidre (Ed.). 1995. Irish Aid and Education. A Report to the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Dublin: Irish Aid Advisory Committee.

Gibbon, Peter ; Phil Raikes. 1995. Structural adjustment in Tanzania, 1986-1994. Copenhagen: Centre for Development Research.

Gibbon, Peter ; Phil Raikes. 1996. Tanzania 1986-1994. In Poul Engberg-Pedersen ; Peter Gibbon ; Phil Raikes ; Lars Udsholt (Eds.). Limits of Adjustment in Africa. Oxford: Centre for Development Research in association with James Currey Publishers and Heinemann, pp. 215-307.

Government of Tanzania. 1995. First joint government-donor agency review of primary education. Preliminary Report. Ministry of Education and Culture.

I B R D . 1996. Tanzania. The challenge of reforms: growth, incomes and welfare. Country Operations Division. Eastern Africa Department. Africa Region.

Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania, undated. Waraka wa Baraza la Mawaziri na: ... wa 1994. Kuhusu Sera y a Elimu na mafunzo Nchini. Kumbukumbu y a Waziri w a Elimu na Utamaduni.

95

References

Magnen, André. 1994. Donor co-ordination in education. A case study on Bangladesh. Paris: UNESCO/International Institute for Educational Planning and U N I C E F .

Matern, Peter M . ; Issa M . O m a n ; Robert R . Ntuah. 1995. Donor Participation in the post primary education and training sector in Tanzania. Consultancy Report for the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education, and the World Bank. July.

Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. 1993. The National science and technology policy for Tanzania. (Draft). Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. December.

Mukyanuzi, Faustin. 1996. Financing of education in Tanzania. National Conference on Education and Training Policy, Arusha, September 10-13.

O D A . 1996. Tanzania education strategy review. British Development Division in Eastern Africa.

Omari, Issa M . 1994. Review of critical issues in Tanzanian education. The World Bank.

Samoff, Joel (Ed.). 1994. Coping with crisis. Austerity, adjustment and human resources. London: Cassell and Paris: U N E S C O .

Samoff, Joel with Suleman Sumra. 1994. From planning to marketing. Making education and training policy in Tanzania. In Samoff, Joel (Ed.) 1994, pp. 134-172.

Semboja, J. 1992. The impact of the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) on the provision of social services. Report prepared for the World Bank, December.

Semboja, J. ; Therkildsen, O . (Eds). 1995. Service provision under stress in East Africa. The state and voluntary organizations in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. London: James Currey Publishers.

Svantesson, Bente Ejsing, 1994a. Donor assistance to the education sector in Tanzania. O n behalf of the Interagency Group of Donors to Education. December.

Svantesson, Bente Ejsing, 1994b. Donor and Government financing of primary education in Tanzania. Primary Education in Tanzania Interagency Consultative Group. Primary Education Support Programme. Danida. November.

96

References

Therkildsen, Ole. 1996. Primary education and Local Government: who decides, pays and benefits? Revised draft of paper prepared for the workshop on "Quality and Equity Issues in Tanzanian Education Policy and Practice: Insights from Research". December 15-16,1993.

United Republic of Tanzania. 1996. The Strategic Action Plan 1996-1999. Dar es Salaam.

United Republic of Tanzania, undated. Social Sector Strategy. Prepared for the Consultative Group Meeting.

United Republic of Tanzania. 1995. Acts supplement to the Gazette of the United Republic of Tanzania, No. 41, Vol. 76, No. 2,13th October.

United Republic of Tanzania. 1995. Education and training policy. Ministry of Education and Culture.

United Republic of Tanzania. 1995. Tanzania education and training policy. Ministry of Education and Culture.

United Republic of Tanzania. 1995. Higher education policy. Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. January.

United Republic of Tanzania. 1993. Tanzania integrated education and training policy. Ministry of Education and Culture and Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education.

United Republic of Tanzania. 1993. The Tanzania education system for the 21st Century. Report of the Task Force. Leeds: Ministry of Education and Culture and Ministry of Science Technology and Higher Education.

Williams, Peter. 1995. Government's co-ordination of aid to education: the case of Namibia. UNESCO/International Institute for Educational Planning: Association for the Development of African Education ( A D A E ) .

World Bank. 1995. Tanzania Social Sector Review. Washington: World Bank.

World Bank. 1991. United Republic of Tanzania: Teachers and the financing of education. Washington: World Bank, Population and H u m a n Resources Division, Southern Africa Department.

World Bank. 1989. Tanzania: public expenditure review. Washington: World Bank.

97

References

В . Unofficial documents

Correspondence, various, and other documentation related to Tanzania Primary Education Programme submitted by Danida/DGIS and M O E C , undated and June 1996.

Correspondence, various, April-July 1996, from D G I S , World Bank, G T Z , and M O E C concerning World Bank H u m a n Resource Development Project

Correspondence, various, M a y and July 1995 and January 1996 from O D A , N O R A D , D G I S , World Bank concerning donor co-operation in education in Tanzania.

Education and training policy as a sectoral approach to implementation of the social sector strategy (address by M r . J. Zayumba, Planning Commission at the meeting on donor co-ordination at the Kilimanjaro Hotel on 6th March, 1996).

Education and training as a tool for donor co-ordination (address by M r . S. Mkoba , Commissioner for Education at the meeting on donor coordination at the Kilimanjaro Hotel on 6th March, 1996).

Embassy of Sweden. 1995. Memo on Señaste Utvecklingen mellan Bilaterala Givare, Tanzania och Världsbanken от Undervisningssektorn (Recent development between bilateral donors, Tanzania and the World Bank). M a y .

E U . 1996. Project summary.

Government of Tanzania. Ministry of Education and Culture and Prime Minister's Office. 1996. Primary education Master Plan. A Framework and Strategic Action Plan. Draft 2. Ministry of Education and Culture, March.

Government of Tanzania. 1995. Primary education. Master Plan. 'A Framework'. Draft 1. Ministry of Education and Culture, Prime Minister's Office. July.

Opening Statement by the Minister for Education and Culture Prof. J.A. Kapuya to a Meeting on Donor Co-ordination in Basic Education at the Kilimanjaro Hotel on 6th March, 1996.

Republic of Tanzania. Ministry of Education and Culture. 1996. Proposal. Support to primary education 1997-2000. Draft. Submitted to Danida, Royal Danish Embassy, Tanzania: M O E C , August.

98

References

Sida. 1995. Promemoria. World Bank-Sida co-operation in education, Tanzania. Stockholm: Department of Democracy and Social Development. October.

Sida. 1995. Reserapport (Travel report). Stockholm: Education Division. April.

Swedish Embassy. 1996. Letter to the Honourable Prof. Juma Kapuya, Minister of Education and Culture and Report concerning education sector cooperation in Tanzania. February.

Tanzania integrated education and training policy. A summary of policy directions and strategies (Draft). July 1993.

Waraka wa Baraza la Mawaziri na. ... Wa 1994. Kuhusu Sera y a Elimu na Mafunzo Nchini. K u m b u k u m b u ya Waziri w a Elimu na Utamaduni.

World Bank. 1996. Office memorandum. Tanzania: Human resources development pilot Project I. Washington. February.

World Bank. 1995. Aide-memoire for the Human resources development pilot Project I. Washington. September.

World Bank. 1995. Draft Staff appraisal report social sector project. Washington.

World Bank. 1995. World Bank mission and social sector pilot development project. April.

99

П Е Р publications and documents

More than 1,120 titles on all aspects of educational planning have been published by the International Institute for Educational Planning. A comprehensive catalogue, giving details of their availability, includes research reports, case studies, seminar documents, training materials, occasional papers and reference books in the following subject categories:

Economics of education, costs and financing.

Manpower and employment.

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Primary, secondary and higher education.

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Disadvantaged groups.

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