Education of Kazakh children: A Situation Analysis

A Report for Save the Children UK

by Sandra S. Huang

October 2005

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Table of Contents

AbbreviAtions And Acronyms ...............................................................................................................4

i. introdUction .........................................................................................................................................5

ii. metHodoLoGy And constrAints .................................................................................................6

iii.edUcAtion in monGoLiA ....................................................................................................................8

iv.recent LeGAL And PoLicy FrAmeWorK .................................................................................10

v. GenerAL condition oF KAZAKs in monGoLiA .....................................................................11

A. A picture of the populAtion......................................................................................................................11Population......................................................................................................................................................11Migration........................................................................................................................................................1�Poverty...........................................................................................................................................................1�

B. context of educAtion pArticipAtion And performAnce .............................................................................13Lower.literacy................................................................................................................................................13Higher.dropouts.............................................................................................................................................14Greater.delayed.entry.....................................................................................................................................14Lower.preschool.participation.......................................................................................................................15

vi. PoLicy FormULAtion FAiLs to tArGet KAZAK cHiLdren ........................................17

A. lAck of centrAl level Agreement on the proBlem .................................................................................17B. poor understAnding of locAl situAtion And needs ..................................................................................17c. stereotypes of kAzAks help rAtionAlize their isolAtion And condition .................................................18d. Adherence to nArrow position of legAl egAlitAriAnism limits development goAls ...............................18e. lAck of meAsurement And dAtA to monitor performAnce And progress .................................................19

vii. common cHALLenGes And constrAints to Access, QUALity, reLevAnce And eQUity ..............................................................................................................................�1

A. chAllenge of meeting the costs And opportunity costs of educAtion ....................................................21B. insufficient And poor tArgeting of resources .........................................................................................21c. poor teAcher trAining And instructionAl quAlity ..................................................................................22d. mismAtch of cAlendAr, curriculum And leArning mAteriAls ..................................................................23e. insufficient And poor condition of school And dormitory fAcilities......................................................23f. insufficient kindergArtens .......................................................................................................................24g. lAck of AdequAte And AppropriAte leArning mAteriAls ...........................................................................24h. poor nfe supports for kAzAk children .................................................................................................25

viii. LAnGUAGe dimensions oF KAZAK oPPortUnity to LeArn ......................................�6

A. kAzAk school lAnguAge issues ................................................................................................................27Mismatch.in.language.of.instruction.and.learning.materials/curriculum.....................................................�7No.attention.to.second.language.acquisition.................................................................................................�8Teacher language deficiency..........................................................................................................................�8Unclear.bilingual.strategy.............................................................................................................................�8Unclear.decision.making.on.language.learning............................................................................................�9

B. mixed schools lAnguAge And leArning issues .........................................................................................29

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c. mongoliAn school lAnguAge issues .........................................................................................................30Lack.of.second.language.learner.training.and.supports................................................................................30Unequal.standards.and.expectations.............................................................................................................30No.mother.tongue.learning............................................................................................................................30Poor.teacher.attitude.and.discrimination......................................................................................................31

d. difficulties with informAtion And communicAtion ..................................................................................31

iX. concLUsion .......................................................................................................................................33

X. recommendAtions: WHere do We stArt? ...........................................................................34

AreA 1: remove BArriers to educAtion Access, quAlity And relevAnce ..........................................................34AreA 2: improve mechAnisms for AppropriAte And effective policy And progrAm plAnning And implementAtion .............................................................................................................................36

Xi. reFerences .......................................................................................................................................38

APPendiX A: WorK PLAn For tHe etHnic minority edUcAtion sitUAtion AnALysis 40

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

ecd EducationandCultureDepartmentmecs MinistryofEducation,CultureandSciencemeA MongolianEducationAllianceAdb AsianDevelopmentBankHdr HumanDevelopmentReportLsms LivingStandardsMeasurementSurveyeFA EducationforAllUPe UniversalPrimaryEducationeGsPrG EconomicGrowthStrategyandPovertyReductionStrategynFe NonformalEducationnFec NonformalEducationCentercmP ChildMoneyProgramtbd ToBeDeterminedtedP ThirdEducationDevelopmentProgramttc TeacherTrainingCollegeiLo InternationalLaborOrganizationnso NationalStatisticalOfficeiec Information,EducationandCommunicationnAc NationalAuthorityforChildren

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I. INTRODUCTION

Everyperson—child, youth and adult—shall be able to benefit fromeducationopportunitiesdesignedtomeettheirbasiclearningneeds. --WorldDeclarationofEducationforAll

Educationandtrainingisthefoundationforlongtermpovertyreduction.Itisaheavyweightin the interlocking factors of the downward vicious or upward virtuous development cycle.Education access andopportunities to learnprovideon-ramps for accessingother assets andbenefits in improved health, participation and income. The passage above from theWorldDeclarationofEducationforAllhighlightsacriticalaspectofeducationforall,whichisthateducation opportunitiesmean farmore than just physical and financial access to schooling.Quality educationmust also ensure that educational services effectively address the learningneedsofthechildrentheyserve.

AmongthechallengesfacedbytheeducationsectorinMongoliaisthelackofaccesstoqualityeducation to certain groups of children, including migrant, rural, poor children and childrenwith disabilities. This study expands that circle of vulnerability and explores the educationstatus,needs,constraintsandopportunitiesofethnicminoritychildren,particularlyKazaks,andtheextent towhich theGovernmentofMongoliahasadequatelyacknowledgedoraddressedtheir conditions. In addition to examining the social problems and systemic weaknesses oftheeducationsystemthatalsoaffectKazaks,thisreportwillpayspecialattentiontothemulti-dimensionalchallengesoflanguageineducationthatKazakchildrenface.

Manyof thebarriers toaccessand learningexperiencedbyKazaksarecommonbarriers forallMongolianchildren.Theseresultfromsystemicweaknessesineducationdeliverycausedby the poor condition or lack of facilities, lack of learning materials, poor quality teachingandlearningenvironments, thehighformalandinformalcostsassociatedwithschooling, thecorrespondingpovertyandlowstandardoflivingoffamilies.Amismatchbetweentheschoolandagriculturalcalendarisanadditionalconstrainttoschoolattendanceinruralareasasisthelackofrelevanceofcentrallydevelopedcurriculaandtextbookstolocallanguage,contextandculture.Inadditiontoincreasingthephysicalandfinancialaccessibilitytoeducationthroughinfrastructuredevelopmentandsubsidies,thequalityandrelevancemustbealsoimprovedtogivefamiliestheincentivetoinvestineducationalopportunities.

First and foremost, however, Kazak children face the unique and significant challenge oflanguage.WhethertheyareinaminorityormajoritycontextthereisawholehostofchallengescausedbythelanguagebarrierforKazakstudentsenteringMongolianschoolsorclasses.EvenchildrenprovidedwiththeopportunitytolearnintheirnativelanguagethroughKazakclassesorschoolsfacemulti-dimensionalchallengesinlearningandprogressingthroughtheeducationalsystem.ThedevelopmentofadequatesupportsforlearningMongolianasasecondlanguageandthedevelopmentofasystematicapproachandadequatelearningmaterialstosupportbilingualeducationinKazakandMongolianarecrucialtoupholdingKazakchildren’srightstoeducationanddevelopment.

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II. METHODOLOGY AND CONSTRAINTS

ThisreportwascommissionedbySavetheChildrenUK(SCUK).ItsmainpurposeistoproduceaneducationsituationanalysisofKazakchildrentoinformSCUK’sstrategicandoperationalplanningintheareaofsupportingKazakchildren’srightstoeducationanddevelopment.Thefindingspresentedhereareintendedtobearapidintroductiontokeysectorspecificissuesandarenotpresentedasanextensiveorexhaustiveanalysis.

Themainobjectivesofthesituationanalysis:Tomakeanin-depthanalysisonthecurrenteducationalsituationofKazakchildren,including

investigatingthecausesofthehighdropoutrateinBayan-OlgiiIdentifythemainfactorsadverselyaffectingtheeducationofKazakchildrenandpotential

waysofaddressingthem MakerecommendationsforSCUKonhowitsprogramcanstrategicallyandoperationally

address those issues so that the rightsofKazakchildren to educationanddevelopmentarebettermetMakerecommendationsoncentralandlocalgovernmentpolicylevelinterventions

The key research questions are: What is the current status of educational opportunities andoutcomesforKazakchildren?Arethepresentprioritiesandpoliciesineducationdevelopmentappropriate for addressing the needs and conditions of Kazak families/children? Are therecurrentlypolicies inplace that expressly target improving theeducationanddevelopmentofKazakchildren?Ifnot,whatarethespecificcharacteristicsthatneedtobeaddressedinpolicyformulation?Ifso,towhatdegreearethepoliciesbeingimplementedeffectively?

This is a qualitative study with research conducted at the central level and in three fieldsites—Bayan-Olgii aimag,Hovd aimag andNalaihdistrict ofUlaanbaatar. Informationwasgathered througha literature reviewofmaterialsmade available inUlaanbaatar. ThesedataandinformationweresupplementedwithmeetingswithofficialsofGovernmentministriesandotherrelevantnationalandinternationalorganizationsandagenciesincludingstaffofdonorsandINGOs.MeetingswithbothGovernmentandinternationalagencieswereconductedassemi-structuredinterviews.MostmeetingswereconductedinMongolianwithaninterpreteralthoughsomemeetingswereconductedinEnglish.

Asignificantconstraintofthisresearchprojectwasrootedinlanguagebarriersoftheresearchteam. Itwasdifficult forSCUKto identifyaKazaktoEnglish translatorfor thefieldvisits.While the team had such a translator in Hovd aimag, the quality of interpretation was poor.ThisindividualwasalsoresponsiblefortranslatingasurveyprovidedinMongolianintoKazak.Subsequentevaluationofthetranslationrevealedmanyerrorsandshortcomings.SCUKwasunable to enlist a translator forBayan-Olgii aimag so theSCUKprogramofficer interpretedwhere informants could speak Mongolian, with double translation occurring in many casesduringconversationswithparentswhoonly spokeKazak. Thesechallengesare sharedherebecausetheyhighlighttherarityoffindingindividualstrulybilingualinMongolianandKazak,eventhoughKazakschoolsintheorytransitionstudentsintofullMongolianinstructionsotheycanparticipateonanequalfootinginhighereducation.TheyalsoillustratetherealitythatveryfewKazak parents are proficient in theMongolian language, renderingMongolian languagecommunications,assistanceandlearningopportunitieslargelyineffective.

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Theotherimportantlimitationofthisstudyanditsfindingswasthepooravailabilityandqualityofdata.Thelittledatathatwereavailablefromdifferentsourceswereoftencontradictory,andsometimesthiswaseventruefordatareportedinthesamesourceorreport.Moreproblematicwasthegenerallackofdata.DatarequeststoaimagECDs,Ulaanbaatar’sCityEducationandScienceDepartment,Nalaihgovernor’soffice,andtheMinistry’sEducationforAllliaisonwentlargelyunfulfilled.Muchofthedatathatweregatheredarenotcomparableacrosslocations.Therefore,findingsinthisreportaremostlydescribedinwords.Thestatisticsandnumbersusedarelargelysecondhanddatareportedbylocalofficialsorotherinformants,andshouldbeusedasillustrationsofobservationsandconcerns,orasastartingpointforunderstandingtheproblem.

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III. EDUCATION IN MONGOLIA

Thestructureof theeducationsysteminMongolia includespreschoolandgeneraleducation,which includes primary, lower and upper secondary. Preschool serves children ages 3-6(beginningin�005-�006)andisnotcompulsory.An11-yeareducationsystemwasintroducedinthe�005-�006schoolyearwiththeprimary(grades1-5)andlowersecondary(grades6-9)levelscomprisingbasiceducation.AccordingtotheConstitutionbasiceducationisbothfreeand compulsory. Upper secondary is two years, grades 10 and 11. Upper secondary is notcompulsorybutcompletionofuppersecondaryisnecessaryforadiplomaandisaprerequisiteforcollegeadmission.PubliceducationisunderthesupervisionandauthorityoftheMinistryofEducation,CultureandScience(MECS)andeachaimaghasanAimagEducationandCultureDepartment (ECD) which operates as the local education authority. (Mongolian EducationAlliance/MEA,�005)

Giventhecountry’slowpopulationdensityandnomadiclifestyleofmuchoftheruralpopulation,oneofthecrowningachievementsoftheSocialistperiodwastheestablishmentofavastnetworkofschoolsandpreschools, includingaboardingschoolsystem,whichallowedhigh levelsofschoolattendanceandliteracyrateswithlittlevariationacrossregions.

Theearlyyearsofthetransitionperiod,bycontrast,hadstrikingnegativeeffectsoneducationparticipation and outcomes. The reduction of state subsidies to kindergartens, privatizationof landandbuildingsand the inadequate resourcesprovided forheatingandmaintenanceofschoolinfrastructureresultedinpreschoolclosuresandthemassivedeteriorationofschoolanddormitoryfacilitiesandschoolquality.Theseconditions,inadditiontoprivatizationoflivestock,deepeningpovertyandincreasedunemployment,andthereorganizationoftheeducationsystemin1990andagain in199�, led todramatic increases indropouts anddecreases inpreschoolparticipation.

Dropoutsclimbedtoover33,000inthe199�-1993schoolyearor8.8%ofschoolenrolment.Enrollmentinthefirstthreeyearsofschoolfellfrom233,000in1990to187,900in1995,whileoverall enrollment for children aged 8-15 fell from 98.6% in 1990 to 84.3% in 1995.(HDR,�003)Preschoolssufferedthegreatestblowduringthetransitionwith�44kindergartensclosingbetween1990and�001.(AsianDevelopmentBank/ADB,�00�)Enrollmentinkindergarten,whichwasover97,000childrenin1990,haddeclinedtounder60,000by1993.(ADB,�003)Whileboththeeconomyandtheeducationsectorbegantomakearecoveryafter1995,by�004preschoolenrollment,at8�,674,wasstillnotbacktoits1990level.(ADB,�005)

Since 1995, Mongolia has been initiating reforms that address education access and qualitysectorallyandwithcommendableresults.However,amajorfactorinfluencingeducationaccessandopportunitytodayisrisingpoverty.Ofparticularconcernisthewideninginequalitybothbetweenandwithinruralandurbanpopulations.Ruralareashavefarlesscapacityforhumancapitaldevelopmentintheformofaccesstoinformationandbasicsocialservices.Evenwithinruralareas,economicopportunityandaccess toservicesdivergewidelybetweenherdersandresidentsofsoumoraimagcenters.ADBalsoreportsthatanalysesof1998and�00�LivingStandards Measurement Survey (LSMS) data show the negative impact of poverty on theaffordabilityofeducation in termsofbothdirectandopportunitycosts,and thus,ondropoutratesateverylevelofeducation.Academicqualityandachievementmeasuredbyexaminationresultsalsoshowthatpoorsoumsfareworsethanrichersoums.Thisisanothercrucialissueas

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studieshaveshownthatinMongolia,parentaldecisionsonsendingorkeepingtheirchildreninschoolareinfluencedbytheperceivedqualityofteachingandteacherattitudes.

Mongolia’scurrenteducationprioritiesarecloselylinkedwithitsoveralldevelopmentorientationfocusingonpovertyreductionandsharingequitablebenefitsofdevelopment.Educationisseenasanimportantstrategyinthedevelopmentprocess,asseenintheEconomicGrowthStrategyandPovertyReductionStrategyforMongolia(EGSPRS).UnderEducationforAll(EFA)goals,Mongoliastrivestoexpandandimproveearlychildhoodcareandeducation,toreachyouthandadultsthroughnon-formaleducation,andtoachieveuniversalprimaryeducation(UPE)by�015.EFA’sgoalnumbersixalsoenumeratesseveraldesiredcriteriaofeducationqualityincludinginstructionalresources,teachingmethodologyandarticulatedlearningoutcomes. Mongolia’sMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDG)matchestheEFAtargetforUPEandsetsanadditionalgoalof100percentprimarycohortsurvivalby�015.Inordertoachievetheseuniversalgoals,Mongoliamustnotonlystrengthenitseducationsystemandperformanceonaverage,butmusttargetthespeciallearningneedsofKazaksandotherethnicminoritiestoensureschoolreadinessandqualityteachingandlearningforallchildreninMongolia.

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IV. RECENT LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK

ThefollowingsectionoutlinesthechiefGovernmentofMongoliaeducationandsocialwelfareinterventionswhichwereintendedtoreachthepoorandmarginalizedpopulationsindifferentways.Itdoesnotintendtobeexhaustive,butintroducessomeofthemajorprogramsintendedtoremovefinancialbarrierstoschooling,toreachoutofschoolpopulations,toincreaseincentivesforparticipationineducationandtoimprovethequalityofteachingandrelevanceofeducation.

1995BasicPrinciplesofEducationandEducationLaw"Educationshallbeaccessibletothecitizenregardlessofnationality,language,colorofskin,

age,sex,socialandpropertystatus,workandofficialposition,religion,andopinions;thecitizenshallbeprovidedwithconditionstolearninhis/hernativelanguage.”

Setbudgetallocationofnotlessthan�0%toeducationsectorProvided subsidies for boarding school students to return home twice a year and public

transportationconcessionsforschooltravel

1997NationalNon-FormalEducationProgramNFEasitiscommonlycalled,iscomposedoftwoprograms:thefirstprogramdevelopedandlaunched in1997was“TheNationalProgramofNon-FormalEducationDevelopment.”Thesecondnationalprogramcalled“NationalProgramforDistanceEducation”wasdevelopedinJanuary,�00�.Non-FormalEducationwasseenasawaytoaddressthesoaringdropoutsandunemploymentthatoccurredasaresultofthetransitionperiodandisformallyrecognizedasanalternatemethodtoreceivebasiceducation.NFEisadministeredthroughEnlightenmentCenterslocatedatthesoumlevel,andissupportedbymaterialsdevelopedanddistributedcentrallybytheNon-FormalEducationCenter.

�000EducationSuppliesSubsidyJointresolution#34/31byMinisterofEducationandMinisterofFinancegrantingeducation

suppliesforschoolagedneedychildrenintheamountof16,000Tugrikseachyear.Forvulnerablesocialgroupsorfamilieswithfourormorechildrensimultaneouslyenrolled

inschool.Inordertoreceivethesubsidyparentsofeligiblechildrenmustsubmittheirrequestsand

proofdocumentstothelocalauthoritiesbyMayeachyeartoreceivesuppliesinSeptember.Schoolsuppliesweredeliveredto56,700childrenin�00�,andto64,000childrenin�003.

�000RemovalofMeatAllocationPolicychangeremovingcostsharingfordormitorymeals,returningtopre-1996policywheredormitorieswerefullysubsidizedbytheState.

�001-�003SpecialprogramstoincreaseteachersupplyatruralsecondaryschoolsLoanforgivenessforteachersworkinginruralschools(loanforgivenessfromStateStudent

Fundif2yearsinsoumand5yearsinaimagschool--2003;lasttwoyearsofuniversity--�001).Morethan�00teachershavemadeagreementsofarwithaimagsandsoums.

Studentsareselectedingrade8insoumswithteachershortagesandofferedteachercoursesandgivenboardingschoolspotsinaimagcentertostudyingroups.449teachersareinthisprogramin13aimags(�00�).

Bonus salary incentives for teachers going to work in certain fields in certain aimags(300,000T);increasingtraininginalternatesubjects.

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Bayan-OlgiiandHovdbothhaveverylowteachershortagenumbers(14and6respectively)sohavenotactivelyutilizedthesebenefits.

�00�ActionPlanonPreschoolNospecialpreschoolsubsidies,butproposingincreasedalternateformsofpreschoolincluding

gerandmobilekindergartensandprivatepreschools.CharityKindergartensestablishedlocallyIn summer 2003, 14, 261 children of herder families benefited from mobile preschool

programs.

�003PolicychangeremovingregistrationfeeforUlaanbaatarin-migrantsThefeesassociatedwithregisteringasofficialresidentsofUlaanbaatar,asaprocessrequiredto access basic social services, was prohibitively expensive for most migrant families andconstitutedamajorbarrierinenrollingchildreninschool.

�005ChildMoneyProgramFollowingJune2004elections,thisflagshipsocialassistanceprogramwasinstitutedthrough

theMinistryofSocialWelfareandLaborforpoorfamilies,whoreceive3,000Tpermonthperchildcontingentonschoolenrollment.

In2005,560,000childrenfrom127,000poorfamiliesreceivedthisbenefit.

�004-�005KazaktextbooktranslationTheministryhasincludedthetranslationandprintingofschooltextbooksintheKazaklanguageinitsrecentplanning.Translationschedulebeganin�004.

�005-�006NewEducationStandardsThe curriculum previously implemented in 1997-98 introduced the idea of local flexibilitybutwasstillacontentbasedsyllabus,with70-75%ofclassroomhoursstructured. Theneweducationstandardsimplementedin2005-2006defineacompetencyframeworksoschoolscanmodifyanddeveloplocalcontent.Afterthisyear’stransitiontoan11-yearschoolsystem,whichishighlystructured,eachschool,underthenewstandardscanintheorycontextualizecontentlocallywithECDsupport.Thenewstandardsalsoemphasizenewinstructionalmethodologiesthatemphasizechild-centered,activitybasedlearning.

�005TextbookvouchersFollowing implementation of cost sharing for new textbooks, vulnerable groups will be

eligiblefortextbookvouchers.According to MECS, of 557,700 children, an estimated �8% will be eligible for

exemptions.

QuotasystemforcollegeadmissionsMECSisconsideringchangingitsquotasystemforcollegeadmissions.Currentlystudentsareadmittedbasedongeographicdistribution,but in thefuture,candidateswillhavetocompetenationallyforspaceshighereducation.

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V. GENERAL CONDITION OF KAZAKS IN MONGOLIA

ThefocusofthisreportisoneducationopportunitiesandconditionsforKazak’sasthelargestminoritygroupandonewiththegreatestculturalandlinguisticdistinctionfromtheMongolianmajority. Bayan-Olgii,wheremostKazaks inMongolia live andwhich isnearly allKazak,performspoorlyonbasicindicatorsofeducationaccessandefficiency.ThesewarrantedacloserexaminationtoseeiftherewerebarriersinthecurrenteducationdeliverysystemthatuniquelydisadvantageKazaksorotherethnicminorities.BecauseofthelackofavailabledemographicandeducationaldatadisaggregatedbyethnicgroupinMongolia,thisislargelyaqualitativestudyfocusingonfieldsiteswheretheKazaksarethemajorityorarepartofamixedcommunity.

A. Apictureofthepopulation

PopulationOutsideof themajorityKhalkh,Kazak’s are the largest ethnicgroup inMongolia andmakeup4.4%of thepopulationasawholeandaccountfor around5%ofallchildrenaged0-14.Accordingtothe�000PopulationandHousingCensus,therewere10�,983Kazak’slivinginMongoliaatthetimeoutofatotalpopulationof�,365,�69.KazaksmainlyliveinthefarWest,withBayan-Olgiiaimag,atapopulationof99,11�people,almostentirelyKazak.Kazaksalsocompriseover10%ofthepopulationinneighboringHovdaimag,livingprimarilyintheaimagcenter,inHovdsoumwheretheyareadominantmajority,inBuyantsoumwheretheycompriseaboutone-thirdofthepopulation,andasasmallerminorityinacoupleothersoums.(seeBox1forprofileoffieldsites)ThefieldresearchalsoincludedNalaihdistrictoutsideofUlaanbaatar,aminingcommunityfromthe1930sand40swhichoriginallyattractedmigrantsfromBayan-Olgiitoworkthemines.ContrarytothehypothesisraisedintheTermsofReference,theKazakcommunityinNalaihisnotaneworgrowingmigrantcommunitybuthasbeenquitestableovergenerationsandaccountsforabout30%ofthedistrictpopulation.

Profile of field sites

Hovdaimag:Population91,770(10%Kazak)Buyantsoum:Population3,200(30%Kazak;10%TuvaandUzbek;school-55%Kazak)Hovdsoum:Population4,917(95%Kazak)Jargalantsoum/AimagCenter:Population32,332(18%Kazak;School#2-55%Kazak)Munkhkhairkhansoum:Population�,5�9(98%Orianghai)Urdenebuurensoum:Population3,363(96%Uuld;4%Kazak)

Bayan-Olgiiaimag:Population99,11�(90%Kazak)Altaisoum:Population4,010(60%Kazak;40%Orianghai)Buyantsoum:Population3,1�7(49%Kazak)OlgiiCenter:Population29,210(98%Kazak;School#5(100%Kazak)Tsengelsoum:Population8,298(80%Kazak;20%Tuva)Ulaanhussoum:Population9,075(100%Kazak)

Ulaanbaatar/Nalaihdistrict:Population�3,6�0(estimate30%Kazak)NalaihKhoroo#4:Population4,519(over90%Kazak)

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MigrationTherearenodataavailabletoindicatethedegreetowhichKazaksarerepresentedinthecurrenthighlevelofinternalrural-urbanmigrationinMongolia.BothinBayan-OlgiiandHovd,Kazaksappeartobeparticipatingtosomeextentinthemigrationintoaimagcentersandsufferingsomeoftheconsequencesdescribedinrecentstudiesofmigrantchildren.However,KazakmigrationoutofbothaimagsappearstobetoKazakstanratherthantoUlaanbaatarandhasseenarenewedupswingsince�004.Itispossiblethatthisoutmigration,withpoortrackingofstudenttransfers,hascontributedtothehigherdropoutnumbersinBayan-Olgii.

DatafromBayan-Olgiishowthatin1990,10,000familiesmovedtoKazakstan.Bayan-Olgii’saimag Governor estimates that between 1990 and 1994, nearly 70,000 people migrated toKazakstan.Whilethisstoppedinthelate1990s,86familiesmovedagainin�00�andin�004,thismigrationincreaseddramaticallyto1,�94families.WhilethecommonwisdomatthecentrallevelisthatlargenumbersofthesemigrantsreturntoMongolia,theGovernorestimatesthatnomorethan5,000oftheoriginal70,000migrantsreturned.Forexample,in�004,�8familiesreturnedfromKazakstan.

PovertyAvailabledataalso indicate that theWesternregion,whichismoreremoteandisolatedfromthecapital,andwheremostethnicminoritieslive,ismorelikelytobedisadvantagedbyothervulnerabilities.Poverty,forexample,ishighestintheWesternregionat51%comparedto36%nationally, according to �000 Census data. Comparing just the aimags we visited, in �005,Bayan-Olgii’spovertyrateis46%comparedto35%inHovdaimagand36%nationally.PovertyisalsodeeperintheKazakaimag,with53%ofpoorfamilieswhoareextremelypoor,comparedto35%ofpoorfamiliesinHovdwhoareextremelypoor.

Intheperi-urbanareaaroundUlaanbaatar,theKazakcommunityisconcentratedinNalaihDistrict,khoroo#4,whichisalsodisproportionatelydisadvantagedbypovertyandothervulnerabilities.Khoroo#4is90%Kazakandhasthegreatestrateofpoorandextremelypoorfamiliesamongthedistrict’ssixkhoroos.Overthree-quartersoffamiliesherearepoor.WhileKhoroo#4residentsmakeuponly19%ofthepopulationinNalaihDistrict,theyareoverrepresentedamongboththedistrict’spoorfamiliesandpoorchildrenundertheageoffive,at37%and30%respectively.Italsohasthegreatestrateofpoorandextremelypoorfemaleheadedhouseholdsandhouseholdswithmorethanfourchildren.Allofthesearecorrelatedwithlowereducationattainment.

B. Contextofeducationparticipationandperformance

Lower literacyAccordingtoADB,noneofMongolia’sover16clansandethnicgroupsisso“distinctfromthedominantormainstreamsocietythatitmakesthemespeciallyvulnerabletobeingdisadvantagedintheprocessofdevelopment.”YetADBalsonotesthatlowerliteracyratescanbeobservedamonggroupsthatresideinremoteareaswhereeducationalservicesarehardesttoreach.Thesegroupsareoftenethnicminorities.Forexample,whiletheKhalkhorMongolianmajorityoverage7hasanaverageilliteracyrateof4.6%,forKazaksitis50percenthigherat6.8%.TwootherethnicgroupstheDarkhadandKhotonhaveevenhigherilliteracyratesof8.4and9.8%,respectively.AnotherfeatureofnoteisthatwhileenrollmentandliteracyratesinMongoliatendtofavorfemales,Kazakfemalesarelessliteratethantheirmalecounterparts.(�000Census)

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Higher dropoutsInadditiontolowerliteracyrates,Bayan-Olgii,theonlyaimagthatispredominantlyKazak,isalsoreportedtohavethehighestdropoutratesinthecountry,raisingparticularconcernaboutwhetherKazakchildrenarebeingprovidedwithequaleducationalqualityandequalopportunitytolearn. ChildreninBayan-OlgiiarethreetimesmorelikelytodropoutofschoolcomparedtotheirclassmatesacrossMongolia. TheoverallschooldropoutrateinBayan-Olgii is6.�%comparedto1.9%nationally,andwhileKazaksaccountforabout5%ofthechildandadolescentpopulationinMongoliaand4%ofthetotalstudentpopulationatthebeginningof�003-�004schoolyear,Bayan-Olgii’sshareofdropoutsreportedforthesameyearis13-16%accordingtodifferentsources.

Who are dropouts? How bad is the problem?Accordingtosomeestimates,some�00,000childrenhavedroppedoutofschoolsince1990,whenMongoliabeganitstransitiontowardamarketeconomy.(MEA)However,dataondropoutsareinconsistentfromsourcetosourceandtendtofluctuatewidelyfromyeartoyearaswell.Inthecaseofthisstudy,dropoutdataforHovdaimagvariesfrom�19reportedbyMECSandinsomeaimagstatistics,to691inotherECDreporting.Thisisduetothelackofaconsistentdefinitionofdropoutsandtheinclusionorexclusionofcertaincategoriesofchildrensuchasthosewithdisabilitiesorthosethatareunregistered.Insomecases,studentswhoparticipate ina two-weeknon-formal learningactivityareexcluded. Inothercases,schoolofficialsdefinedropoutsasthosechildrenoutofschool.

Ingeneral,dropoutsarecalculatedbythesimplecomputationofsubtractingthenumberen-rolledat theendof theschoolyearfromthatenrolledat thebeginningof theschoolyear.However,thismethoddoesnottrackindividualstudents,sothatfivestudentstransferringintoaschoolinthemiddleoftheyearwillcanceloutfivestudentsthathavedroppedout.Thismethodalsomissesthosestudentswhomayfinishoneschoolyearbutnotreturntoenrollthefollowingfall.Inaddition,becauseschoolsarecurrentlyfundedonaperpupilformulabasedonenrollments,thereisdangerofaperverseincentivetohidedropoutsandkeepenrollmentnumbersandfundinghigh.Thisisespeciallytrueinruralareasorareasofhighoutmigra-tion.

Greater delayed entryDelayedentrytoschool,afactorinhigherdropoutsandlowerachievement,isalsohighestintheWesternandHangayregions,withover16%ofnewintakesage9oroverin�000.Inonestudy,90%ofschooldropoutsenteredschoolwhentheywereage9or10,andmostofthedropoutswhoparticipatedinthestudydidnothavepreschooleducation.(Peri-Urban)Previoustothisyear,childrenofficiallybegancompulsoryeducationingradeoneattheageof8.Thetransitiontoan11-yearsystemin2005-2006includedthechangetoagesevenastheofficialagetostartschool.However,since1999,theEducationLawpermittedchildrenage6-7toentergradeonebasedonlocaldiscretionandcapacityandschoolssawanincreasingproportionofage7andunderintakes.Butwhilestartingprimaryeducationatayoungeragehasbeendemonstratedtohavepositiveeffectsonstudentlearningachievement,theWesternregionalsoperformspoorlyintheproportionofpupilswhostartschoolbyage7.In�000,with15%ofchildren7oryoungeramongnewintakesintheWesternregion,thiswasonlyabouthalfofthenationalaverageandthelowestincountrycomparedto16%to�7%inotherregionsand4�%inUlaanbaatar.

In�004-�005inHovdaimag,45%ofchildrenstartinggradeonewereage7andunder.Yetin

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Bayan-Olgiithisyear,afterenactmentofthepolicytostartcompulsoryeducationatage7,onlyaboutone-quarterofchildrenstartinggradeonethisyearmetthatstandard.Altaisoumreportedthatoutofthreegradeoneclassesthisyear,twoweresevenyear-oldsandonewasforeightyear-oldsandolder.InamoreruralbaghschoolinAltaisoum,only10of�7childrencompletinggrade 5 in the bagh school continued in soum center school. The school director explainedthat thiswasbecausemostchildren in thisbaghenter schoolmuch later,withmost studentscompletinggrade5betweentheagesof14and18.

Lower preschool participationWhilethereisnogovernmentpreschoolpolicyorprogramthattargetsKazakchildren,Bayan-OlgiiisafocusaimagfortrainingsbythePreschoolEducationCenter.Itwasidentifiedbecauseoftheaimag’sparticularlylowpreschoolenrollmentratesandbecauseofitsdistanceandisolationfromUlaanbaatar.

The importance of preschool

RecentMECSstudiesonpreschooleducationandonMonitoringLearningAchievementingrades4and8foundthatpupilswhospentmoreyearsinthekindergartenshowbetterresultsingrade4comparedwiththepupilswhospentfeweryearsinkindergarten.Thesebenefitstolearningwerefoundtolastthroughoutachild’sschooling,withgrade8graduateswhoattendedpreschoolalsoscoringhigheronexamsthan theirclassmateswithoutpreschool.(MECS,PreschoolReport)AdditionalMECSfindingsincludehigherdropoutrateslinkedtonon-participationinpreschool.(ADB�00�)

Participation:..Bayan-Olgiihasoneofthelowestkindergartenenrollmentratesinthecountry,atlessthan�0%comparedto33%nationally.AttentionthroughtheNationalPreschoolProgram�hashelped increasepreschoolparticipationdramatically. In�001, theaimaghadonly7%kindergartenenrollmentand5%enrolledinalternateservices.By�004,kindergartenenrollmenthadmorethandoubledto17.5%andparticipationinotherpreschoolserviceshadincreasedmorethanthree-foldto17.5%foratotalpreschoolrateof35%.Inthelastyear,formalkindergartenenrollmentinBayan-Olgiihasincreasedanother�.4%to19.9%,althoughlimitedfundinghascausedalternateservicestofallto15.4%,sototalparticipationhasremainedatthesamelevel.

Hovdaimagreportedthatitdoesnotcollectpreschoolparticipationdatabyethnicity.However,afewfindingsareofnote.Hovdsoum,theKazaksoum,wasreportedastheonlysoumcenterwithoutakindergarten(itcloseddownduringthetransitionin1993)untilitreopenedin1996.Whileformalkindergartenenrollmentfortheaimagasawholeis�5%,inHovdsoumithoversbetween 9-13% depending on seasonal fluctuation due to the farming cycle. And althoughtheaimagreportsthatmostofitskindergartenscannotmeetthedemandforpreschool,Hovdsoum’s Kazak kindergarten and the kindergarten serving the Kazak micro-district in Hovdcenter/Jargalantsoum,arebothunderenrolled.BuyantsouminHovdlikewisedoesnotreporteducationdatabyethnicity.However,theyreportedanecdotallythatwhilethesoumwasmeetingsuccessinitsfocustoboostpreschoolenrollmenttoincreaseschoolreadiness—nearly40%ofchildrennowattendsomepreschool—Kazaksareunderrepresented,particularlythosecomingfromHovdsoum.

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Preschool participation across field sites

Hovdaimag 45%totalpreschool �5%kindergarten over�0%alternateBuyantsoum 40%totalpreschoolHovdsoum 30%totalpreschool 9-13%kindergarten17%alternateAimagcenter 45%totalpreschool �4%kindergarten �1%alternateSchool#� �0%totalpreschoolMunkhairkhansoum4�%totalpreschoolUrdenebuurensoum30%totalpreschool

Bayan-Olgiiaimag 35%totalpreschool �0%kindergarten 15%alternateAltaisoum 30%totalpreschool 11%kindergarten 19%alternateBuyantsoum 19%totalpreschool 14%kindergarten 5%alternateOlgiicenter 44%totalpreschool 33%kindergarten 11%alternateSchool#5 10-�0%preschoolTsengelsoum 15%totalpreschool11%kindergarten 4%alternateUlaanhussoum: �5%totalpreschool 7%kindergarten 18%alternateUlaanbaatar 34%totalpreschool 34%kindergarten <1%alternateNalaihDistrict �9%totalpreschool �5%kindergarten 4%alternateNalaihKhoroo#4 ---

GoM.strategies.for.increasing.participation:..Implementedin�00�,theNationalProgramonPreschool�setapreschoolparticipationgoalof6�%by�007,witha41%enrollmenttargetinformalkindergartenanda�1%enrollmenttargetininformalpreschoolservices.Anothergoalfor expandingpreschool activitywas thatof training35%of rural childrenathome throughdistancelearningandparentalguidebooksforpreschoolservices.

Inadditiontoexpandingkindergartenfacilitiesandphysicalcapacity,theprogramgoalsincludethedevelopmentandpromotionofalternateandprivatekindergartenservices.OfMongolia’s687kindergartens in�004-�005,�5,or3.6%areprivate institutions. Theprimarymodelofalternatepreschoolusesgerormobilekindergartens.Thesegerkindergartensfollowherderstoreachmorechildren,generallytravelingtodifferentbaghsthroughoutthesummerconducting�-3weeksessions.NearlyhalfofpreschoolparticipantsinBayan-Olgiireceiveservicesthroughthisshortenedmodelandinsomesoumsalternatepreschoolaccountsforthevastmajorityofpreschoolservices.

Afurtherbenefitofthegerkindergartenmodelisthatduringtheschoolyear,thegerremainsonthekindergartengroundsandcanofferhalf-daysessionswhereparentsdonotpayforameal,asa formofCharitykindergarten. Someaimagorsoumgovernmentsalsosupport“CharityClasses”.InBayan-Olgii,thistypeofprogrampreviouslysupportedasmanyas�50children’sfoodcosts,butwewereinformedthatthecurrentaimaggovernmenthasdiscontinuedthissocialwelfarefunding.

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VI. POLICY FORMULATION FAILS TO TARGET KAZAK CHILDREN

ThereisanotableabsenceofeducationpoliciestargetedtowardKazakchildren,especiallyaclearpolicyonmothertongueorbilinguallanguageapproach.Thisisprimarilybecauseofapronouncedlackofconsciousnessatthecentrallevelaboutissuesofethnicity.MostinformantsinMECSandrelatededucationagencieshadnotgiventheconditionorneedsofethnicminoritiesingeneralorKazaksinparticularmuchthought. ThetranslationoftextbooksundertheneweducationstandardsintoKazak,whichbeganlastyear,istheonlyactiondirectlyrecognizingaspeciallearningneed.

A. LackofcentrallevelagreementontheproblemThe lackof political tensionor conflict amongdifferent ethnicitieshas caused a complacentattitude by the majority toward their rights. Key education and social sector reports alsoreinforce this outlook. ADB’s education sector review asserts “the equality of educationalparticipationandachievementamongMongolia’sover16recognizedclansandethnicgroups”,citingunequal—butnotunacceptablyunequal—literacyratesasevidence. Inaddition to thegenuinebeliefthatthereisnoproblem,acombinationofpoorunderstandingoflocalconditions,negativestereotypesofKazaksandanarrowviewofegalitarianismcontributestothereluctanceto examine the rather complexquestionofwhetherKazakchildren’s rights to educationandlearningarebeingadequatelymet.Asaresult,manymembersofMECSandothercentralleveleducationagenciesseetheattentiononethnicminoritiesasanexternal,internationallydrivenfocuswithoutlegitimategrounds.

B. PoorunderstandingoflocalsituationandneedsThereareonlyafewgroupsinMongolia,suchastheKazaksandtheTuvas,whoretainandpracticeadistinctculture,religionandlanguage,andtosomeextentliveandmarryseparatelyfromtherestofMongoliansociety.DuetoBayan-Olgii’sdistanceandisolationfromthecenter,and to the more insular nature of Kazak culture and Kazak migration to Kazakstan, there isa falseassumption thatBayan-Olgiidoesnotneedorwantattentionandassistance from thecapital.OnthelackofattentionatthecentrallevelontheKazakpopulation,officialsfromtheInstituteofEducationexplainedthiswasbecauseBayan-OlgiireceivessupportfromKazakstan,soKazaksaredoingwellanddonotneedadditionalassistance.ThesameviewwasexpressedbyMECS’ADBprojectcoordinator,whoadmittedhehadneverbeentoBayan-Olgii.

TherewasalsoconfusionoverwhenKazakschoolswerefirstestablishedintheaimag.Morethan one central level source affirmed thatMongolianwas the primary language in schoolsand society until the transition period, during which the 199� Constitution granted the rightof minorities to be educated in their native languages. Education authorities and the aimaggovernorinBayan-OlgiiexplainedthatinfactKazakschoolshavebeeninplacesincethe1940s,althoughin1978thecentralgovernmentissuedaresolutionassertingMongolianastheofficiallanguage. The199�Constitutionand1995EducationLawconsolidatedthelegalframeworkforKazakinstruction,butdidnotchangeexistingpracticeinBayan-Olgii.WhatdidchangeisthatwhatlittleassistanceBayan-OlgiireceivedfromKazakstanintheformoftextbooksupportendedasdidthelocalpresenceofcentrallevelagenciessuchastheInstituteofEducation,sotheurgencyoftheneedforeducationalsupportshasincreased.

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C. StereotypesofKazakshelprationalizetheirisolationandconditionAllethnicgroupsaregrantedfullcitizenshipunder theConstitutionandthereisnoevidenceof institutional discrimination against any ethnic groups. However, in conversations withMongoliansaboutthenatureofKazakcultureandcommunitiesorKazakparticipationintheeducationsystem,certainnegativeattitudesandstereotypessurfaced.ProminentamongtheseistheviewthatKazakisolationinBayan-OlgiiandtheirtraditionnottointermarrywithothergroupsexplainsthefaultyassumptionthatKazakshavenodesiretolearnMongolianormixwithMongolians.Infact,inmixedBayan-OlgiisoumsthathaveMongolianclasses,anincreasingnumberofKazakfamiliesplacetheirchildreninthoseMongolianclasses. InHovdsouminHovdaimag,theKazakschoolopenedaMongolianclassinresponsetoparentdemand,andover100childrenattendMongolianschoolinneighboringBuyantsoum.

Anotherassumption is thatKazaksvalueeducation less thanMongoliansorareunwilling tomaketheefforttoimprovetheirsituation. Alongthisline,aNationalAuthorityforChildren(NAC)officialremarkedthattheECDstaffinBayan-OlgiiwasallKazakandhadbeenstableforalongtime,buttheirtraditionalattitudesmeanttherehavebeenfewnewinitiativesintheaimag.Shecommentedthatinherobservationsofmixedlanguageclasses,KazakchildrenmakelittleefforttospeakMongolianwhileMongolianchildrenmaketheefforttolearnKazak.TherewaswidespreaddisdainforMongolianspokenwithaKazakaccent.InNalaih,schoolofficialscitedasanexampleofparentalnegligencetowardeducationhowbothparentsinKazakfamiliesoftenworkedlonghoursintheminessodidnotlookaftertheirchildren.

DeepertensionsbetweengroupswerefoundinNalaihdistrictwherethecitizen’sgroupinkhoroo#�,aMongoliankhoroo,chargedthatKazakshidetheirwealthandlieaboutpovertyinordertoreceivegreaterexternalassistance.Thecitizen’sgrouppointedtothenewkindergartenbuiltinkhoroo#4asanexampleofthis,withoutnotingthatkhoroo#4wasthelastofthesixkhoroostohaveakindergarten.Accordingtothisgroup,whichincludedthekhoroogovernor,KazakconditionsareinrealitybetterthanintheMongoliankhoroos.ThedatashowtheKazakkhoroo(#4)tohaveoverthreetimestheproportionofpoorfamiliesaskhoroo#�.Althoughintheorythiscouldbeasham,thedataalsoindicatethatcomparedtokhoroo#�,khoroo#4hasnearlytwicethenumberoffemaleheadedhouseholdsandoversixtimesthenumberoffamilieswithgreaterthanfourchildren.(Nalaihdistrictstatisticalagency,�004)Arecentstudyonthelivingconditionsof children inperi-urbanareas alsodescribes casesofMongolian-Kazakconflictsbetweenchildren.Inthestudy,onekhorooneighboringkhoroo#4expressedthedesireforacommunitycenterforchildren,butseparatefromKazakchildren.(Peri-Urban)

D. AdherencetonarrowpositionoflegalegalitarianismlimitsdevelopmentgoalsOfficials focused on a definition of equity as impartial treatment, or the non-discriminationagainstandnon-restrictionofparticulargroups,ratherthanasmeetingspecialneedstoensureequitableopportunitiestolearnorequitablelearningoutcomes.Therewasadistinctreluctancetoacknowledgespecialvulnerabilitiesordisadvantagesthatmightrequiretargetedassistance,perhaps arising from an apprehension that distinguishing between ethnic groups in any waymayimplyorleadtodivisiveness.EveninBuyantsouminHovdaimag,wherealocalHuralrepresentativehadjustclearlydescribedthespecialdifficultiesKazakstudentsfacedbecauseoflanguagebarriers,theresponsetothequestionofwhethertherewerespecialstrategiesusedtoassiststrugglingsecondlanguagelearners,suchasextratimeafterclass,wasadefensive:“No,wetreatallequallyanddonotdistinguishbyethnicity”.

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The Ulaanbaatar City Education and Science Department director espoused similar views,declaring: “I can’t tell you about special needs [Kazaks] might have, but I can tell you thatourpoliciesareappliedtoallthesameanddonotrestrictanygroup.”ThisSovietstylelegalegalitarianismemphasizingequaldeliveryandpoliciestreatingallpeopleandgroupsofchildrenexactlythesameisnotinlinewiththerhetoricandparadigmoftheneweducationstandardswhichfocusonachild-centeredapproach,addressingindividuallearningneeds,andusinganopencurriculumtoflexiblydevelopinstructionalprogramappropriatetolocalconditions.GivingallchildrenthesamethingistheverysystemofeducationthatMongoliaisintheorytryingtomoveawayfrom,asitdoesnotensurethatchildrenareprovidedwithinstructionalresourcesresponsivetotheirneeds.

E. Lack of measurement and data to monitor performance andprogressKazaksarealreadydisadvantagedintheireducationopportunitiesandlearningbecauseofthelack of attention to their specific language learning and communication needs. Kazaks alsofacemanychallengesandconstraintsinaccessingqualityeducationthatarecommonacrosstheeducationsystem,especiallyinpoor,ruralandremoteareas.WhatisnotclearbutdemandsbetterdisaggregateddataandfurtherstudyiswhetherKazaksaredisproportionatelyrepresentedamongthepoor,herders,migrantsorotherdisadvantagedgroupswhichmightcallformorefocusedtargetingofsocioeconomicdevelopmentpoliciesandsupportsbyethnicity. TheConcludingObservationsoftheCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild’smakessimilarobservationsontheinadequacyofdatadisaggregation,stronglynotingthefactthatthisprecludedtheCommitteefromassessingMongolia’scompliancetotheConvention.

WhatisthehealthstatusofKazaks?AnothersetofvulnerabilitiesforwhichtherearelimiteddataonKazaksisrelatedtohealthstatus.Theinterconnectedstatusofhealthandeducationmeansthatlimitededucationcon-tributes to poor health and hygiene practices as much as poor health contributes to poorschoolattendanceandability to learn. Malnutrition isagrowingconcernwith importantconsequencesonchildren’sphysicalandeducationaldevelopment.Inparticular,iodinede-ficiencyisamaincauseoflearningdifficulties,developmentaldelayorprematureendingofgrowthprocess,influencingbrainstructureandmentaldevelopment.(UNICEF2000)TheNationalProgramofActionfortheDevelopmentandProtectionofChildren,introducedin�00�,reportsthatMongolianchildrensufferfrommanyindicationsofmalnutrition.Ofchildrenundertheageoffive,13%areunderweight,nearlyaquarterarestuntedingrowth,andover40%haveanemia. For thosechildrenover5, includingadolescents,16%havestuntedgrowthandmore thanone infivesuffer fromiodinedeficiency. Poorsourcesofdrinkingwater and lackofproper sanitationalso lead togreater casesof illness that canleadtomalnutrition.Byarecentreport,40%ofthepopulationdoesnothaveaccesstosafedrinkingwater.(OntheMove)Reportsofsanitationproblemsanddormitoryfoodlackingincaloriesandnutritionalsoraisesignificantconcern.Whileweknowtheconsumptionofiodizedsaltisthreetimeslowerinthewesternregionsthaninthecentralregions,(UNICEF�000)thesedataarenotreadilyavailablebyaimag,soumorethnicgrouptoallowabetterunderstandingofKazakconditionsandneeds.

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Anecdotal evidence alsopoints to larger family size amongKazakswhich contributes togreaterpovertyandinabilitytomeetthecostsofeducation.Largefamilysizeanddependentratioalsomeansgreaterfoodscarcityandburdenforhealthcareandotherexpenses.ThefertilityrateandnumberofhouseholdswithfourormorechildrenisfallingforMongoliaoverall.Butwhileweknowthatfertilityishigherforruralwomenthanforurbanwoman,wedonotknowthestatusforKazakwomenandfamilies.

Greatercollectionandreportingofdatabyethnicgroupwouldallowformoreaccurateanalysisandidentificationofeducationconditionsandneedsforparticulargroups.Thisisimportantnotonlyintheeducationsectorbutforrelatedsectorslikehealth,povertyandemployment,amongothers,whicharerelatedfactorsininfluencingeducationaccessandlearning.

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VII. COMMON CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS TO ACCESS, QUALITY, RELEVANCE AND EQUITY

InspiteoftheabsenceofdirectpoliciesthataddressKazakneeds,therearestillsomegeneraleducation programs that reach Kazak children, as many of the barriers to schooling andweaknessesoftheeducationsystemthatKazakchildrenfacearecommonacrossMongolia.Theflexibilitytoadaptcurriculumlocally,educationsubsidiestovulnerablechildren,tuitionwaiversand other incentives for teachers, are programs that are meant to address education quality,accessandrelevanceforallchildren.Yet,gapsputtingpolicyintopracticeresultininsufficientandineffectiveinitiativesandcontinuedchallengesineducationaccess,quality,relevanceandequity.A fair learning environment is one that provides equitable and sufficient conditions withinthe school and classroom to promote learning for all students to their fullest potential. ThedisadvantagesoflanguagediscussedinalatersectionrevealhowKazakstudentshavedifferentimmediateandongoinginstructionalneedswhicharenotbeingmet,andwhichaffecttheirabilitytoabsorbandassimilatenewknowledge.Thissectionaddressesseveralotherchallengesandconstraintstoquality,relevanceandequityintheeducationsystem.Whiletheseproblemsarecommontoschoolsinpoororruralcommunities,theseareimportantfactorsaffectingchildren’srightandopportunitytolearnandoftenhavegreateradverseeffectsforKazakfamilies.Andas even an effective mother tongue or bilingual instruction model cannot compensate for afundamentallydysfunctionaleducationsystem,theseareissuesthatmustbeaddressedtoensuretherightsofKazakchildrentoqualityeducationanddevelopment.

A. ChallengeofmeetingthecostsandopportunitycostsofeducationAccordingtotheMongoliaEducationSectorReviewin�005,“povertyisthesinglemostimportantfactorindeterminingwhetherachildisenrolledinschoolornot.”Childrenneedingtoworkorneededtohelpwithherdingorinthehomearealsoamongthetopreasonscitedfordropouts.Householdexpendituresoneducationhaveincreasednearly5timesbetween1995and1998,witheducation’sshareofnon-foodexpenditures increasing9.3percentagepoints. (EGSPRS)Despite free tuition, a policy providing textbook vouchers for the poor, and other educationsubsidiesandcashtransferstopoorfamilies,manyotherformalandinformalcostsconspiretomakeeducationunaffordabletopoorfamilies.Currentlytherearenospecialsubsidiestohelpfamiliesmeettheirshareofpreschoolmealcosts.

Ultimately,thecostofeducationmaysimplyoutweighthebenefits,especiallyifthequalityofteachingandfacilitiesislowandtextbooksandotherlearningmaterialsareinshortsupply.InthecaseofKazaks,wherestudentseitherdonotspeakthelanguageusedintheschoolsystemor where students receive instruction in a language that is different than the curriculum andtextbooks,thebarrierstolearningfurtherdiminishthevalueandrelevanceofattendingschool.

B. InsufficientandpoortargetingofresourcesSchoolauthoritiesandparentspointedtocashtransferssuchastheChildMoneyProgramasanimportantsourceofadditionalincomeandanincentivetokeepchildreninschool.Directeducation subsidies in the form of textbook vouchers and school supplies were also seen asimportant supports, especially in families with several children simultaneously enrolled in

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school.However,therewaswidespreadagreementthatgovernmentfundingisnotenoughtocoverallfamilieswhoqualifysobenefitsmustbeprioritizedorrotatedthroughfamilies,oftenbythebaghorsoumgovernorswiththeassistanceoftheschooldirector.Somecommunitiesreportedthatlessthanhalfofthosewhoareeligiblereceiveassistance,andassistancedoesnotalwaysreachthetargetgroup. AWorldBankstudyoftheleakageintheChildMoneyFundestimatesthat49%ofrecipientsoftheCMFarenon-poorfamilies.(ADB�005)Familiesalsopointedtocorruptiononthepartofsoumorbaghofficialsinchargeofidentifyingbeneficiaries,describinga“backdoor”systemwherethosewithrelationshipsorotherconnectionsreceivedbenefitsfirst.

Schoolfundingwasroundlycriticizedforbeinggenerallyinsufficienttomeeteithercapitalorinstructionalneedandforitssimplisticperpupilexpenditurefundingformula.Thecurrentperpupilfundingsystemalsodoesnotappeartobeappropriateforsuchadispersedpopulationthatreliesonruraleducationtoreachalargeproportionofchildren.ASorosFoundationstudyonschoolfinancing found the current funding formuladisadvantages small rural schools and isinsteadidealforaminimumschoolsizeof�,000.Thus,thecurrentfundingformulanotonlydisadvantagesruralandremoteareas,suchastheWesternregionwherethemajorityofKazakslive,butalsodoesnottakeintoconsiderationanyspecialneedsorcostsassociatedwithlocation,poverty,childrenwithdisabilitiesorinthecaseofethnicminorities,languagelearningneeds.

C. PoorteachertrainingandinstructionalqualityKazak children also experience other fundamental weaknesses in teacher and instructionalqualitythatplaguethegeneraleducationsystemasaresultofinadequateandineffectiveteachertraining.Forexample,therearenocommonstandardsforteacherknowledgeandcompetencies,including Mongolian language ability, and no common exit exam for teacher preparationprograms,resultinginwidelyvariableexpectationsandvariablequalityofgraduates.Althoughtherehavebeennostudiesconductedtosupporttheseclaims,schoolauthoritiesinBayan-OlgiicommonlystatedthatBayan-OlgiiandKazakstangraduateswereoflowerquality.

Under the new education standards implemented this year, teachers are not only required toupdatetheirskillsandknowledgebuttototallytransformtheirroleasateacher.Althoughcentralleveltrainingsonthenewstandardsandmethodologieshavebeendeliveredsince�00�,teachershavenotbeenadequatelypreparedfortheparadigmshiftintermsofadoptinganentirelynewinstructionalapproach.Boththeirphilosophicalunderstandingofthenewstandardsandtheirtechnicalknowledgeofhowtoimplementthemfallshort.Ministrysourcesdisagreeonwhetherin-servicetrainingisadequatelyfunded.However,Bayan-OlgiiECDsharedthatfundingwassoshortthatteacherscouldonlyattendanessentialworkshopforprimaryschoolteacherslastyearontheneweducationstandardsiftheypaidoutofpockettoattend.Inaddition,thedirectorofHovdUniversity’steachertrainingprogramaddedthatteachertraininginstitutionshavenotbeenincludedincentralleveltrainingsontheneweducationstandards,makingthemill-preparedtoconveynecessaryinformationandskillstothenextgenerationofteachers.

Moreover, there is currently no monitoring system on teacher quality or follow up trainingto provide support and feedback. Pedagogical supervision at the schools is primarily theresponsibilityoftheECD,butmostsoumschoolreportedthatECDmethodologistsconductedonlyoneortwovisits—andnotnecessarilytrainings—eachyear.Attheschoolandclassroomlevel,teachersreceivelittleguidanceonimprovingorchangingtheirmethodologyandpractice.Teachershavefewopportunitiestoworktogetheroncommoninstructionalproblemsorbenefitfromtheexpertiseofmoreexperiencedcolleagues.

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D. Mismatchofcalendar,curriculumandlearningmaterialsIntheMongoliancountryside,theschoolscheduleispoorlymatchedtothelocalagriculturalcalendarandthelaborneedsofhouseholds.Nationally,theschoolcalendarrunsfromSeptembertoJune,overlappingwithkeyagriculturalperiodsinthespringandautumn.Childrenofherderandfarmingfamiliesplayanimportantroleintheirfamily’slivelihoodsandoftenleaveschoolorstartasmuchasamonthor twolate into thefall. Teachersandschoolofficials inmixedsoumsofHovdaimagnotedthatKazakchildrentendtobemoreabsentfromschoolduringkeyagricultural periods. Buyant soum’s school observed that while both Kazak and Mongolianchildrenmissschoolduringharvesttime,Kazakchildrenhavegreaterdifficultiescatchingupinclassbecauseoftheiradditionallanguagebarrierstolearning.Inaddition to theschoolcalendarbeingpoorlysuited to ruralneeds, thecentrallydevelopedcurriculum and accompanying learning materials also lack relevance to the local context,especially so forKazak children. Starting in�004-�005,MECS took an important step andbegantranslationofnewtextbooksintoKazak.However,adirecttranslationwillnotcontainexamples,illustrationsandvocabularythatreferenceKazakcultureanddailylivesorbuildonthepriorknowledgeofKazakchildren.Inaddition,onlytextbooksareslatedfortranslationandnotsupplementaryteachingorlearningmaterials.Preschoolandnon-formaleducationmaterialsandmediaprogramsarealsoonlydevelopedanddisseminatedintheMongolianlanguage.Thismismatchsurpassesmerelypoorrelevanceandisaserioushandicaptoeducationqualityandstudentlearning.

OneotherareawhichisratherpoorlymatchedtosupportlearningistheteachingstaffatmixedethnicityMongolianschools.TheseinvariablyhaveveryfewKazakstaffeithertolendlinguisticorsocialsupporttoKazakstudentsortoprovidesuccessfulrolemodelsforthem.InSchool#�inHovdcenter,whichhas55%Kazakenrollment,onlytwoof76teachersareKazak.Similarly,inHovdUniversityTeacherTrainingCollege,wherenearlyathirdofnewintakesareKazak,onlythreeof109instructorsareKazak.

E. InsufficientandpoorconditionofschoolanddormitoryfacilitiesSince the transition period, insufficient budgeting for preventativemaintenance has resultedindeterioratingqualityandconditionsthathavedecreasedincentivesforschoolparticipation.Mongoliaislargelydependentondonorsupportinrehabilitatingschoolinfrastructure.Thestate’sshareinfacilitiesdevelopmentbetween�000and�003wasUSD14.8millioncomparedtoUSD�9millionbydonoragencies.(ADB,TEDP)Manybuildingshavebeendeclareduninhabitableandevensomethatarestillinuseinthefieldsitesforthisresearchseemedlikeunhealthyandunsafeenvironments forchildren. Withschoolenrollment in�004-�005at5�5,507,or6�%abovethebuildingcapacityof3�5,�79students,thesituationisquiteurgent.Overcrowdingisnotonlyoccurringinurbanareasandaimagcenters,asimpliedbyrecentstudiesonrural-urbanmigration. Evenquite remote soumschools are experiencingovercrowdingandare runningdoubleshiftsbecauseoffamiliesmovinginfromthebaghs.

Thelackofdormitoryspaceorhousingavailability,orpoordormitoryconditionswasfrequentlycitedasoneofthetopthreereasonsforchildrennotbeinginschool.Intheirrecentstudyofbestpracticesolutionstoeducatingnomadicpopulations,Steiner-KhamsiandStolpemakethecasethattheSocialisteraboardingschoolsysteminMongoliawasaneffectivesystemthatreachedchildrenofvaryingincomelevelsandhelpedMongoliaachieveuniversalbasiceducationinthe1960s.InthedecadefollowingthewithdrawalofSovietandCOMECONaidboardingschoolfacilitiesdeterioratedfromlackoffundingandthosebuildingsthatwerenotcloseddownremain

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poorlyheated,withpoorhygienicandsafetyconditionsandservinginadequatemeals.In1990,14.5%ofstudentsstayedindormitoriescomparedtoonly4.1%by1996(EFA�000). Since�000,moreattentionhasbeenplaceonrenovatingdormitoryfacilities.In�004-�005,7%ofallstudentswerelivinginthedormitories,buttheyhavebecomesociallystratifiedinstitutionsthatpredominantlyservethepoorestchildren.Studiesonlearningachievementhaveshownthatchildrenlivingindormitoriesperformatlowerlevelsthanchildrenlivingathomewhileotherstudiesondropoutshavealsopointedtoreasonssuchasexcessivecoldandhungerfordrivingchildrenoutofschool.

Overcrowdingremainsaseriousprobleminmostofthesoumsvisitedinthisstudyasdothelivingconditionsfordormstudents.Duetolackofheatingorbuildingdeteriorationinsomesectionsorfloors,manystudentsmustsharebedsintheremainingareas.InBayan-Olgii,Altaisoumcenter,nearlyone-thirdof1,000familiesareherders.90herderchildrenwereturnedawayfromthedormitorythisfallbecauseoflackofspace.Schoolofficialswerenotyetsurehowmanyfoundhousingwithrelativesandcontinuetoattendschool.

F. InsufficientkindergartensAtleastinBayan-Olgiiaimagcenter,demandforkindergartenspacesfarexceedssupply.Onekindergartendirectorreportedthatof385preschoolagechildreninitssub-district,�10childrencametoregisterforkindergartenandonly108wereaccepted.Atsomeotherkindergartens,only100of500childrenwereaccepted.TheaimagECDreportedthatithasrequestedMECSsupportfor more buildings or classroom extensions, but that so far, no new kindergartens are beingplannedorbuilt.Whilenationaldatashowthatbetween�00�and�003therewasanincreasefrom655to687kindergartens(therewere653kindergartensin�000),furtherinspectionrevealsthatthisexpansionfavoredUlaanbaatar,whichsawanincreasefrom151to181kindergartenfacilities.InBayan-Olgii,therewere�4kindergartensin�00�andthenumberhasremainedthesamethrough�005,althoughthenumberofchildrenenrolledhasincreasedfrom�,�69to�,586.(StatisticalHandbook,�004)

Massive preschool closures across Mongolia during the transition period contributed to thediminishedcapacityofkindergartenfacilitiestoday.InKazakareas,thelargescalemigrationtoKazakstanduringtheearlytransitionperiodmeantanevengreaterdropinenrollmentsandlossofhumanandfinancialcapital.InBayan-Olgiicenteralone,thenumberofkindergartensdroppedfrom1�to7duringtheearly1990s.InHovdsoumofHovdaimag,theonlyKazakkindergartenintheaimagclosedin1993anddidnotreopenuntil1996.

The director of theWorldVision branch office in Nalaih explained that one of the reasonspreschool rates were low in the district was because khoroo #4, where most Kazak’s of thedistrictresideandwhichis90%Kazak,didnothaveakindergartenbetween199�,whenthekindergartenclosedduetoprivatizationofthebuilding,and�004,whenakindergartenopenedthroughWorldVision’ssupport.Evenafterthiskindergartenopening,NalaihstillhasthelowestformalpreschoolenrollmentinUlaanbaatar,althoughithasclosedthegapandisnowevenwithoneotherdistrictatthebottom.

G. LackofadequateandappropriatelearningmaterialsRegardlessofthelocationandethnicmakeupofschoolsvisitedforthisresearch,therewasasevereshortageoftextbooks.Inthebestsituation,threeoffourstudentsmightshareonebook

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while insomeschools forsomesubjectssuchasuppersecondarymathematics theremaybeonlyonebookperclassroom.Mostschoolsdidnothavealibrarywherestudentscouldreadorborrowadditionalreadingmaterials.InadditiontotheissueoftextbooksintheKazaklanguagewhichwillbediscussedlater,KazakschoolofficialsandteachersinbothBayan-OlgiiaimagandHovdsoumhavealsonotedtheabsenceofsupportinglearningmaterialsandresources,suchasanadequateABCbookoraKazak-Mongolianpocketdictionary.InadditiontothesebasictoolstosupportKazaklearning,theMongolianEducationAlliance,whichworkswithBayan-Olgiionpreschoolandteachertrainingprojects,reportedanincreasingdemandfromKazakparentstohaveresourcestostartMongolianliteracytraininginthehome.

H. PoorNFEsupportsforKazakchildrenNon-formaleducation(NFE)issupposedtobetheprimarymeansforreachingchildrenwhodonotenrollinordropoutofschool,andtocombatilliteracyinyouthandadults.Re-educationalactivitiesattheprimaryeducationlevelhavethebasicstatedobjectiveofgivingNFEstudentstheskillstospeakfreelyandexpressthemselvesintheirnativelanguage.However,thetextbooks,radioandvideolessonsandtrainingdevelopedbythegovernment’sNon-FormalEducationCenter(NFEC)areproducedanddeliveredinMongolianonly.EveninallKazakareaswhereteacherscantranslatethematerial,atwoorthree-weekNFEprogramwillhavelimitedeffectivenessifthematerialsarenotinalanguagethestudentsunderstand.InMongolianmajoritycommunities,itmaybeevenharderforKazakchildrentobenefitfromtheseactivities.

GiventhatBayan-OlgiihasthehighestdropoutrateinMongolia,notproducingortranslatingrelevantmaterialsintoKazakseemsanill-adviseddecision. TheNFECnoted,however, thattheInternationalLaborOrganization(ILO)supportedthedevelopmentofseventextbooksforschool dropouts and funded the translation of three of the seven into Kazak. In addition tolackinglanguageappropriatematerials,Bayan-Olgiihasonly9Enlightenmentcentersservingits14soums(includingtheaimagcenter).Eachcentermustthereforeserveapopulationtwotothreetimeslargerthanthecentersinotheraimags,eventhoughhigherdropoutratesinBayan-Olgiiindicateagreaterneedfornon-formaleducationservices.

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VIII. LANGUAGE DIMENSIONS OF KAZAK OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN

Manydropoutstudiesreviewedinthisresearchdiscussthelackofinterestinlearning,fallingbehindorrelevanceofcurriculum,buttheydonotaskaboutlanguageandcommunicationbarriersthat might affect all of those conditions. Yet the principal concern associated with learningopportunitiesforKazakchildrenrevealedinthisresearchisthelanguageandcommunicationbarrier and the lack of appropriate learning materials and methodology for native language,bilingualorMongoliansecondlanguagelearning.Theseareinfluentialfactorsaffectingstudentperformance,engagementandinstructionalquality.Thelackofaccesstoschooling,equityofopportunitytolearn,andrelevanceandqualityofschoolingarealltiedintoissuesoflanguage,inbothKazakandMongolianschools.Notonlywillproblemsoflanguagecontributedirectlytodropoutsduetopoorqualityteachingandlearning,butdiminishedquality,interestorrelevanceasaresultoflanguagebarriersincombinationwithpovertyoralreadypoorphysicalconditionswillgreatlyloweritsperceivedvalueandbenefits.

Unlikemanyothercountrieswherenationalpolicyrequiresthenationallanguageasthelanguageofinstructionanddiscouragestheuseofethniclanguagesinschools,theMongolianConstitutionandEducationLawasserttherighttolearninnativelanguages.ThroughoutBayan-OlgiiaimagandinHovdsoum,childrenindeedattendKazakschools.Yet,whileteachinginalanguagethechildunderstandsisanimportantsteptowardsupportingcognitiveaccess,usingmothertongueinstructionaloneisnotsufficientforprovidingqualityeducation.Thecentralgovernmentandministryappear to take theposition that theyhavefulfilled theirobligationunder the lawbypermitting native language instruction. They do not extend that responsibility to conductingnationaland international research to learn thebestmethodsandapproaches formultilinguallearning andMongolian language acquisition. Norhave they fulfilled their responsibilityofprovidingadequatesupportsinteachertrainingandappropriateandalignedlearningmaterialstosupportqualityeducationinKazaklanguageschools.

Approaches to language of instruction

KazakschoolsinBayan-Olgii:MostKazakschoolsinBayan-Olgiiaimagfollowthesameapproachandstructure.ThelanguageofinstructionforallsubjectsingradeoneisKazak.Beforethetransitionto11-yearschooling,studentsbeganMongolianLanguageasasubjectingradethree.Withtheshiftto11-yearschooling,studentsnowbeginMongolianingradetwo. StudentscontinuetotakeMongolianasasubject throughgrade8,afterwhichtheytransitionintoMongolianastheprimarylanguageofinstructionforallsubjectsingrades9and10.Beforetheshiftto11-yearschooling,thistransitionhappenedingrade8.AfterthetransitionintoMongolianasthelanguageofinstruction,studentscontinuetotakeKazakasasubject.

Kazakschool inHovdSoum,HovdAimag: While therearesomeschoolsandsoums inHovdAimagwithmixedethnicpopulations,onlyonesoumhasanentirelyKazakpopula-tion.Hovdsoumisover95%KazakandhastheonlyKazakschoolintheaimag.Here,thestructureisslightlydifferentthaninBayan-OlgiiAimag,withthetransitiontoMongolianastheprimarylanguageofinstructionsetforgrade5,orattheendofprimaryschool.

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Mixed schools in Bayan-Olgii: Where communities have mixed populations of Kazaks,Mongoliansorotherethnicgroups,classesaregenerallyseparatedbyethnicity.Forexample,thegradeoneintakeinonesoumschoolmayhavethreeclasses,withtwoKazakclassesandoneMongolianclass.TheKazakclasswouldfollowthestructuredescribedaboveforKazakschoolswhiletheMongolianclasswouldlearninMongolian.TheseclassesareintheorymixedoncestudentsreachtheuppersecondarylevelwhereallinstructionisinMongolian.Intheory,KazakfamiliesandchildrencanelecttostartschoolinaMongolianclass.

MongolianschoolsandmixedschoolsinHovdaimagandNalaih:Mongolianschools,in-cludingoneschoolinBayan-Olgiicenter,conductallclassesandinstructioninMongolian.OutsideofBayan-Olgiiaimag,schoolswithmixedstudentpopulationsarealsoconsideredMongolian schools and conduct all instruction in Mongolian. In most cases, few of theteachersareKazakorcan speakKazakand thereare fewsupports inplace toacceleratelearningMongolian.Alsoofnoteisthatintheseschools,Kazaklanguageisnotofferedasasubject.

A. KazakschoollanguageissuesMismatch in language of instruction and learning materials/curriculumWhilechildrenaretechnicallygrantedtherighttolearnintheirnativelanguage,thereareseveralinterlinkedbarrierstoinstructionalqualityandlearninginKazakschools.FirstamongtheseisthelackofadequatelearningmaterialsintheKazaklanguageandthelackofalignmenttoastandardcurriculum.Textbookswerefoundtobeinshortsupplyacrossallschoolsvisited.However,inKazakschoolsthereistheadditionalproblemofthetextbooksnotmatchingthelanguageofinstructionorthecurriculumframework.Previously,KazakschoolshadreceivedtextbooksasaidfromKazakstan.Morerecently,customsproblemshavemadethecostofimportingthesebooksprohibitive.Also,thetextbooksfromKazakstanemphasizeddifferentcontentandhadamoreRussianorientation,soarenotalignedtotheMongoliancurriculumandstandards.

The New Education Standards to be implemented in �005, including preschool standards,havenotbeentranslatedintoKazak,althoughaspartoftheMECS’sintroductionoftheNewEducationStandardsandtextbooks,thereisnowaplantograduallytranslateatleastprimaryleveltextbooksintoKazak,followingthescheduledrolloutofnewtextbooks.However,duringthefieldresearchforthisstudy,fewofthesiteshadreceivedthetextbooksintroducedthisyeareveninMongolianandnonehadreceivednewlytranslatedKazaktextbooks.Inthemeantime,mostclassroomseveningradesoneandtwoarebeingtaught inKazakbutusingMongoliantextbooks,interferingwithKazakchildren’slearningofnotonlyfoundationalliteracyskillsinonelanguage,butalsoothersubjectmatter.Additionally,thereisnoplaninplacetotranslatepreschoolbooksandmaterialsintoKazak.Thisisalsotrueofhomepreschooleducationbooks,referencematerialsandhandoutsdistributedbytheNationalProgramonPreschoolforpreparingherderchildrenforschool.

TheMECSplanincludesonlytextbooks,withnofurtherplanstotranslateteachingandlearningaids, teachingguidesor importanteducational toolssuchasaneducationglossaryorKazak-Mongoliantwo-waypocketdictionary.AsidefromdirectinstructionalmaterialsthereisalsoashortageKazaklanguageorbilingualreadingmaterials.

No attention to second language acquisitionAmorefundamentalissuethatunderminesqualityinstructionandlearningforKazakchildrenisthelackofattentiongiventotheteachingorlearningofMongolianasaSecondLanguage.

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Therearenospecialtrainingcourses,materialsormethodstoprepareteachers,andnoresearchorstudiesconductedinthisareabylinguistsorliteracyspecialists.Pre-servicepreparationisthesameforMongolianLanguage teacherswhether theywill teachMongolianchildrenwhoalreadyspeakthelanguage,orKazakchildrenwhodonot.Thus,therearenotoolsorspecialmethodsbeingdevelopedandusedtohelpbuildcommunicationskillsandtobuildonnativelanguageliteracytoacceleratesecondlanguagelearning.Infact,whenKazakstudentsfirsttakeMongolianasasubject,itisforonlyonehouraweek.EspeciallyinallKazakcommunitieswherethereislittleenvironmenttouseorevenhearMongolianoutsideoftheclassroom,thisishardlyenoughpreparationforproficiencytolearninanallMongolianenvironment.

Teacher language deficiencyThereareatleasttwofundamentalwaysinwhichthislackofteachercompetencyintheMongolianlanguageimpactsstudentlearning.Firstistheabilitywithwhichteacherscaneffectivelydeliverinstruction in the Mongolian language and help foster high level communication skills andlearningamongstudents,bothofMongolianandinothersubjectareas.Secondistheabilitywithwhichteacherscaneffectivelyimprovetheirownskills,knowledgeandmethodsthroughavailabletrainingandmaterials.MostteachersinKazakschoolsareKazakswhothemselvesgraduatedfromKazakschoolsandliveincommunitieswheretheseislittleopportunitytouseMongolian.WhilemanyprimarylevelteachersaretrainedinArhanghaiorUlaanbaatarwheretheprogramisconductedinMongolian,othersare trainedinBayan-OlgiiTeacher’sCollege,whereinstructionisintheoryMongolian,butwhereinstructorscontinuetohelpaccommodatestudentswhoneedsupportinKazak.SometeachersaretrainedinKazakstanandreturntoteachinMongolia.Bytheirownaccount,tomanyofthem,Mongolianremainsasecondorevenaforeignlanguage.Thereisnocommonstandardorexitexamforteachertraininginstitutions.Eachsetsitscourseworkrequirementsforgraduation,includingforMongolianlanguage,andthequalityandstandardscanvarywidelyfrominstitutiontoinstitution.

Althoughsomeschoolofficialsarequicktoemphasizethat thelanguagebarriersisastudentissueonly,manyinformantsinthisstudyindicatedthattheteacherissueexacerbatesthestudentlearningproblem.Oneschoolmanageratamixedlanguageschoolnotedthattheinternteachersthey received fromBayan-OlgiiTeacher’sCollegestruggled topractice teach theMongolianclassesduetopoorlanguageskills.Otherteachers,schooladministratorsandNGOstaffhavenoted the need for interpreters when delivering training to Kazak teachers in Mongolian, orthe lack of effective learning of Kazak teachers attending workshops in Ulaanbaatar due tothedifficultyofbothunderstandingandexpressingthemselvesinMongolian.TheMongolianEducationAlliance teamalsonoted that in their experiencewith educators acrossMongolia,Bayan-Olgiiteachersstoodoutasusingparticularlyoldmethodsandpractices,inpartbecauseoftheirisolationbutalsobecauseoflanguagebarrierslimitingtheeffectivenessoftrainings.

Unclear bilingual strategyUnderthecurrentsystem,KazakchildrenaredisadvantagedinaMongolianlearningenvironment.InBayan-Olgii,thelatetransitionintofullMongolianinstructionandthelackofadequatelearningmaterialsinKazakintheearliergradescontributestoasituationwherestudentshavehalfafootineachlanguagebutmaynotbesufficientlyproficientineitherone.ThelackofkindergartenmaterialsinKazakfurtherundercutsthedevelopmentofstrongearlyliteracyandschoolreadinessskills.SomeschoolofficialstriedtospintheuseofMongoliantextbooksintheearlygradesasapositivething,exposingKazakchildrenearliertoMongolianlanguagelearning.Butinfact,withoutaconsistentplanforMongolianlanguageacquisitionandforshiftinginstructionfromKazaktoMongolian,theresultislikelytobemoreconfusion.Thecurrentsystemismorelikeasudden—andlate—switchbetweentwomonolingualapproaches,

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ratherthanasystematiconethatgraduallydevelopsproficiencyinasecondlanguageuntilthesecondlanguageassumestheprimaryroleorbothlanguagesdevelopequalproficiency. ThedecisiontotransitionintofullMongolianinstructionis todevelopproficiencyinthenationallanguageand tobetterpreparestudentsforgraduationexaminationsand thecollegeentranceexam.However,mostparentsandteachersencounteredinthisstudyagreethatthetransitioningrade9istoolateanddisadvantagesKazakchildreninhighereducationandinfutureeconomicopportunities.Accordingtoteachers,mostKazakchildrendonotbecomeproficientinMongolianandneedextrainstructionalsupportinKazakallthewaythroughgraduation.

Unclear decision making on language learningThere was some confusion as to who makes the decision of when to transition from nativeto Mongolian language instruction. Especially in Bayan-Olgii where these is little externalenvironmenttosupportMongolianlanguageuseandlearning,thisisacriticaldecision.Parentsandschoolofficialsexpressedacertainpowerlessness tochallengeorchange thestatusquo.ParentsandteachersinmanysoumsexpressedthebeliefthatchildrencouldbenefitfromearliertransitionintoMongolianbutfeltthatthepolicywasalreadysetbytheMinistry.Givenachoice,theystatedtheirdesiretotransitionattheendofprimaryschool.TheMEAteamreportedthatschoolsmightmovetowardtransitioninginGrade5,buttherewasnoindicationofthisattheaimag,soumorschoollevel.Bayannuursoumschooldirectorreportedtransitioningatgrade7,unliketherestoftheaimag.School#5inBayan-OlgiicentersaidthatitstartedtotransitionsomesubjectmatterclassesintoMongolianearlieringrade6tohelpeasethelanguagetransition,butthatithasreceivedcomplaintsaboutthisfromparents.Thisissueneedstobesettledbymorethanadhocdecisionsandmustconsiderbothwhatisbesteducationallyaswellasparentalandchildren’sviews.

B. MixedschoolslanguageandlearningissuesThelanguagechallengehasdifferentdimensioninschoolswithmixedethnicpopulations.InBayan-Olgii,aschoolwithbothKazakandMongolianorotherethnicgroupswillputKazakchildren in separate classes following the structure of Kazak school instruction while otherstudents learn inMongolian fromgrade one. Students there face the samedifficulties as inKazakschoolsdiscussedaboveintermsofhavinglimitedlearningmaterialsinKazak,limitedtextbooksinalanguagedifferentthanthelanguageofinstructionandthelackofsupportsforMongolianasasecondlanguageandbilinguallanguagedevelopment.

The segregation of Kazak and Mongolian children until the upper secondary level raisessomeconcerns. Dependingon themessagesandenvironmentcreatedoutside theclassroom,thisseparationmaynotcultivatethehealthiestsocialdevelopmentbetweenethnicgroups.Inaddition,thisfurtherlimitstheMongolianlanguageenvironmentavailabletoKazakstudents,allowingthemtodefaulttousingKazak.Finally,segregatingstudentsmaymakeiteasierforteachers,byintentionorinadvertently,toapplydifferentandunequallearningstandardsforthetwogroups.

Other inequities tend to arise as a result of class size. Because there are fewer Mongolianchildren,Mongolianclassesmayhaveonly10-15studentsineachclasscomparedto30or40studentsintheKazakclasses,thususingagreaterproportionofteacherresources.AnotherwayclasssizedisadvantagesKazaksiswhensmallclasssizescauseschoolauthoritiestocombineKazakandMongolianclasses.Inthesecases,MongolianisusedasthelanguageofinstructionandparentsreportthatthesuddenswitchcausesKazakstudentstofallbehindandsometimesdropout.Unfortunately,inmixedcommunitiesoutsideofBayan-Olgii,schoolofficialsreport

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thatKazaks are less likely thanothers to attendpreschool and thus arrive at schoolwithnopreparationinbasicliteracyandcommunication,andalsonoexposuretoMongolian.

C. MongolianschoollanguageissuesLack of second language learner training and supports InothergeographicareaswhereKazaksaretheminority,andeveninsomecaseswheretheyare themajority,Kazak students aremixed in regular classroomsandMongolian is theonlylanguageof instruction. Like in theKazak schools,Mongolian school teachersdonot haveanyspecialtraininginteachingMongolianasaSecondLanguageandthus,teachersandschoolofficialscomplainabouttheadditionalburdenofhavingtoteachmixedlanguageclassrooms.WhiletheydescribeKazakchildrenashardworkingandgoodwithlearning,primaryteachersalsonotethepressuretheyface,sayingthatmanyteachersdonotliketohaveKazakstudentsbecausetheyaredifficulttoteach.

Ingeneral,schoolsdonotprovidespecialclassesforacceleratingMongolianlanguageacquisitionnordotheyusemothertonguesupportstofacilitatelearning.BuyantsoumschoolinHovdaimagnotedthatitslanguageofinstructionisMongolianeventhoughoverhalfofitsstudentsareKazakandonlyKazakslivinginthesoumcenterspeakMongolianbeforeenteringschool.Whenaskedwhethertherewerespecialstrategiesforassistinginsecondlanguagelearning,schoolofficialsreplied“wetreatallstudentsequallyanddonotmakedistinctionsbyethnicity.”Thisemphasisonequaldelivery—givingeveryonethesamething—overensuringequalopportunitytolearnorequallearningoutcomeshasbeendiscussedearlier.Stickingtothisnarrowdefinitionofequity,withoutconsiderationofspeciallearningneedssuchaslanguagebarriers,willsignificantlylimitMongolia’sabilitytofulfillthespiritandstatedobjectivesofEducationforAll.

Unequal standards and expectationsOneof thegreatdangersof teachingchildrenwith special learningneeds is the tendency tolowerexpectationsorstandardsforlearning,ratherthanprovidingthenecessarysupportstohelpchildrenreachcommonstandards.TeachersandeducationofficialsinbothHovdandBayan-Olgii revealedongoing localdebatesaboutwhetherornot to set lower standards forKazakchildreninMongolianschools.Doingsowouldbeallowingtheclassicinjusticeoftakingthosewhoneedmore,andgivingthemless.

No mother tongue learningTheEducationLawstatesthatstudentshavearighttolearnintheirnativelanguage.WhilethelawmayhavealimitedinterpretationoflearningKazakasasubject,eventhisrightisnotalwaysgranted.InmanymixedpopulationMongolianschools,whetherinBayan-Olgii(whereKazaksare 70% of students), Hovd (where Kazaks are 55% and 59% of students in School #� andBuyantsoum,respectively)orNalaih(whichis30%Kazak),Kazakisnotofferedasasubject.Inthesecases,itisnotentirelyclearwhohasmadethedecisionofwhetherornottoofferanynativelanguagelearning.

In some cases, however, it did not appear that parents’ wishes were consulted or taken intoconsideration.InHovdaimagcenterinparticular,theparentsatSchool#�servingtheKazaksmicro-district, while clearly valuing Mongolian instruction for the broader opportunities itafforded,vocallyexpressedtheirdesireforKazaktobeofferedasasubjectattheschool,ifonlyforanhouraweek.TheECDdirector,however,seemedtobejustasstronglyopposedtotheidea.HerespondeddefinitivelythattheaimagwouldnotteachKazakinMongolianschools,declaringthatwhileminoritieshavetherighttousetheirownlanguages,theConstitutionsays

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thattheofficialnationallanguageisMongolian.Furthermore,eveninKazakschoolssuchasSchool#5 inBayan-Olgii, schoolofficialsmaintained that there areno specialprovisions incurriculumhoursforteachingKazaklanguageandliteraturesothosehoursmustbeborrowedfromothersubjectsonthecommoncurriculumframework.Thissuggestedlittlecentralorlocallevelpolicysupportforprovidingnativelanguageinstruction.

Poor teacher attitude and discriminationThisresearchuncoveredcasesandanecdotalevidenceofteacherdiscriminationagainstKazakchildrenwhodonotspeakMongolianwhotrytoenrollinaimagcenterschools.Inarecentdropoutstudy,asocialworkerinHovdaimagcenterreportedthatsometeachersrefusedtoacceptchildrenfromthecountryside,claimingtheydidnotmeetarbitrarycriteriaonhowtoreadandwrite.(MEA)Similardiscriminationduetopoorlanguageskillsorslowlearningwasreportedinastudyonmigrantchildrenandtheeducationalchallengestheyfaceaftermoving.Inthefieldresearchforthisstudy,KazakparentsinamixedMongolianandKazakschoolinHovdcenterrelayedstoriesofhowKazakchildrenweredeniedentrytopreschoolbecausetheydidnotspeakMongolian.WhilethekindergartendirectorservingtheKazakmicro-districtdeniedthatsuchpolicyorpracticecouldevenexist, it is likely that individual casesmayhappenand lead toKazakandotherchildrenbeingexcludedfromschool.ParentsinBuyantsouminBayan-OlgiialsoreportedfearofdiscriminationbyteacherstowardKazakchildreninMongolianclassesforslowlearningcausedbylanguagedifficulties.

D. DifficultieswithinformationandcommunicationLanguagebarriersnotonly limit student learningbutcanalsoadverselyaffectKazakaccessto information and communication. The NAC cited recent studies that show Kazak youthget information late, for example,knowledgeof reproductivehealth. Yet,most information,educationandcommunications(IEC)materialsaredevelopedanddistributedinMongolianandevenwhiletheofficialwespoketorecognizedthatKazakhlanguageIECmaterialsandtrainingsareneeded,shealsosaidthatNACdoesnotproduceanyKazakhlanguageinformationbecausethere isnobudget for localmaterialsdevelopment. Likewise,anofficial fromthePreschoolEducationCenterexplainedthatitsawarenessbuildingeffortsinBayan-Olgiiwerehamperedbylanguagebarriers,whichcauseddifficultiescommunicatingwithparents.Shefurtherexplainedthat despite these barriers, due to limited funding, the Center would be unable to produceeitherpreschoollearningmaterialsorparentalinformationoreducationmaterialsintheKazaklanguage.

EveninHovdaimag,whichis10%Kazakandhasnotonlyanall-KazaksoumwithaKazakschoolbutalsoMongolianschoolswithamajorityKazakenrollment, there is littleeffortbyaimageducationauthoritiestoproduceKazakIECmaterial.Infact,whenSCUKtriedtohaveaparentquestionnairetranslatedintoKazak,wefoundthatnoone,includingtheECDoffice,had Kazak fonts installed on their computers, indicating that no one had previously tried toproduceKazaklanguagematerialslocally.MongolianteachersandschoolofficialsinBuyantsoumreportedthattheireffortstoincreasepreschoolenrollmentwerelesseffectivewithKazakfamilies,especiallythosefromHovdsoum.Furtherprobingrevealedthattheschoolhadinvitedparents toattendmeetingsat theschoolbysendinglettershomewithstudents. TheseletterswereinMongolianandthemeetingswerealsoconductedinMongolian.

InthesamewayKazakcommunitieshavefailedtoaccessinformationandcommunicationintheeducationsector,theymayalsobemissingimportantbenefitsorentitlementsinothersectorswhichcouldbenefiteducationparticipationandperformancethroughimprovingknowledgeandpracticesinhealth,nutrition,agriculture,orbusinessdevelopment.

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IX. CONCLUSION

BothBayan-Olgii’sphysicalremotenessanditsculturalandlinguisticdifferencesfromtherestofMongoliahavecontributedtoKazakconditionsbeingfarfromcentrallevelconsideration.Butthedatapaintaveryclearpictureofspecialeducationalneeds.Bayan-Olgiiaimag,whichis90%Kazakandwhereover90%ofallKazaksinMongolialive,hasapovertyrateof46%comparedto36%nationally. ThepovertyinBayan-Olgii isdeep,withoverhalfof thepoorbeing classified as extremely poor. Children in this aimag drop out at over three times thenationalrate—thehighestdropoutrateinthecountry—andtheyattendformalpreschoolatlessthantwo-thirdsofthenationalaverage—thelowestpreschoolparticipationrateinthecountry.Schoolvisitsanddozensofinterviewswitheducators,parentsandcommunityleadersinBayan-OlgiiandHovdaimagsalsoshapedandconfirmedapictureofeducationaldisadvantage.

InmanyimportantwaysKazakchildrenarenotbeingaffordedthesameopportunitiestolearnasotherchildreninMongolia.Inadditiontothepoorteacherquality,insufficientsupplyofschoolfacilitiesor learningmaterials,orgeographicandsocial relevanceofcurriculumcontent thatmaybesharedtosomeextentbychildreninotherpoorandruralareas,acriticalinstructionalissuethat isacompoundingdisadvantageforKazakchildrenis thelanguageof teachingandlearning.KazaksarenotonlydisadvantagedinaMongolianlearningenvironment.TherearealsoseriousweaknessesincurrentKazakschoolswhicharesignificantbarrierstoqualitylearningandtoprogressingsuccessfullythroughtheeducationsystem.Theparticularlylowpreschoolparticipation rates in the Kazak province and the lack of either Kazak language preschoolmaterialsorMongolianasasecondlanguageinstructionalstrategiesmeanKazakchildrenstartschoollaggingbehindinlanguageandliteracyskillsandmaynotgainasoundfootingineitherMongolianorKazak.

Mongolia’soverallenrollmentratefor8-15yearoldswasatitspeakin1990at98.6%;itdroppedto84.3%by1995butby�00�hadrecoveredappreciablyto96.6%.Still,bythemostconservativedefinitions,over10,000studentsdroppedoutofschoollastyear,withthemoststudents,nearly20%, dropping out in thefirst grade and nearly three quarters of all dropouts leaving in theprimarygrades.Theseindicatorspointtotheimportanceofincreasingpreschoolparticipation,schoolqualityandschoolretention.AddressingtheparticularlearningneedsofKazakchildrentowardtheseendsisanimmediatenecessitytoensuretheirrighttoaqualityeducationandinordertomeettheeducationprioritiesofMongolia’sMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDG)—toachieveuniversalprimaryeducationand100percentprimarycohortsurvivalby�015.

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X. RECOMMENDATIONS: WHERE DO WE START?

ThefollowingrecommendationsareintendedtoestablishaframeworkforadvancingMongolia’seffortstodevelopanequitable,responsive,highqualityeducationalsystemthatservestheneedsofallofitschildren.Theyreflecttwobroadareasandsomecorethemesthatinconcertwillsupportstrengthenedresearch,policyandpractice in theareaofethnicminorityeducation. ThefirstareafocusesonprovidingequaleducationalopportunityforKazakchildrenthroughimprovingcoreelementsofteachingandlearning,whilethesecondareafocusesonstrengtheningsomesystemic weaknesses in the planning and implementation of policies and programs targetingethnicminorities.

Area1:Removebarrierstoeducationaccess,qualityandrelevanceA. Address. the. language. learning. needs. of. Kazak. children.. The first step to overcomingobstaclestoparticipationandincreasinglearningopportunitiesandretentionforKazakchildrenis addressing theproblemsof languageand its impacton instructionalqualityandperceivedaccessibilityandrelevanceofschoolservices.Toaccomplishthis,anumberofkeyelementsareneeded:policyandlegalframeworkforsecondlanguagelearning(bilingualandimmersionmodels)

anditseffectiveimplementationteachertraininganddevelopmentframeworkforbilingualandimmersionteachingimplementationoftheNewEducationStandardsculturallyandlinguisticallyrelevantcurriculumcontent,materialsandbooks

A.clear and appropriate policy and legal framework on bilingual and second language teachinglear.and.appropriate.policy.and.legal.framework.on.bilingual.and.second.language.teaching.is. needed. to. clarify. and. protect. the. educational. rights. and. entitlements. of. ethnic. minority.children...Creating an unambiguous legal base and enabling policy supports for effective andCreatinganunambiguouslegalbaseandenablingpolicysupportsforeffectiveandinnovativemethodsofbilingualandmothertongueinstructioncangreatlyenhancethequalityandrelevanceofeducationforethnicminorities.At the most basic level, this legal and policyAtthemostbasiclevel,thislegalandpolicybaseshouldspecify theconditionsunderwhichnative languageorbilingual instruction—forexample,forKazakschoolsorwhereKazakisofferedasasubject—isallowedorensuredbylaw,and theminimuminstructionalsupports thatareguaranteed tosecond language learnersinMongolianschools. Policiesonbilingualandsecondlanguagelearningshouldalsodefinetheexpected student learning outcomes and language proficiency standards in both native andexpectedstudentlearningoutcomesandlanguageproficiencystandardsinbothnativeandnationallanguage.TheseproficiencystandardsshouldbeagreeduponbyallstakeholdersandbesetatalevelensuringthatKazakchildrenwillnotbedisadvantagedbylanguagebarrierswhencompetinginhighereducationandtheworkplace.

To support the effective implementation of bilingual and second language instruction and toachievearticulatedlearningandlanguageproficiencystandards,therealsoneedstobepolicies.defining nece��ary �i�e�� �a�erial and hu�an re��urce �u���r��nece��ary �i�e�� �a�erial and hu�an re��urce �u���r��.Thesesupportsshouldexplicitlyaddressinstructionaltimeinthecurriculumframework,specialstaffingrequirementsatKazakschoolsorMongolianschoolswithmixedethnicenrolment,andcompetencystandardsforteacherinbilingualteachingmethodsorinteachingMongolianasasecondlanguage.Otherimportantminimumrequirementsareregardingtheprovisionoflanguageappropriatebooksandlearningmaterials, special class size considerations and mechanisms for adequate funding. To betterbetterdistributeStatefundingbasedonthecostsassociatedwithdeliveringservices,a compensatoryacompensatorycompensatory

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fundingformulaforperpupilexpenditures(PPE)isneededthataddsperpupilweightsbasedonsuchfactorsasschoollocation,schoolsize,povertyrate,disabilitiesand,critically,bilingualandsecondlanguagelearning.

There.is.a.also.a.need.for.a.teacher.training.and.development.framework.to.meet.the.demands.of.a.good.bilingual. teaching.system.as.well.as.an.effective.Mongolian.as.a.second. language.program.and.transitional.language.strategy.for.Kazak.children.attending.Mongolian.schools.. Whileasoundlegalandpolicyframeworkcancreatethelegalbasisandenablingenvironmentfor strengthened teaching and learning for Kazak children, Mongolia does not yet have acommonandeffectiveapproachormodelforhowtodothisright.CurrentpracticeinKazakschool largely consists of using the centrally developed national curriculum and textbooks,withteacherstranslatinglessonsintoKazak.KazakchildreninMongolianschoolsreceivenosystematicliteracyortransitionalsupports.Furtherstudyandpilotingarenecessarytoevaluateaarangeofmothertongueinstruction,bilingualinstructionandtransitionalmodelstoidentifymostappropriatesolutionsfordifferentKazakcontextsacrossMongolia. TohelpKazakstudentsovercome the language learning barrier and to ensure they are not further disadvantaged inlearningcontentinothersubjects,Mongoliamusttestandformalizeaninstructionalapproachandtransitionalmodel,anddevelopaccompanyinglearningmaterialsandtrainingprogramstoequipteacherstodeliverappropriatemethodsandstrategies.

Inadditiontospecializedmethodologiesforlanguagelearning,.teachers.would.be.more.effective.at.addressing.Kazak.learning.issues.if.they.better.understood.and.were.able.to.implement.the.new.paradigm.of.Mongolia’s.New.Education.Standards.Intheory,theNewEducationStandardsmovedecidedlyawayfromafixedcontentbasedcurriculumandprovideflexibilityforteacherstocontextualizeandmodifythecurriculumlocally.Inpractice,however,teachershavereceivedlittletrainingandpreparationtoputthattheoryintoaction.Morethoroughtrainingandcontinuedlocalsupportnetworksonimplementingthenewstandardswouldnotonlyimproveinstructionalqualityoverall,butwouldalsoresultinfargreatercurriculumrelevancetoKazakcultureandlife.

Localizing. the.content.and.materials.of. schooling. is.essential. to. improving. its. relevance.and.quality.AnyprogramsupportingKazaklearningopportunitiesmusttackletheseriouslackofmaterials,resourcesandbooksavailableintheKazaklanguage.AlthoughMECShasinitiatedaplan to translate textbooks intoKazak, that schedulemustbe steppedupand the initiativeexpanded to include other teaching and learning materials, non-formal education books andmaterials,andpreschoolbooksandmaterials.AnothermuchneededresourceforKazakstudentsisthedevelopmentofaKazak-Mongoliandictionary.

AsmentionedaboveontheimplementationoftheNewEducationStandards,localcurriculumdevelopmentandmodificationwillalsocontributesignificantlytomakingcontentrelevanttolocalcontextandculture. Inaddition tohaving textbooksandreadingmaterialsavailable intheKazaklanguage,familiarreferencesandcontentthatbuildonthepriorknowledgeofKazakchildrenwillalsoimprovetheirlearningopportunities.Anengagementoflocalresourcesandknowledgeindevelopinglearningmaterialswouldalsoprovidetheadditionalbenefitofincreasedcommunityinvestmentinschoolingthatcanboostschoolparticipation.B.Expand.preschool.preparation.for.Kazak.children. BothinternationallyandinMongolia,participation in kindergarten or other forms of early childhood development have beendemonstrated to improve school readiness, cognitive development, and subsequent schoolperformanceandretention.IncreasingthecurrentlowpreschoolparticipationlevelinBayan-

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OlgiiandotherKazakcommunitiesisanobviousstrategythatcanreaphugepayoffsinKazakparticipationandpersistenceinschool.

Early. language. and. literacy. development is particularly important for Kazak children whohave to face bilingual or immersion language learning environments. For children enteringMongolian schools, a focused Mongolian language preparation program in preschool canprovidethedifferenceneededforwhetherachildmakesitthroughgrade1andcontinueshisorherschooling.StrongearlylanguageandliteracydevelopmentinKazakisequallyimportantasliteracyandlanguageacquisitionskillshavebeenfoundtotranslateacrosssecondlanguages.

Toaccomplishthis,Mongoliamustseekwaystoexpand.access.to.formal.preschool.for.Kazak.children.PrioritizingBayan-Olgiiforpreschooldevelopmentfundsaswellasdevelopingtargetedsubsidiesthatsupportfamiliesinpayingpreschoolfeesaresomefirststeps. Currently, thereisahugerelianceoninformalpreschoolservicesinBayan-Olgii.Whilepromoting.innovative.alternate.preschool.modelssuchasthemobilegerkindergartensisanimportantsteptowardswideningaccesstopreschoolservices,thereisaneedtoensure.comparability.of.servicesinthelongrun.Whileathree-weeksummerpreschoolprogramisanimportantmeansofintroducingearlychildhoodcareanddevelopmenttofamilieswhowouldotherwisenotbeabletoaccessany services, it is still a longway froma continuousnine-monthpreschool program. Thus,innovationsinparentalorcommunitybasedmodelswhichdonotrelyonanofficialschoolgerorformalteachersshouldbeexplored.Thesecouldofferyearroundservicestochildrenandcouldlayfoundationsforformalizingtrainingandservices.Area2:ImprovemechanismsforappropriateandeffectivepolicyandprogramplanningandimplementationA.Enhance. coordination.of. education. stakeholders. Inorder to improve effectiveplanninganddevelopmentofeducationpoliciesforethnicminoritiesandtoensurecomprehensiveandintegratedmeasuresacrosssectors,networks.and.alliancesbetweenGOMagencies,nationalandinternationalorganizationsworkingwithethnicminoritiesandonkeyeducationprogramsareneeded.Educationmustnotbeconsideredasectoralissuebutonethatintersectsmanysectors.TheGovernmentofMongoliamustensure thatnotonly theMECS,butalso theMinistryofHealth,SocialWelfare,FoodandAgricultureandotherscontributeinbothpolicyandfinancialsupport.Well-nourished,healthystudentswillbebetterlearners.Childrenwhodonothavetocontributetotheirfamilyincomeandlivelihoodswillbeabletofocusontheirstudies.

EstablishinganEthnicMinorityWorkingGroupwithmembershipacrossgovernmentagencies,local organizations and NGOs and international donors and NGOs could offer a forum fordiscussing concerns and strategies as well as sharing learning. Members of the group cancoordinatefundingsupportforresearchaswellcoordinateassistancebysubsectorsorbylocationand ethnic group. Theworking group could efficiently collect and share community-basedsolutionstoexpandingpreschoolactivitiesandlocallydevelopedcurriculum,learningmaterialsandteachingaids.Thistypeofcoordinationwouldalsobebeneficialtoeducationsectorworkingeneral,asmanynationalreportsaswellaslocaleducationofficialshaveremarkedonthegenerallackofcoordinationandcooperationeitherbetweeninternationalorganizationsandthegovernmentoracrossinternationalorganizations.

In addition to partnerships across agencies working in education development, developingpartnershipswithresearchinstitutionssuchastheInstituteforEducation,theSorosOpenSociety

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ForumorMongolianNationalUniversitycouldcultivatethelocalresearchcapacityanddevelopa localappetitefordataandresearchonethnicminorityeducation. Creativepartnershipsontheprogramimplementationsidemight includemosques inpublic informationdisseminationcampaignsinKazakcommunitiesorusemosquespaceforalternatepreschool.B.A.very.simple.step. in.broadening.participation.and.improving.effective.communication. in.Kazak.communities.is.to.use.the.Kazak.language.Inethnicminoritycommunities,languageisabarrierinnotonlystudentlearningbutalsoincommunitycommunicationandparticipation.Whereparentsandcommunitiesarenotprovidedwithinformationinalanguagetheyunderstandor training opportunities or materials that they can effectively use, public outreach, trainingprogramsandothersocialwelfarebenefitswillfallshortoftheirintendedmark.Bothteacherandparenttrainingsmayhavemoreappealandmorelastingeffectsifthecontentanddeliveryare culturally and linguistically accessible. IEC and other outreach materials such as thosepromotingtheimportanceofpreschoolparticipationwillbeunderstoodandsharediftheyareproducedanddisseminatedinKazak.UsingthelocallanguageisalsoademonstrationofthedesireforgenuinecommunityengagementandparticipationintheKazakcontext.C. In �rder �� �ea�ure �he �r�ble� and �u���r� be��er ��licy and �r�gra� �lanning�� �here needs.to.be.improved.monitoring.and.evaluation.to.capture.data.pertinent.to.the.special.needs.of.Kazak.children.and.to.evaluating.equity.Firstandforemostisrequiringthecollectionandreportingofdatadisaggregatedbyethnicity formonitoringeducationperformanceandotherrelatedsocioeconomicindicators.AnotherimportantstepistoworkwithMECSandtheNationalStatisticsOfficeonupcomingsurveysfortheCensus,LivingStandardsMeasurementSurveyandothersurveyquestionnairestoensurethereareconsistentmeasuresorquestionsrelevanttoethnicminorityconditionsandprogress.Finally,theremustbemorecarefulattentiontowhatnewlearningisimportanttoeffectivelyguidenewpolicyortheimplementationofnewsolutions.Forexample,thereneedstobeacloserexaminationofwhatKazakparents,communitiesandchildrenwantintermsoflanguageofinstruction.Therearealsoschoolsalreadyusingdifferenttransition grades from Kazak to Mongolian instruction; a close inspection of the differentapproachesmayhelpinformtheselectionofbestpracticefordifferentcommunitycontexts.InadditiontostudyingdifferentexistingscenarioswithinMongolia,educatorsandpolicymakerswouldalsobenefitfromstudyingbilingualandnativelanguagepoliciesinneighboringcountriesandfromvisitingsitesdemonstratingarangeofinstructionalmodels/solutions.

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XI. REFERENCES

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ADB, Mongolia Education Sector Review Study, TA No. 4487-MON, Third EducationDevelopmentProject,September�005,Mongolia.

ADB,ThirdEducationDevelopmentProjectReport:SectionBontheStructureoftheMongolianEducationsystem

ChildrenontheMove:RuralurbanmigrationandaccesstoeducationinMongolia,Batbaatar,M.,etal.CHIP/SavetheChildren,�003.

ChildrenandWomeninMongolia:SituationAnalysisReport�000,UnitedNation’sChildren’sFund(UNICEF),Mongolia,�000.

Committeeon theRightsof theChild: Consideration.of.Reports.Submitted.by.State.Parties.Under Ar�icle 44 �f �he C�nven�i�n�� C�ncluding Ob�erva�i�n�.39thSession,June�005

CommitteeontheRightsoftheChild:Written.replies.by.the.Government.of.Mongolia.concerning.the.list.of.issues.received.by.the.Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child.relating.to.the.consideration.of.the.second.periodic.report.of.Mongolia.May�005

EducationforAll(EFA)�000Assessment:MongoliaCountryReport,UNESCOwebsite.http://www�.unesco.org/wef/countryreports/mongolia/rapport_1.html

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TheLivingConditionsoftheChildreninPeri-UrbanAreasofUlaanbaatar,SummaryReport,NationalBoardofChildren,SavetheChildrenandUNICEF,Mongolia�003.

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M�ng�lia�� GitaSteiner-KhamsiandInesStolpe,EuropeanEducationalResearchJournal,Volume4,Number1,�005.

Peri-UrbanAreasofUlaanbaatar:TheLivingConditionsoftheChild,NationalCommitteeforChildren,UNICEF,andSavetheChildrenUK,January�00�,Ulaanbaatar. NalaikhDistrict:Khoroos#1and#3,detailedreport

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TheRightsofNationalMinority:ResearchReportbytheNationalHumanRightsCommissionofMongolia,Ulaanbaatar�005.

TeachingataRemoteKazakhSchoolinMongolia:AnInterviewwithMs.AyzbaiNurjamal,UNICEFTeacher’sForum,September�000.http://www.unicef.org/teachers/forum/0900.htm