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Motivation in the Modern ClassroomDr. Elmer J. Ireton a & Xene McDonalda Department of Elementary and Secondary Education , Hardin-Simmons University , USAPublished online: 29 Jul 2010.

To cite this article: Dr. Elmer J. Ireton & Xene McDonald (1979) Motivation in the Modern Classroom, The Clearing House: AJournal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 52:7, 317-321, DOI: 10.1080/00098655.1979.10113613

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1979, Vol. 52 MOTIVATION 317

Dossible and to demonstrate the relations between 2. Jerome Bruner, The Process of Educatwn (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), pp. 6-7.

3. William H. Evans and Jerry L. Walker, New Trends in the Teaching of English in Secondary Schools (Chicago: Rand McNally

them. In so doing, they approximate the richness of the literary experience.

and Co., 1966), p. 33.

Stubborn Structure: Essays on Criticism and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970), p. 88.

of Scholarship in Modem Languages and Liteqature, ed. by James Thorpe (New York: Modem Language Association, 1963), p. 63.

4. Northrop Frye, Criticism, Visible and Invisible, in The

5. Northrop Frye, Literary Criticism, l7ze Aims and Methods NOTES

1. Michael F. Shugue, English in a Decade of Change (New 6. Ibid., p. 64. 7. Ibid., p. 66. York: Western Publishing Co., 1968), p. 19.

Motivation in the Modern Classroom

ELMER J. IRETON and XENE McDONALD

hat ever happened to the children who came W to school eager to learn without special moti- vation from the teacher? This question, which has plagued many who are concerned about todays education, can probably be answered by indicat- ing that most of these children never really were, except in the mind of the imperceptive observer. Many of those who appeared to require very little extrinsic encouragement were motivated from within. Although it appeared that they sat quietly and absorbed knowledge from the teacher and textbook, they were motivated by the small things-the teachers warn smile or pat on the head, the familys loving concern and support, a friends competitive spirit. Although there were

An Associate Professor of Education, Dr. Ireton is Chairperson of the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education at Hardin-Simmons Univer- sity. He has taught at every level of education and served as superintendent of schools. Xene McDondld is a candidate for a masters in Education and has been an itinerate teacher in migrant education pro- grams in West Texas.

those in yesterdays school who left before they were sixteen and found a reasonable measure of happiness and productivity, and those who were ignored until they became discouraged and quit ( lo ) , their numbers were relatively few. There were some who were never enrolled in school also-the handicapped, the child of the migrant laborer-but they were not many, either.

Factors Responsible for the Lack of Motivation What factors, then, have been responsible for

this change in the degree of motivation, this almost immediate disenchantment that the young child frequently experiences upon arrival at school today? Perhaps the most relevant factor is the volume and magnitude of changes within the society from which he is produced. These tre- mendous changes affect every age, social class, and institution in some manner. For example, societal changes in attitude are observable in todays schools because of their resulting in the precipitation of programs for special popula- tions-bilingual, migrant, .disadvantaged, handi- capped, learning disabled, vocational, etc.-and in programs for those needing remediation in specific areas such as reading, mathematics, and

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oral language. Another of the attitudinal changes in society, an elevation in the status of the child, is demonstrated by the removal of responsibility from the child for his actions. If the child ignores the teacher, distracts others, destroys property, fights, or shows other inappropriate classroom behavior, much of society seems to feel now that his actions are not his fault, but the teachers. After all, the,teachers job is to be all things to all children (10).

Another societal change that has had inesti- mable impact upon schools is the change to an automated, technological environment. This change is reflected in the classroom by the fre- quent presentation of learning experiences through the use of some type of teaching machine, multi- media kit, or calculator; furthermore, it is evident in the responses of the students themselves who, being accustomed to the high excitement pro- vided in their everyday lives by technology, find the calm quiet atmosphere of the traditional class- room unpleasant ( 10).

Implications for the Classroom Teacher For the classroom teacher, who must strive

to motivate students with diverse behaviors, de- sires, and needs, the implications of the societal change to technology are numerous. For example, the different learning modes of children (oral, visual, kinesthetic) can be capitalized on through the use of machines. The novel experience pro- vided by machines is stimulating to some students. Besides these uses, machines are also helpful in dispensing information and teaching facts. Al- though there are advantages to mechanized learn- ing in the classroom if it is utilized discriminately, it can never be assumed to provide knowledge or understanding, nor to replace the need for human contact that children, especially the very young, have. Machines can neither sympathize with a childs fatigue and need to change activities nor provide him with a meaningful type of praise. Therefore, the random memorization of informa- tion or isolated facts does not give all the answers to the problem of student motivation. What utility can the information or facts possibly pos- sess if the student cannot apply them to life situ- ations or if they are not even remotely near his area of interest or potential (l)? Despite the many positive uses for machines, the negative ones pre- ponderate as applied to many young children or others who especially require human contact (e.g., migrant, emotionally disturbed). Because these children lack many real-life experiences common to the normal middle-class child, the vicarious experiences they have through machines

have no reinforcement. Helen Beck indicates that the use of machines, especially television, may be partially responsible for numerous other prob- lems in children such as hyperactivity, overstimu- lation, fragmented attention, lack of concentra- tion, inability to grasp three-dimensional con- cepts, alienation, callousness against suffering, cynicism, decay of values, and actual physical maladies (obesity, heart disease). She cautions that machines exploit young minds by draining the individual, dulling his curiosity, channeling his abilities in one direction, and neglecting his special gifts; she further states that machines produce hybrids, not well-rounded individuals (1). Such negative effects, which one probably validly concludes to be resultant of misuse or ovemse of machines, must be prevented.

Another indication of the societal change in attitude, the elevation of the status of the child, a change that many children are themselves cognizant of, implies that many children will no longer be content to function in the traditional classroom setting. They, and the society from which they come, will demand that their class- room experiences be meaningful to them per- sonally. Because what is meaningful for one child is not necessarily relevant for another, individualized instruction would seem to become mandatory. After most students are working in an individualized setting, the teachers attention must be given to motivating these students to continue to make significant progress while ascet- taining something that is meaningful to the few who are still floundering. In relation to the various levels of motivation present within the classroom, some authors suggest that as many as five are commonly found: 1. the unmotivated 2. those motivated to a degree, but not enough

to perform at a level equal to their ability 3. those motivated to perform, but for the

wrong reasons 4. those motivated to try something, but not

to complete their task, and 5. those motivated to do things if someone else

provides directions and support. These authors also postulate that every child who is alive is motivated; therefore, the crucial issue is not to discover techniques for motivation, but to direct the motivation and its impact or con- sequence (4). Whatever ones position on the meaning of motivation, he must conclude that the classroom teacher faces the constant but delightful challenge of providing the incentives

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The modern classroom teacher is prudent who draws from this psychology the idea that children do need some time to design and solve their own problems, seek goals that are meaningful only to them, and obtain insights that they alone desire.

or directions to enable all the students he influ- ences to attain their maximum potential. How fortunate todays teacher is that the concept of student motivation has attracted numerous authors who have devoted whole books or por- tions of them to the topic.

Relevance of Motivation Theories Despite the protest from teachers against

theorizing and toward practical application, motivation theories retain much relevance to contemporary education. Tasks such as arriving at a satisfactory definition of motivation can be assisted by utilization of theories. Russell, a contemporary who does not advocate the use of traditional theories of motivation, aptly sum- marizes the contentions of most writers by stat- ing that motivation consists of three compo- nents: ( 1) It is a presumed internal force, (2) that energizes for action, and (3) determines the direction of that action. To clarify his position further, he states, however, that the implementa- tion of practices supported by traditional theories in the modern classroom is not feasible because of their concern with the underlying forces not observable to the teacher and their emphasis on the study of subhuman animals, which does not add significantly to ones understanding of class- room behavior (10). In spite of the position of Russell and others, however, this writer does not believe that traditional theories are completely inapplicable and proposes the following examples of their usefulness in the twentieth-century classroom.

Freuds discussion of motivation as being the result of drives, both primary and secondary possesses some relevance. The teacher of Migrant students, for instance, frequently faces the reali- zation that certain students can be easily moti- vated to perform for food, especially if they have not eaten since they were in school the day be- fore, which is often the case.

Related to Freud in that his experiments also emphasized the physiological drives is Pavlov and Classical Conditioning. Pavlovs advice against the use of food as a reward if the animal had recently eaten should have definite implications for the teacher who tends to use only one type of reward continuously.

Another useful theory for the teacher of today is that of Abraham H. Maslow. Although Maslow does not ascribe to the idea that all behavior is motivated by basic needs, or even motivated at all, his comment that most behavior is motivated by several basic needs simultaneously is due atten- tion in an individualized learning setting. Certainly his hierarchy of basic needs-physiological, safety and security, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization, desire to know and understand, and aesthetic (8)-can be corroborated by the teacher of extremely deprived students. For ex- ample, the student who feels insecure either from frequent relocation to harvest crops or from abuse is not greatly motivated to know and understand many concepts.

Thorndike and Skinner, his student, who were considered Association psychologists as was Pavlov, conclude that motivation is the result of reward, and that a response followed by a satis- factory state of affairs motivates the student to perform the desired behavior again; ironically, if a response is followed by a punishment, the punishment does not motivate him not to per- form the response again. (5). If one accepts this theory, he must believe that punishment has no place in the classroom as a behavior modifica- tion technique except in rare instances.

psychology, Gestalt psychology, ascribes moti- vation to the seeking of goals or insights or the drive to solve problems (5).The modern class- room teacher is prudent who draws from this psychology the idea that children do need some time to design and solve their own problems, seek goals that are meaningful only to them, and obtain insi&ts that they alone desire.

Among the more recent theories of motivation are the Homeostatic ones, which maintain that the behavior of humans tends to remain in a homeostatic or balanced state in which the environment is consistent and familiar levels of variety exist. D. 0. Hebbs theory asserts a level of activation and variation at which optimal motivation is possible (1 1). Implicit in these theories is the idea that through the use of a variety of activities, learning environments and methods, the teacher can maximally motivate students.

An alternative to the Association approach to

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Within the heading of Discrepancy theories are the Homeostatic theories as well as the Cognitive Dissonance theory, which describes human motivation as the result of the differ- ences between ones behavior and his own eval- uation of it or the difference between what one expects and what actually exists; and the Compe- tence theory, which emphasizes ones effective dealing with the environment (10). The Cogni- tive Dissonance theory indicates that the amount of discrepancy is crucial in that too much or unrealistic discrepancy in the environment dis- courages the learner. The Competence theory implies that the learner will behave in a certain manner merely because he feels the need to know about things in the environment ( 1 l), an idea related to Gestalt psychologys insightful behavior.

The Genetic Pattern theories and the Early Environment views of motivation discussed by Smith (1 1) have little relationship to the class- room setting because of their belief that motiva- tion is attributable to factors acquired prior to the students entrance into the classroom. Accord- ing to the Genetic Pattern theories, for example, motivation is inherited through genes and chromo- somes; if the child failed to get motivation thusly, there is nothing that environment or training can do to provide them. Early Environmentalists ascribe high motivation to the amount of hand- ling and the number of challenges provided for the infant; therefore, not much hope is offered that the classroom teacher can change the child with a low degree of motivation to a highly motivated one.

tors that specific motivation must be a pre- requisite to learning, many educators have now adopted the position that motivation can be created by the teaching process and built upon successful experiences. That is, even if motiva- tion is not present initially and the instructor does not know all about the child, he can still teach effectively (10). Nonetheless, there are myriad difficulties involved in the motivation of students in the modern classroom, especially those utilizing individualized instruction which allows for some self-direction on the part of stu- dents. Because all students will not have the same interests, goals, or abilities, they may need very different types of motivation. The motivation may, in addition, manifest itself in very different types of behaviors, all of which must be chan- neled in a way that is mutually beneficial to a l l students. If motivation is viewed entirely as a vehicle for changing student behavior by pre- sentation of information or a pattern of stimuli,

Despite the view of some theorists and educa-

then the principal issue in motivation of students is that of providing appropriate systems of rein- forcements (9).

Current Trends in Motivation In reference to the preceding discussion, then,

what are the current trends in classroom motiva- tion? First of all, the role of the teacher is altered somewhat from that of strictly a teacher, one who imparts knowledge, to that of a facilitator of learning who is concerned for each student and who helps make it easier for each to pursue his intrinsically motivated goals. When extrinsic motivation is appropriate, todays teacher is suf- ficiently cognizant of the psychology of student behavior to provide it. Most of all, the teacher who has highly motivated students is not the one who causes them to perform out of fear of pun- ishment, although some of its milder forms may augment learning. Instead, this teacher is the one who is able to assist the child in selecting expe- riences that result in his successfully learning a desired concept, a learning which increases moti- vation for learnings to come. Through encourag- ing a child in a way that demonstrates a confi- dence in his ability, that values him as he is, and appreciates his unique contributions and his need for self-expression, the teacher enhances the de- velopment of the child and avoids the use of threats, corporal punishment, tranquilizing drugs or expulsion from the classroom (7). In addition, this approach discourages many forms of unac- ceptable classroom behavior by the student, which Rudolph Dreikurs believes have four primary pur- poses: (1) to get attention or put others in his service, (2) to prove his power and defy adult pressure, (3) to seek revenge, and (4) to be left alone by displaying actual or imagined defi- ciencies (3). Dreikurs, as well as Don Dinkmeyer and Clint Reimer (quoted in Dreikurs), all sug- gest excellent ways to approach a child in the classroom that can encourage him to reach to- ward his highest potential.

The second trend in classrooms that empha- sizes motivation pertains to the atmosphere of learning that exists in them, This trend decreases the importance of the teachers goals and stresses the individual students goals; it is partially a result of the indications of modem psychology that learning may not necessarily always be correct (e.g., both good and bad habits can be learned), deliberate (e.g., mistakes are uncon- sciously learned), or overtly demonstrated (e.g., attitudes and emotions can be learned) (6). The atmosphere of a motivational classroom is described by one author as one that provides the

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1979, Vol. 52 MOTIVATION 32 1

student with opportunities for exploration, which this author divides into these four cate- gories: specific exploration (i.e., behavior in pur- suit of a specific goal), diverse exploration (i.e., aimless wandering), inspective exploration (i.e., behavior for only taking in information), and inquisitive exploration (i.e., behavior emerging from preconceived ideas about the relationship between two or more objects). In addition, he believes that students-and mankind in general- pursue other activities which are unrelated to survival, such as investigation and seeking of novel stimuli that initially arouse ones curiosity, but diminish in their effectiveness after the stu- dent has been repeatedly exposed to them (10). Credibility can certainly be given to the fore- going ideas by experienced instructors.

Conclusions

techniques for motivation of todays students is a multi-faceted and continuous task, the consci- entious teacher can hardly question its necessity nor despair of finding a multitude of helpful resources since whole books and kits of materials are now available on this subject (4, 10, 7). Not only does effective motivation assist in the opti- mal development of the child, but it also helps to satisfy the demands for accountability placed on education by providing for individual differ- ences. The importance assigned motivation by modern society is illustrated in all classes of people-from the advertiser who motivates the public to purchase his product, to the parent who motivates his child away from the adver- tisers product; from the politician who motivates the citizenry to support him by his exhortations, to the policeman, whose mere presence fre- quently motivates heightened consciousness of the mandates of the law. Because the nature of society dictates the nature of the student, and the nature of the student, at least in theory, determines the nature of the classroom, it is unlikely that many twentieth-century students will arrive on the educational scene eager to learn without specific individualized motivation from the teacher. Therefore, motivation of students to perform commensurate with their abilities may no longer be considered simply desirable; it must now be understood to be a necessity that is well within the contemporary teachers grasp.

Although determination of the most efficacious

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I

Gem ofan

I in^ Buy US. Savings Bonds. c I REFERENCES

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