INTRODUCTION: -The history of education in the Indian subcontinent began with teaching of

traditional elements such as Indian religions, Indian mathematics, Indian logic at early Hindu and Buddhist centres of learning such as Taxila (in modern-day Pakistan) and Nalanda (in India) before the Islamic era. Islamic education became ingrained with the establishment of the Islamic empires in the Indian subcontinent in the Middle Ages while the coming of the Europeans later bought western education to colonial India. A series of measures continuing throughout the early half of the 20th century ultimately laid the foundation of education in the Republic of India, education in Pakistan and much of South Asia.

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN EDUCATION: -The development of Indian Education can be divided under the following era,1) Vedic era (3000B.C. to 500 B.C.)2) Buddhist era (500 B.C. to 1200 A.D.)3) Muslim era (1200 A.D. to 1700 A.D.)4) British era (The pre-independence era, 1800 A.D. to 1947)5) Post-independence era (1947 to till date)

TRANSITIONS OF INDIAN EDUCATION FROM VEDIC ERA TO MUSLIM ERA: -

Vedic Era: - The system of education which was developed during Vedic period is termed as the Vedic system of education. The education was completely under the individual control of the ‘Gurus’ and not on the state control. The gurus themselves arranged for lodging and boarding of the students. The students, of course, used to pay guru dakshina to their teachers according to their financial position and volition. Sources of income of ‘Gurus’ were from donation, dan, guru dakshina.

The aims of education were inculcating religion, achievement of absolute (Brahma) which he himself is, and it was recognized that the entire visible world in fully pervaded with the absolute, development of knowledge, acquaintance and observance of social and national duties, preservation and development of culture, moral and character development, education of livelihood, arts and skills.

The students were taught language, grammar, numerology, agriculture, cattle rearing, arts(music and dance), skills (weaving, dying, woodwork, metal work, craft), economics, politics, geology, physiology, snake science, logic, astrology, medical science, military science, exercise, exercise, gurukal organization. Vedic literature, theology and ethics and training in activities like

control of sense organs, religion based conduct, mode of worship, evening prayers etc.

The methods of teaching were being practiced during the Vedic period were oral method, thinking method, manas (reflection) method. In the early Vedic period, discipline meant physical, mental, spiritual control. The teachers and students enjoyed a cordial relationship. The teachers considered the students as their son and the students regarded teachers as their father.

Buddhist era: -Buddhism was born in India and was started by Gautam Buddha. No doubt, many principles of ‘Hinduism’ are included in ‘Buddhism’. It is also true that ‘Buddhism’ was the result of the prevailing circumstance of life. Gautam Buddha taught the principle of a religion which was based on the analysis of actual problem of life.

The aims of education was physical development for good health, development of knowledge, education of social behaviour i.e. compassion and kindness, preservation and development of human culture, character formation, vocational development, education of Buddhist religion i.e. students were trained in the eight fold path namely-Right view, Right resolve, Right occupation, Right speech, Right behaviour, Right effort, Right contemplation and Right meditation to achieve salvation.

Upasampada: - After completing the education of twelve years, the monk at the age of 20 years had to undergo the ‘Upasampada’ ritual and then be becomes the permanent members of the ‘Sangh’. On this occasions all his worldly and family relationship ended. In Buddhist education primary, higher and Bhikshu education were organized in Maths and Vihars and as they were under the control of Buddhist Sanghs.

Duration of primary education was 6 years. Reading, writing, five different sciences namely Morphology, Astronomy, Medicine, logic and spirituality were taught. For General students Buddhist, Jain and Vedic religion were imparted. For the Bhikshu education, they had to study Buddhist literature namely Tripitak, Sulta, Vinay and Avidhamma pitak.

Teaching activities were carried out orally by lecture method, question answer method, logic, conference method. Activity oriented subjects were taught by demonstration, imitation and practice method. Students of higher classes were also given the opportunity of self study.

Both teacher and students must follow the rules of Buddhist Sanghs Strictly. Generally twice a month teacher and students met at a specific place for introspection and to confess. Corporal punishment was abhorred in that period.

Students in Buddhist period were termed as Shraman or Samner. They had to compulsorily reside in Maths and vihars. Teachers were like father figure to

students. They generally looked after the administration of maths and vihars and organized teaching work while students carry out the different tasks as advised by their teachers.

Islamic era: -During medieval period Muslim rulers started a new system of education which is popularly known as Maktab-Madarsha system Muslim system of education. Side by side the old Pathashala system also continued for Hindu students. The main aim of Muslim education was development of knowledge, spread of Islamic culture & Islamic religion, development of character and morality, loyalty to the Government, education of arts, skills and vocations

Knowledge of alphabets, 30th section of Quran, reading, writing, mathematics, letter and application writing and the way of conversation were given to children. Special practice in proper pronunciation and good handwriting were given to children. Arabic and Persian languages and their Literature, Mathematics, Geometry, History, Geography, Economics, Political Science, Astrology, Islamic law, Unani Medicine and various arts, skills and vocations, Quran, Islamic history, Islamic literature, Sufi literature and Islamic law were included in the syllabus.

The Middle Ages also saw the rise of private tuition in India. In the Muslim education different teaching methods were adopted to teach different subjects at different levels. At primary level the teaching method adopted were imitation, practice and memorization. At the higher level speech, lecture and explanation method were adopted. To teach subject like philosophy and logic, logic method was used. Self study method was also adopted for higher level. To teach the activity oriented subjects, arts, skills and other vocations Demonstration, Experiment and practice method were adopted. In the medieval period, discipline referred to obeying the teachers and compliance to the rules of maktabs and madarsha. Corporal punishment was given and at the same time there was a provision of reward for disciplined students.

The teachers were called as ustad and students were called as shagrid. Teacher loved their students and taught them with great concern. Students also respected their teachers and obeyed them devotedly. The students obeyed the teachers out of fear in medieval period.

Maktabs were primary school meant for small children. Maktab means a place where reading and writing is taught. Students were admitted in maktabs at the age of 4 years, 4 months and 4 days. In Maktab every student was made to learn verses of Quran, Islamic religion, Arabic, Persian and mathematics.

Madarsa means to deliver speech. Higher Education was given in Madarsa. It is located either in state capital or in big cities. The medium of instruction at these centers were Arabic and Persian languages.

BRITISH SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

After the downfall of the Muslim rule, Bristishers came to India and established the East Indian company but soon the reign of the government reached the hands of the British parliament. Britishers ruled over India for about 150 years. During this period western science and literature made good progress through English medium. By the time the British came to India as traders of the East India Company and to spread their religion with the attempts of Christian Missionaries. However, the British period was a breakthrough in the development of education in India. The Modern System of Education in India was started to take place with the efforts of Britishers. But this is also an important fact that in the beginning the British as traders, though interested in the classical and spiritual education of the Hindus and of Muslims, were reluctant to take an interest in the education of the people under their rule till 1813.

DIFFICULTIES OF INDIAN EDUCATION DURING PREINDEPENDENCE ERA: -The Indian education system faced a number of difficulties during this era which are as following,- Government was not responsible for running educational affairs in India.- They feared that people might ultimately rise against the British rule and would

demand independence after receiving higher education.- Company wanted to educate only a few number of people required to run the

affairs of the Government.- They thought that Indians are not keen to receive education.- British Govt.’s main aim was to make money.- Controversy continued on regarding medium of education.- Oppositions of Brahmins against women education as well as British system of

education as they involved in controversy with various renowned person like Raja Rammohan Roy, Vidyasagar, H.L.V. Derozio and others.

- Swadeshi movement also influenced Indians to avoid British system of education.

EDUCATIONAL ACTS AND LAWS DURING BRITISH ERA: -

English people wanted to win the sympathy and support of influential Muslim and Hindu.Establishment of Madrasa by Warren Hastings laid the foundation in Oct, 1780 to educate higher class Muslim.

Influencing Hindu section, political resident of Benaras, Jonathan Duncan founded Benaras Sanskrit College in 1791. Calcutta Madrasa was given a much higher financial grant.

The various act and laws that influenced the development of Indian education in this era are as following,

CHARTER ACT OF 1813The Charter Act of the East India Company was renewed after every 20 years in

the British parliament. In 1813, when the company’s charter again came for renewal in the parliament, most of the members in the parliament supported the movement led by the Christian missionaries. As a result three articles were added in the charter act of 1813.

1)      Missionaries of any European country will have full freedom to visit India to propagate Christianity and to expand education there

2)      It will now be the responsibility of East India company to organize education in the areas under its rule.

3)      A sum of not less than one lakh of rupees each year shall be set apart and applied to the revival and improvement of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the science among the inhabitant of the British territories in India.

Anglicists - Orientalists controversyThe Anglicist - Orientalists controversy had its origin in the charter Act 1813. The

terms, ‘literature’ and the learned natives were not clearly defined in the section 43 of the charter Act, 1813.

Orientalist Group: - Mostly the senior and the experienced officials of the company belonged to this group. According to them the term ‘literature’ meant Indian literature and the term ‘learned natives’ meant the scholars of Indian literature Anglicist Group

This group contained mostly the young officials of the company. For them, the term ‘literature’ and learned natives in the Charter Act, 1813 meant Western literature and the learned natives of the western literature respectively.

MACAULAY MINUTE (1835): -

The Anglicists and orientalists controversy could not be solved even after 20 years in the new charter Act of 1833. On June 10, 1834 Lord Macaulay came to India as a law member of the Governor General’s council. Lord William Bentick the then Governor General, appointed him the president of the public instructions and asked him to render his advise on three points -first –how to spend Rs. 10 lakh per annum on education second to define the terms ‘literature’ and ‘learned native’ and third to solve the anglicists orientalists controversy Macaulay Submitted his report on 1835. in that he mentioned.

1)      the word ‘literature’ meant only English literature and not Sanskrit or Arabic or Persian literature

2)      The word ‘learned natives’ meant a scholar who is learned in the Locke’s philosophy, Milton’s poetry that is English literature.

WILLIAM BENTINCK RESOLUTION: -Lord Bentinck seriously went through the Macaulay’s report and declared the new

education policy of the British Government on March 7. 1835. The major declarations of this policy are

1)      All government fund appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed on English education alone.

2)      The educational institutions of Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian shall not be closed down. The economic grants for their teacher’s salary and students scholarship will continue as before.

3)      In future no expenditure will be made on the printing and publication of oriental literature.

4)      The money so saved will be spend on the education of the English language, literature and Western knowledge and science.

DOWNWARD FILTRATION THEORY: -This theory meant, “Education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by

drop the education should go to the common public so that at due time it may take the form of a vast stream which remained watering desert of the society for long times and high class of people should be educated and common people gain influence from them.”

Its Basic Causes:

1. The company needed various types of workers to run the business and government. They wanted to have cheap servants who work in different capacities.

2. The government did not have enough money to take the responsibility of educating the masses.

3. If the standard of living and ideas of the people of higher classes in society could be changed through the English education then the people of the lower classes also be influenced and they shall grow loyal to the British government.

4. If educated high class people are given higher posts in government services then naturally they will use their influence for controlling the masses from going against British government.

5. After educating some people, the responsibility of education could be left to them.

WOOD’S DESPATCH (1854): -

The company has to take orders after every twenty years from the British parliament and in each order something was written about the education in India. Therefore when time for the charter of 1853 came, the directors of the company thought for laying down a definite policy in regard to educational matters of India. So a parliamentary committee was appointed to survey the educational progress in India. As Mr. Wood was chairman of the Board of Control, so the declaration was Christianized as ‘Wood’s Educational Despatch’.

THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE DESPATCH ARE AS FOLLOWS: -

1        The acceptance of Educational Responsibility: The Despatch clearly accepted that the responsibility of education in India lies in British Government.

2        The aim of education: The aim of education is to raise intellectual fitness and moral character.

3        Courses of study: Mr. Wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and recommended them as subjects of study in regular Institutions. Finally, like Macaulay, he had also recognized the usefulness of Western knowledge for Indians.

4        The Medium of Instruction: The Despatch says that due to dearth of course books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be English.

5        Department of Public Instruction: The Despatch declared that in all the provinces, the department of public Instruction should be set up. Its highest official should be designated as the Director of Public Instruction, and he should be assisted by Deputy Director, Inspector and Deputy Inspector of schools.

6        Establishment of Universities: The Despatch has suggested for the setting up of the Universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

7        Establishment of Regular Institutions: The Despatch emphasized on the graded schools as follows, primary schools, middle schools, high schools, colleges, universities.

8        Extension of Public Education: As ‘Filtration Theory’ failed, so Wood emphasized the useful education for the public. As the public itself was unable to gain such an education. So increase of primary, middle and high schools was emphasized. In order to co-ordinate education at these various levels it was suggested to have scholarships and implement other schemes.

9        Grant-in-aid system: The Despatch suggested the Grant-in-aid System for the institutions which fulfilled certain qualifications. He has also suggested that the rules and regulations for Grant-in-aid should be framed on the levels practiced in England.

10    Training of the Teachers: They suggested to open training schools in every province of India, as they are in England was expressed in the Despatch. This was done, so that teaching work may be conducted properly and efficiently.

11    Education of Women: He threw light on women education too and praising the persons engaged in this pious work, he suggested for its further encouragement through Grant-in-

aid and other measures. He has also approved the declaration of Governor General that the Government should favorably assist the female education in India.

12    Muslim Education: Concerning Muslim education, Mr. Wood has said that Muslims are too backward in education and they should be encouraged to gain more education and efforts should be made in this direction.

13    Vocational Education: They paid more attention to the vocational education and suggested that schools and colleges should be set up at suitable places to provide vocational education.

14    Encouragement of the Oriental Education: Though the report has supported the western education through English medium for the Indians, yet it has recommended for the development of Indian literature and suggested that the books of western literature and science should not only be translated in these languages, but original books should also be caused to be written, and for the purpose the writers should be rewarded and encouraged.

15    Education and Service: In this reference, Mr. Wood has clearly said: A) While selecting the candidates for Government service their academicals qualification should be considered well. B) Academically, high qualified persons should be preferred more than the others for government services.

INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OR HUNTER’ S COMMISSION (1882): -

Lord Rippon came to India on February 3, 1882. He appointed the first Indian Education commission. Mr. William Hunter, a member of the viceroy’s Executive council, was the chairman of this commission. It came to be popularly known as ‘Hunter’s commission’.

TERMS OF REFERENCE OF THE COMMISSIONThe commission was to make the following enquiries

1)      Condition of primary education and the methods of its expansion2)      Position of State institutions and its importance 3)      Position of missionary institutions in general4)      Attitude of government towards private enterprises.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF HUNTER COMMISSION: -

1.      PRIMARY EDUCATION The policies of the Primary Education

      Primary education should be useful for general life of the people and the subjects which are helpful for him in his practical life should be included.

      Medium of instruction should be vernacular or Indian languages.      Government should make a constant effort for its progress, expansion and development.      Primary education should aim not only at preparing the students to enter into higher

education but it should aim at spreading public education all right.

CURRICULUMState should have a free hand to frame the curriculum. In spite of this

recommendation the commission said that physics, Agriculture, first-aid, Banking, Geometry subjects that are of practical value in life ought to be included in the curriculum of the primary education.

FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION      It suggested that the local bodies and provincial government should give some aid for

this.      Finances for the schools in the villages and cities should be separated.      Local funds for education should in no case be sent on secondary or higher education.      The commission had recommended that the provincial Government shall give grant for

primary education to the extent of 11/2 of the local fund for education or 1/3 of the entire expenditure on this item.ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRIMARY INSTITUTIONS

The commission recommended that In order to raise the standard of the primary institutions, the teachers should be properly trained.

INDIGENOUS EDUCATION     No restriction should be imposed for admission to such institutions.     Government should encourage such institutions.     Such institutions may voluntarily hand over administration to the Municipal Boards and

District Boards.     The government should not interfere in their curriculum in any way and special financial

aid for inclusion of subject of practical value in life may be given by the government.     Poor students should be given stipends and scholarships.     Proper arrangement for the training of the teachers of these institutions should also be

made.

SECONDARY EDUCATION     The Government should give the administration and organization of secondary education

into hands of efficient and able Indians.     The commission recommended two types of curriculum called Curriculum A & B.     Curriculum A was to have subjects that were to be useful for higher study.     Curriculum B was to have vocational, occupational and practical subjects.

     English should continue as medium of instruction.

HIGHER EDUCATION: -     They recommended to have varied and vast curricula so that the students can select the

subjects of their choice and aptitude.     Grant-in-aid is given to the colleges by considering its expenditure, number of teachers,

efficiency and local need.     Meritorious & promising students may be sent to foreign countries for higher education

on Government scholarship.     Teachers who have received education in European Universities are preferred for

appointment.     Private colleges should be authorized to receive lesser fee as compared to Government

colleges.

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT     They recommended to increase the number of inspectors in every province and Indians to

be appointed on the post of District inspectors of schools

SYSTEM OF GRANT-IN –AID: -     Changes and reform should be made in the rule of grant-in-aid system according to the

requirement of all the institutions     All the changes must be send to the managers of aided institutions in their vernacular

languages.     Special educational officers should be appointed to give counsel to the managers of

Government aided institutions

EDUCATION OF THE WOMEN: -      Free education, appointment of lady Teachers and lady Inspectresses       Liberal Grant-in-aid system      Different curriculum for girls      Decent arrangements of Hostels       Special arrangements for education of ‘Parda’ observing ladies.

MUSLIM EDUCATION: -     Effort must be made to popularize Muslim education     Special funds should be allocated for it     More scholarships should be given for Muslim students     In government appointments, Muslims should be given proportionate representation.

EDUCATION OF HARIJANS AND BACKWARD CLASS: -

     All the schools run by the Government, municipalities and local boards should admit children of Harijans and Backward class.

     Special schools should be open for them, where there was an objection raised to the admission of these Harijans and Backward children.

     School teachers must take judicious effects to remove caste prejudices.

EDUCATION OF ABORIGINALS AND HILL TRIBES: -     Government was expected to take up the responsibility of educating aboriginals and Hill

tribes.     Free education and the subjects taught should be of the most elementary character.

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION: -     Religious education of any sort should not be given in the public schools.     Religious education may be imparted in the private institutions and the government shall

have nothing to do with it.

WARDHA SCHEME OF EDUCATION OR BASIC EDUCATION (1937): -

The Government of India act, 1935 brought an end to diarchy in the Indian provinces. In 1937, popular Governments were established in the provinces and out of the 11 provinces 6 had congress ministers. The congress ministers at this juncture were faced with a dilemma. On one hand they wanted to execute the Gandhian plan of education and on the other they wanted to enforce compulsory and pre-primary education. However Mahatma Gandhi, father of the Nation presented a new scheme of education and gave a lead in the direction.

ALL- INDIA NATIONAL EDUCATION CONFERENCE: -

In the Harijans of October 2, 1937, Gandhiji wrote an article about convening an All – India National Educational conference on October 22, 23, 1937. This is also known as Wardha Educational conference and it was held under the president of Gandhiji himself. Eminent Educationists, national leaders, Social reformers and provincial ministers of education took part in the deliberations of conference.

After a good deal of discussions, the following resolution were passed 1)      Free and compulsory education be provided for 7 years on a nation wide- scale.2)      Medium of instruction be the mother tongue.3)      The process of education should center round some form of manual and productive work4)      The conference accepts that this system of education will be gradually able to cover the

remuneration of the teachers.

DR. ZAKIR HUSSAIN COMMITTEE, 1937: -

In order to give a final shape to the resolutions passed in the All India National Education conference, Wardha a committee was formed under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain, then the Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia University. The committee submitted its report in two parts. The first report was presented in Dec, 1937. It defined the principles, curriculum, administration and the supervision work of Wardha education scheme. The second report was presented in April 1938. It enumerated the correlation between the basic handicrafts and others subjects of the curriculum.

OUTLINES OF THE SCHEME OF EDUCATION

1)      The duration of the course of basic education is 7 years. It aims at imparting free and compulsory education to the boys and girls from age of 7to 14years.

2)      Mother tongue will be the medium of instruction and teaching of English shall have no place in curriculum

3)      The entire education shall centre round some Basic craft, which shall be selected in accordance with the needs of the children and the locality.

4)      Goods produced by the children should be utilized and profit so earned to meet the expenditure of the schools.

5)      Education of the craft to be given in such a way that the children may earn their livelihood from it.

6)      In the education of the crafts, the economic importance as well as its social and scientific importance should be given place.

AIMS OF BASIC EDUCATION

     Education should develop the qualities of an ideal citizen in the child, socially, politically, economically and culturally.

     Education should develop love for Indian culture in the hearts of the educands.     All round development of the personality was considered ie it must develop a child

intellectually, socially, physically, morally, spiritually.      After completion of the education, they may be able to earn their livelihood and fulfil

their needs.     Establishment of a society which was free from the evils and defects of the present day

society.

CURRICULUM

Basic Craft-out of the following basic crafts, any one may be selected        Agriculture, spinning and weaving, woodcraft, fisheries, Leather work, Pottery or

ceramics, fruit preservation or Gardening, any other craft according to the Geographical environment of the locality.

        Mother tongue, Mathematics, Social studies, General Science, Nature study, Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Elementary Hygiene, Astronomy, Life stories of eminent scientists and inventories, Art (music or painting), Hindi, Home science-Girls, Physical Education.

TEACHERS

     It emphasis on appointing female teachers in place of male teachers at the primary level.     It is necessary to appoint only trained teachers. Long-term training (3years) and short term

training (1 year) should be given.

TIME-TABLE: - In the time-table of the basic scheme of education, it was thought that boys shall have to devote 5 hours and a half for their study. It was also considered necessary to work for about 288 days in the year.METHODS OF TEACHING

     Education is imparted through activities and in short period of time the students are given knowledge of various and varied subjects.

     Emphasis on activity based education

In retrospect it may be said that theoretically Basic education seems very attractive but practically it is a total failure. Gandhiji anticipated that the education of crafts and skills would help make education self supporting however just the reverse happened. The result was sheer wastage of raw material, time, energy and money. But some of the aspects of basic education still have relevance like-education through mother tongue and the activity oriented education. It is good for any country and therefore for India too.

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS DURING THIS ERA: -

British education became solidified into India as missionary schools were established during the 1820s. New policies in 1835 gave rise to the use of English as the language of instruction for advanced topics.

Universities

India established a dense educational network (very largely for males) with a Western curriculum based on instruction in English. To further advance their careers many ambitious upper class men with money, including Gandhi, Nehru and Muhammad Ali Jinnah went to England, especially to obtain a legal education at the Inns of Court.

By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated, chiefly in the liberal arts or law. About a third entered public administration, and another third became lawyers. The result was a very well educated professional state bureaucracy. By 1887 of 21,000 mid-level civil service appointments, 45% were held by Hindus, 7% by Muslims, 19% by Eurasians (European father and Indian mother), and 29% by Europeans. Of the 1000 top -level positions, almost all were held by Britons, typically with an Oxbridge degree.

The Raj, often working with local philanthropists, opened 186 colleges and universities. Starting with 600 students scattered across 4 universities and 67 colleges in 1882, the system expanded rapidly. More exactly, there never was a "system" under the Raj, as each state acted independently and funded schools for Indians from mostly private sources. By 1901 there were 5 universities and 145 colleges, with 18,000 students (almost all male). The curriculum was Western. By 1922 most schools were under the control of elected provincial authorities, with little role for the national government. In 1922 there were 14 universities and 167 colleges, with 46,000 students. In 1947, 21 universities and 496 colleges were in operation. Universities at first did no teaching or research; they only conducted examinations and gave out degrees.

The Madras Medical College opened in 1835, and admitted women so that they could treat the female population who traditionally shied away from medical treatments under qualified male professionals. The concept of educated women among medical professionals gained popularity during the late 19th century and by 1894, the Women's Christian Medical College, an exclusive medical school for women, was established in Ludhiana in Punjab.

The British established the Government College University in Lahore, of present day Pakistan in 1864. The institution was initially affiliated with the University of Calcutta for examination. The prestigious University of the Punjab, also in Lahore, was the fourth university established by the colonials in South Asia, in the year 1882.

Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (MAO College), founded in 1875, was the first modern institution of higher education for Muslims in India. By 1920 it became The Aligarh Muslim University and was the leading intellectual center of Muslim political activity. The original goals were to train Muslims for British service and prepare an elite that would attend universities in Britain. After 1920 it became a centre of political activism. Before 1939, the faculty and students supported an all-India nationalist

movement. However when the Second World War began political sentiment shifted toward demands for a Muslim separatist movement. The intellectual support it provided proved significant in the success of Jinnah and the Muslim League.

Engineering

The East India Company in 1806 set up Haileybury College in England to train administrators. In India, there were four colleges of civil engineering; the first was Thomason College (Now IIT Roorkee), founded in 1847. The second was Bengal Engineering College (now Bengal Engineering and Science University, Shibpur). Their role was to provide civil engineers for the Indian Public Works Department. Both in Britain and in India, the administration and management of science, technical and engineering education was undertaken by officers from the Royal Engineers and the Indian Army equivalent, (commonly referred to as sapper officers). This trend in civil/military relationships continued with the establishment of the Royal Indian Engineering College (also known as Cooper's Hill College) in 1870, specifically to train civil engineers in England for duties with the Indian Public Works Department. he Indian Public Works Department, although technically a civilian organisation, relied on military engineers until 1947 and after.

Growing awareness for the need of technical education in India gave rise to establishment of institutions such as the Indian Institute of Science, established by philanthropist Jamshetji Tata in 1909. By the 1930s India had 10 institutions offering engineering courses. However, with the advent of the Second World War in 1939 the "War Technicians Training Scheme" under Ernest Bevin was initiated, thereby laying the foundation of modern technical education in India. Later, planned development of scientific education under Ardeshir Dalal was initiated in 1944.

Science

During the 19th and 20th centuries most of the Indian princely states fell under the British Raj. The British rule during the 19th century did not take adequate measures to help develop science and technology in India and instead focused more on arts and humanities. Till 1899 only the University of Bombay offered a separate degree in sciences. In 1899 B.Sc. and M.Sc. courses were also supported by the University of Calcutta. By the late 19th century India had lagged behind in science and technology and related education. However, the nobility and aristocracy in India largely continued to encourage the development of sciences and technical education, both traditional and western.

While some science related subjects were not allowed in the government curriculum in the 1850s the private institutions could also not follow science courses due to lack of funds required to establish laboratories etc. The fees for scientific education under the British rule were also high. The salary that one would get in the colonial administration was meager and made the prospect of attaining higher education bleak since the native population was not employed for high positions in the colonial setup. Even the natives who did manage to attain higher education faced issues of discrimination in terms of wages and privileges.

One argument for the British detachment towards the study of science in India is that England itself was gradually outpaced in science and technology by European rival Germany and a fast-growing United States so the prospects of the British Raj adopting a world class science policy towards its colonies increasingly decreased.

CONCLUSION: -

The Indian education system has to pass many ups and downs since the early ages. The vast changes and development have mainly occurred during the pre-independence or British era. Some of which contributions are till now continuing in the present education system.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: -

1. Agarwal JC. History of Indian education. CBS publishers, New Delhi, 2007, p. 10-55

2. Suresh C. Ghosh. History of Education in India. Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 2007, p. 15-69

3. R.N. Sharma, R.K. Sharma, History of Education in India. 3rd edition; Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2004, p. 20-66