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The Counseling Psychologist2014, Vol. 42(7) 972 –997

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Non-Traditional Teaching Special Issue

Educating Undergraduate Students to Work With Children of Abused Women

Karen M. O’Brien1, Cristina M. Risco1, Janice E. Castro1, and Lisa A. Goodman2

AbstractStudent learning was assessed in an innovative university–community partnership in which undergraduate students enrolled, first, in a didactic course on intimate partner violence and, subsequently, in a service-learning course where they worked with children living in a shelter for survivors of intimate partner violence. Data were collected at the start and end of the first semester, and at the end of the second semester. Quantitative and qualitative methods indicated that students gained knowledge regarding intimate partner violence, resources available to survivors, and how to respond to a friend in an abusive relationship. The students’ perspectives on how they changed as well as the strengths and limitations of this study are discussed.

Keywordsuniversity–community partnership, service learning, intimate partner violence, undergraduate psychology courses, social justice

1University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA2Boston College, Boston, MA, USA

Corresponding Author:Karen M. O’Brien, Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Email: [email protected]

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O’Brien et al. 973

Psychologists have called for innovative approaches to teaching psychology such as increasing the number and quality of service-learning courses for undergraduate students (Conway, Amel, & Gerwien, 2009). Service learning (i.e., experiential education in which learning is enhanced through volunteer work and reflection) has been described as an instrument of social justice, whereby students and faculty collaborate with community members to not only study and address a social problem but also contribute to social change (Cipolle, 2010; Cuban & Anderson, 2007). These university–community partnerships provide unique opportunities to educate students and assist understaffed non-profit community agencies. The purpose of this study was to describe and evaluate the efficacy of an innovative university–community partnership in which undergraduate students were educated about intimate partner violence in a didactic course, and then were offered the opportunity to enroll in a service-learning course. During the service-learning experience, students provided support and psycho-educational groups to children living in shelters for survivors of intimate partner violence. Specifically, this study used quantitative and qualitative analyses to assess changes in students’ knowledge about (a) intimate partner violence, (b) resources available for survivors, and (c) how to respond to a friend who is being abused. We also studied students’ perceptions of how they changed personally as a result of involvement in the courses.

College students are open to learning in innovative ways and often want to put their knowledge into practice (Roberts & Buzinski, 2011). However, many undergraduate classes are lecture courses (Lammers & Murphy, 2002) that provide little opportunity to apply newly acquired information outside of classroom settings. Numerous undergraduate students also struggle with what to do after graduating from college (Nauta, 2012). In a languishing economy and competitive job market, undergraduate students could benefit from developing marketable skills that enable them to obtain jobs when they graduate.

At the same time, community agencies often are challenged with how to provide needed services due to inadequate funding and limited staff. As resources are reduced in community organizations, and universities and col-leges recognize their responsibility to give back to their communities, college students represent an untapped resource that can be used to assist those who address salient social problems, including the abuse of women and children. Through university–community partnerships, students can obtain real-world experiences that enhance their career development and skill acquisition, and community agencies can benefit from the energy and enthusiasm that college students bring to their organizations.



974 The Counseling Psychologist 42(7)

This pairing of community agencies and college students does not come without challenges. Researchers have noted that college students often lack the requisite skills or confidence to be effective volunteers (Heckert, 2010; Lowery et al., 2006). Also, some universities require volunteer service, which can result in less positive outcomes (e.g., low intrinsic motivation for volun-teer work and reduced satisfaction with the university; Beehr, LeGro, Porter, Bowling, & Swader, 2010).

This study describes and evaluates a university–community partnership that addresses some of the challenges associated with such endeavors. First, the partnership was designed to enhance student learning and provide volun-teers to work with children living in a community shelter for survivors of intimate partner violence. Programs that serve these survivors are often understaffed and in desperate need for volunteers (Brown & O’Brien, 1998). Children are often neglected in programming at these shelters due to limited resources, which are focused on helping the women heal, attain economic self-sufficiency, and live violence-free lives. At the shelter located closest to our university, no services other than what we provided were available to the children.

Second, the first author developed a two-semester course sequence in which undergraduate students are educated about theory and research on inti-mate partner violence in the first semester, and then provided with an oppor-tunity to enroll in a service-learning course in the second semester. Service learning has been shown to be effective in advancing academic learning and understanding regarding the people with whom the students work (Conway et al., 2009; Jacoby, 2003; Peterson, 2009). Moreover, service learning is strengthened when students intervene directly with community members (Jones & Gasiorski, 2009).

Many service-learning experiences occur in a single-semester course (Seifer & Connors, 2007) where students are placed in community agencies without prior education about the work of the agency or theory and research related to the social concern addressed by the agency. Our university–com-munity partnership is innovative because students are educated about inti-mate partner violence in a comprehensive didactic course prior to their involvement at the shelter (similar to the advocacy-focused work of Sullivan & Bybee, 1999). This ensures that students understand the complexities asso-ciated with intimate partner violence and the effects of violence on the chil-dren, and gain some confidence in their ability to provide support to and facilitate groups with children in the shelter. In addition, the professor can evaluate which students have potential for effective volunteer service with children whose mothers have experienced intimate partner violence.




Enrollment in the second semester service-learning course is voluntary, thereby eliminating forced volunteer service in courses (which has been linked to negative outcomes; Beehr et al., 2010). The service-learning course incorporates some of the necessary elements shown in research to be associ-ated with positive learning outcomes such as experience working with people in the community, extensive processing of experiences in class with the pro-fessor (who is a licensed psychologist), and weekly reflection papers (Conway et al., 2009).

Moreover, this partnership was grounded in a social justice framework that emphasized the role of micro- and macro-level factors in shaping the causes, experiences, and consequences of intimate partner violence. Indeed, the course was grounded in the foundational principle that intimate partner violence is in large part a social problem requiring a societal-level solution, as opposed to a problem solely between two individuals (Goodman & Epstein, 2008). For example, class discussions addressed the role of sexism, racism, and classism in restricting access to economic self-sufficiency and systemic support. Particularly central was the idea that poverty and intimate partner violence are so often intertwined that ignoring the role of class in shaping victims’ experiences prevents a clear understanding of their behavior (Goodman, Smyth, Borges, & Singer, 2009; Smith, 2008). Second, the courses integrated into the course sequence several core principles recom-mended as key to social justice–oriented interventions, including “ongoing self-examination, sharing power, giving voice, facilitating consciousness raising, building on strengths, and leaving clients the tools to work toward social change” (Goodman et al., 2004, p. 793) as well as advocating for social change (Vera & Speight, 2003). Finally, consistent with current thinking in the intimate partner violence field, students were taught the importance of working with survivors to accomplish their goals for themselves rather than providing a menu of services from which survivors could pick (Davies & Lyon, 2013). This approach dovetails the social justice principles of sharing power, giving voice, and building on strengths.

To date, few undergraduate courses integrate service learning related to intimate partner violence into the curriculum. One well-known exception is a two-semester course in which undergraduates are taught to become advo-cates for shelter residents transitioning back into the community (Sullivan, 2003; Sullivan & Bybee, 1999). The resultant intervention contributed to positive outcomes for survivors even 2 years after the initial intervention. In addition, a research methods course that was focused on a community con-cern was developed where students learned about violence against women and completed a research project of interest to community partners (DePrince, Priebe, & Newton, 2011). Learning in this course was compared with a




traditionally taught research course; students in both courses showed increased knowledge regarding research methods, whereas students in the community-engaged course also evidenced enhanced understanding of vio-lence against women and increased confidence in their ability to conduct community-based research. No empirical evaluations of student outcomes of service-learning courses in which college students volunteered in shelters for survivors of intimate partner violence were found.

To summarize, the purpose of this study was to evaluate student learning related to an innovative university–community partnership. We hypothesized that enrollment in the university–community partnership would result in increased knowledge regarding intimate partner violence and the resources available to survivors, as well as how to respond to a friend experiencing intimate partner violence. We were also interested in students’ perceptions of how they changed personally as a result of involvement in the university–community partnership.

Method

Procedure

After receiving approval to conduct this study from the Institutional Review Board at the University of Maryland, data were collected at three time points for two cohorts of students. At the beginning of the Fall 2009 and the Fall 2012 semesters, the professor left the room and students were invited by a teaching assistant to participate in a study on the effectiveness of the course. As part of the consent procedures, students were informed that participation was optional and confidential, and that their choice to participate would not influence their grade in the course. Those who consented to participate com-pleted the survey in class (Year 1 Time 1, n = 34 out of 35 students enrolled in the course; Year 2 Time 1, n = 34 students completed the measure on the first day of class and after the add-drop period, 31 students remained enrolled in the course). To anonymously link pre- and post-test data, students placed a four-digit number on the survey.

Post-test data were collected on the last day of class for the Fall semester (Year 1, Time 2, n = 22; Year 2, Time 2, n = 23). A smaller group of students (Year 1, Time 3, n = 6; Year 2, Time 3, n = 8) enrolled in the second course during the spring semester. These students were invited to complete the same questionnaire at the end of the spring semester (Time 3) under the same pro-tocol of the previous two time points (Year 1, n = 6; Year 2, n = 8). The survey was not administered at the beginning of the service-learning semester because students had completed the measure several weeks prior at the end of




the first semester and no changes were expected to occur in this short time period. Completed surveys remained with an administrative assistant until semester grades were submitted.

Description of the Course Sequence

Two themes served to organize course material in both semesters. The first theme involved placing intimate partner violence in a societal context; that is, helping students to understand intimate partner violence as a public problem requiring a societal response rather than a private matter between family members. This framing led naturally to discussions about the role of informal networks (e.g., friends, family, neighbors, co-workers) and formal networks (e.g., domestic violence programs and the justice, social services, housing, and health care systems) in addressing the problem. The second theme emphasized a survivor-centered approach (Davies, Lyon, & Monti-Catania, 1998; Goodman & Epstein, 2008). This approach provides the survivor with an opportunity to collaborate meaningfully with an advocate in defining the forms of assistance needed (compared with a service-defined approach in which services are offered with little attention to whether they promote the survivor’s sense of autonomy and self-esteem, fit into her risk analysis or safety plan, or advance her future plans). Students also were educated about strategies for working with abused women, specifically the importance of listening to the woman, empathizing with her and the complexity of her situ-ation, providing resources for her to consider, addressing concerns regarding her safety, and respecting her decisions (Davies et al., 1998; Goodman & Epstein, 2008).

The first semester course included lectures, discussions, films, and small group work, as well as guest speaker presentations from the director of the shelter, a counselor who works with abusers, and a survivor of intimate part-ner violence. Students learned about theory and research related to intimate partner violence and the community resources available for survivors. The role of gender, culture, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and sexual ori-entation in intimate partner violence was addressed. Students were encour-aged to think about the complexity of societal factors contributing to the continuation of intimate partner violence and possible solutions for ending intimate partner violence in the United States. They wrote one research paper and completed two multiple choice/essay exams. Students who completed the first semester course with an A or B and had good attendance and punctu-ality records were eligible to enroll in the service-learning course. Those who were repeatedly absent, tardy, or did not perform well were not allowed to enroll in the service-learning course.




At the conclusion of the course, the students were expected to have met the following course objectives: (a) Describe theories and research findings related to intimate partner violence, and identify the community resources available to survivors; (b) understand how research findings have been used to advance knowledge regarding intimate partner violence, develop interven-tions for survivors, and reduce the incidence of intimate partner violence; (c) think critically regarding ethical and multicultural issues related to interven-tions with abused women and their children; and (d) clearly state the factors contributing to the continuation of violence, the steps necessary for relation-ship building with intimate partner violence survivors and their children, and possible solutions for ending intimate partner violence in the United States.

In the second semester, the students volunteered in a shelter for abused women and their children once a week for 4 hr. The shelter service included Special Friend Time during which students provided support, homework assistance, and healthy activities for the children in the shelter (e.g., outdoor play or games). In addition, the students co-facilitated psycho-educational groups for the children focused on enhancing self-esteem, healthy expression of feelings, and healthy living. They debriefed at the end of each shelter visit.

Prior to facilitating groups, the students were taught basic helping skills and fundamentals of group counseling with children, including the theoreti-cal foundations of group interventions, specific techniques for therapeutic interventions with children, and strategies for enhancing the effectiveness of groups for children. They also read numerous articles about counseling chil-dren and learned helpful discipline strategies for working with children.

Some of the students who completed the courses previously returned as team leaders and oversaw the work of the service-learning students in shelter. The team leaders modeled the facilitation of groups for the students. After observing several groups, the students then assisted the team leaders with the groups. Next, each student was responsible for developing two new groups. They submitted group outlines (and materials needed for the group) to the professor who edited and approved the outlines. Then, students led these two groups under observation by the team leaders.

To process their experience in shelter, the students met twice a week in class for 1.25 hr of supervision from the professor. The specific course objec-tives for the service-learning course were to (a) understand the factors con-tributing to intimate partner violence and the interventions used to address this societal problem; (b) apply knowledge gained from research and litera-ture in this field to working with survivors of intimate partner violence; (c) think critically about community interventions and social problems, and pro-vide a thoughtful analysis of one’s work in the community; (d) exhibit profi-ciency with basic helping skills while working with children in a community




agency; (e) build effective relationships with agency staff and clients; and (f) articulate ethical and cross-cultural issues of importance when intervening with children in crisis. The students read related research articles, wrote weekly reflection papers, and completed a final essay exam. The students also discussed counseling-related career paths. The course concluded with a celebration at the shelter and a shared meal with the students and professor.

Throughout both courses, social justice principles were emphasized. Specifically, students discussed the role of gender, race, and class in intimate partner violence, access to resources, and economic self-sufficiency. Self-reflection was encouraged in the class sessions and through the weekly ser-vice-learning reflection papers. The importance of collaboration, valuing diverse perspectives and contributions, recognizing strengths, and sharing resources was addressed during class discussions and through readings. The students also discussed micro-, meso-, and macro-system contributions to intimate partner violence and the need for individual, community, and soci-etal action to end violence against women and children. Syllabi for the courses are available from the first author.

Participants

The students who participated in this study were predominantly non-Latina White women of traditional college age (20-22) who were enrolled in a mid-Atlantic university. The majority of the students were seniors and a few were juniors. Most students were psychology majors. All of the students completed an introductory course in psychology prior to enrolling in the first domestic violence course. To protect anonymity in a relatively small class, and to ensure that the instructor would not know who chose to participate, no iden-tifiable information was collected about the students. With the exception of the analyses related to the psychometric properties of the newly developed scale to assess knowledge of intimate partner violence, only those students who completed data for at least two time points were included (n = 45 for Time 1 and Time 2, n = 14 for Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3).

Measures

Knowledge of Intimate Partner Violence Scale (KIPVS). The KIPVS was devel-oped by O’Brien and Goodman (2009) to assess knowledge of intimate part-ner violence including prevalence, factors contributing to remaining in the abusive relationship, the types of support needed, and the role of the advocate when working with survivors of intimate partner violence. The items were developed to correspond to the survivor-centered approach to working with




abused women described by Goodman and Epstein (2008); no existing mea-sures assessed knowledge of intimate partner violence grounded in this empowerment approach. Eleven items are rated on a 7-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Example items include “Abusers often make it very difficult for their partners to obtain and keep jobs,” “One of the most important things a domestic violence advocate can do is to assist a woman in reconnecting with support systems in her own community,” and “Sometimes battered women are under the emotional control of their abusive partner so advocates have to make decisions for them” (reverse scored). After reverse scoring seven items, items are summed and then averaged; high scores indicate in-depth knowledge regarding intimate partner violence. The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale with the initial sample (n = 68) was .73; analy-sis of skewness (.23, SE = .29) and kurtosis (−.05, SE = .57) indicated normal distribution of the data.

In addition, participants responded to the following open-ended questions: (a) Name five specific resources that are available to help women who are being abused by their partners; (b) Imagine that a friend told you that her boyfriend punched her in the stomach and said cruel things to her last night. This was the third time that he had been physically abusive to her. She said that she is afraid of him but also still loves him. She wants to know what you would do in this situation. Write your exact response (as if you were talking to your friend); and (c) How have you changed as a result of this class? (only administered at Times 2 and 3). The participants were asked to respond to a friend instead of a client because they were undergraduate students who had no knowledge about counseling clients and the focus was on how to respond to an intimate partner violence scenario rather than trying to imagine being a counselor.

Analyses

Quantitative analyses. To evaluate changes over time on the KIPVS, two repeated-measures ANOVAs were calculated, one from Time 1 to Time 2 with 45 participants, and a second with the 14 participants who completed measures at Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3.

Qualitative analyses. We used qualitative content analysis to identify themes in the qualitative responses (Downe-Wamboldt, 1992; Sandelowski, 2000). This method of analysis is low inference, which aims to provide a rich description of the phenomena of interest. The research team conducting the analyses consisted of one non-Latina White professor of counseling psychol-ogy (who was the instructor of the courses), one Latina doctoral student in




counseling psychology (who was not involved in the courses), and three undergraduate research assistants (one Latina and two non-Latina White; two of the three were enrolled in both courses prior to participation in the research and the remaining individual enrolled in the first but not the second course). In addition, another non-Latina White professor of counseling psychology (a scholar whose research addresses violence against women) assisted with the creation of the course, the development of the measure, the interpretation of the analyses, and the editing of the manuscript. She was not involved in the teaching of the courses. Thus, three team members were involved in both courses; one member completed the first course, and two team members were not associated with the courses aside from the research. All team members were women.

First, each response was transcribed by one undergraduate research assis-tant and cross-checked by another undergraduate research assistant for accu-racy. Responses were placed in random order and assigned random numbers so team members could not identify at which time the response was provided.

Next, we focused on the two open-ended questions assessing knowledge regarding how to respond to a friend experiencing intimate partner violence and how students perceived that they changed as a result of involvement in the courses. Four team members reviewed the transcribed responses and col-lectively generated domains or themes that emerged in the responses to these questions. The themes that emerged regarding responses to the intimate part-ner violence scenario were as follows: Empathic/Addresses Emotions, Gives a Referral to a Resource, Action Planning/Goal Setting/Pros and Cons, Takes Charge/Tells Her What to Do/Gives Advice, Talks About Safety, Supporting Her Sense of Self-Worth, Self-Disclosure, Couple Counseling, and Social Support. Furthermore, the following themes emerged regarding students’ perceptions of changes as a result of course participation at Time 2 and Time 3: Enhanced Awareness of Intimate Partner Violence, Developed Commitment to Volunteer, Awareness of Inequalities, Fewer Stereotypes/Less Judgmental, Understand Why Women Remain in Abusive Relationships, Understand That Survivors Need to Make Their Own Decisions, Less Tolerant of Jokes/Media, Knowledge of Prevalence/Frequency of Intimate Partner Violence, Increased Confidence in Helping Others, and Knowledge of Warning Signs.

Then, two undergraduate research assistants and the graduate student research assistant reviewed each response and placed the response under the domains that were reflected in that response. Multiple domains could be selected for each response. Codes were retained if there was agreement between the graduate student and at least one of the two undergraduate research assistants. In cases where there was disagreement between the




graduate and the undergraduate research assistants, the codes were discussed among the three raters and the professor until consensus was reached. Responses that did not relate to any theme and could not be grouped into a theme were marked as “other.”

In addition to sorting responses into themes for the abused friend scenario, the quality of the responses to the friend was assessed. The professor of coun-seling psychology and graduate student research assistant coded each response on a scale, including (0) not at all helpful, (1) slightly helpful, (2) moderately helpful, and (3) extremely helpful. This scale was chosen to reflect a general degree of helpfulness. Consistent with guidelines developed by experts who work with abused women, helpful responses included content related to having heard the friend, empathized with her, described resources, and addressed safety concerns (Davies et al., 1998; Goodman & Epstein, 2008). Also, responses that included respect for the friend making the best decision for her were viewed as helpful. In addition, direct advice-giving, telling the friend what to do, and inappropriate self-disclosure were deemed less helpful. Discrepancies were discussed by both coders until consensus was reached.

Finally, for the question regarding resources available to survivors, two undergraduate research assistants and the graduate student independently counted the correct number of resources listed by each participant. Only resources that actually exist in the community were counted (e.g., shelter, crisis hotline, legal advocacy). The number was retained when there was agreement between the graduate student and at least one of the undergraduate research assistants. In cases of disagreement between the graduate and under-graduate research assistants, the number of resources was discussed among the three raters and the professor until consensus was reached.

Results

Changes in Knowledge Regarding Intimate Partner Violence

A summary of descriptive statistics and correlations for the KIPVS is pro-vided in Table 1. The means and standard deviations of the KIPVS for the three time points are as follows (Time 1: M = 5.13, SD = 0.65; Time 2: M = 5.95, SD = 0.63; Time 3: M = 6.22, SD = 0.49). The means and standard deviations for each item at each time point are listed in Table 2.

The results of the repeated-measures ANOVA with the sample of 45 stu-dents who completed the didactic course indicated that knowledge of inti-mate partner violence increased from the first day of the didactic class to the last day of the didactic class, F(1, 44) = 71.41, p = .000. Results of the




repeated-measures ANOVA for students enrolled in both classes with data from all three time points (n = 14) revealed a significant overall model, F(2, 26) = 13.00, p = .000. Pairwise comparisons using Bonferroni adjustments indicated increases in knowledge from the first day of the didactic class (M = 5.52, SE = .18, p < .01) to the last day of the didactic class (M = 6.20, SE = .10, p < .01), and from the first day of the didactic class to the last day of the service-learning class (M = 6.22, SE = .13, p < .01). Increases in knowledge were not significant from the last day of the didactic class to the last day of the service-learning course.

Changes in Knowledge Regarding Resources for Survivors

We calculated the percentage of agreement among the three raters for the item assessing number of correct responses for survivors (83.7% for three raters and 96.2% for the graduate student and at least one undergraduate stu-dent). Thus, team members were consistent in identifying the number of cor-rect resources; consensus discussions were needed for only 3.8% of the responses.

The number of correct resources generated by students increased across time. At the onset of the first semester (Time 1), the modal number of accu-rate responses was 3 (i.e., 13 of 45 students listed three correct resources; M = 2.51, SD = 1.65) whereas, at the end of the semester, the modal number increased to 5 (i.e., 18 of 45 students listed five correct resources; M = 4.07, SD = 1.18). Furthermore, at Time 2, all 45 students, with the exception of 3, specified three or more resources and, at Time 3, all 14 students identified four or more resources (M = 4.71, SD = 0.47).

Table 1. Summary of Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Scores on the Knowledge of Intimate Partner Violence Scale Across Three Time Points.

1 2 3

1. Time 1 Knowledge — 2. Time 2 Knowledge .50** — 3. Time 3 Knowledge .34 .62* —M 5.13 5.95 6.22SD 0.65 0.63 0.49Potential range 1-7 1-7 1-7Actual range 3.91-6.55 3.91-7.00 5.27-7.00n 45 45 14

*p < .05. **p < .01.




Table 2. Knowledge of Intimate Partner Violence Scale Item Means and Standard Deviations Across Three Time Points.

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

Item M SD M SD M SD

Advocates should encourage victims of intimate partner violence to leave abusive relationships even if the victims want to stay with their abusive partner.a

2.80 1.62 5.73 1.53 5.36 1.60

Almost all violence survivors need formal support (e.g., help with housing, food, legal advice) more than they need informal support (i.e., support from family and friends).a

5.38 1.63 5.42 1.60 5.29 2.09

Sometimes battered women are under the emotional control of their abusive partner, so advocates have to make decisions for them.a

4.51 1.58 5.67 1.55 6.00 1.62

A key factor contributing to a woman’s decision about whether to leave an abusive relationship is her ability to support herself and her children economically.

5.58 1.34 6.76 0.48 6.86 0.54

One of the most important things a domestic violence advocate can do is to assist a woman in reconnecting with support systems in her own community.

6.09 0.76 6.56 0.62 6.79 0.43

Survivors of intimate partner violence should be required to testify in court against their abusers.a

5.27 1.36 5.93 1.25 5.86 1.10

One commonly used tactic by abusers to control their partners is restriction of access to money.

5.98 0.89 6.73 0.58 6.86 0.36

Intimate partner violence victims should rely mainly on trained advocates to provide the emotional support they need in dealing with being in an abusive relationship.a

4.82 1.21 5.00 1.65 5.71 1.38

Abusers often make it very difficult for their partners to obtain and keep jobs.

5.51 1.10 6.36 1.50 6.86 0.36

Effective advocates assist women by offering the best option rather than by describing all possible options.a

5.02 1.50 5.91 1.43 6.86 0.36

It is beyond the scope of an advocate to help a woman become economically self-sufficient.a

5.49 1.27 5.33 1.52 6.00 1.52

aReverse scored item.




Changes in Responses to Intimate Partner Violence Scenario

The percentage of agreement across ratings between the graduate student and at least one undergraduate student ranged from 75% to 100% for each theme. The themes in the responses to the intimate partner violence scenario changed over time (see Table 3).

In addition, the quality of the responses was examined. The percentage of agreement between the professor and graduate student on the quality of the ratings was 68% (in all but one discrepancy, the ratings were within one point on the 0- to 3-point scale), 35% of the ratings were discussed to consensus. Results indicated that the quality of responses improved after the didactic (n = 45) and the service-learning (n = 14) courses. At Time 1, most of the responses were rated as not at all helpful or slightly helpful (75.6%), and at Time 2, the majority of the responses were rated as moderately (31.1%) or extremely helpful (28.9%). Finally, at Time 3, the responses were most often rated as extremely helpful (64.3%).

Prior to the course sequence, the most endorsed theme identified in the responses was taking charge, providing advice, or telling the friend what to do; very few responses provided a referral for their abused friend and few

Table 3. Responses to the Intimate Partner Violence Scenario: Themes Over Time.

ThemeTime 1 (n = 45)

Time 2 (n = 45)

Time 3 (n = 14)

Empathic/Addresses Emotions

24.4% (11) 13.3% (6) 64.3% (9)

Gives a Referral to a Resource

6.7% (3) 24.4% (11) 42.9% (6)

Action Planning/Goal Setting/Pros and Cons

8.9% (4) 17.7% (8) 42.9% (6)

Takes Charge/Tells Her What to Do/Gives Advice

60% (27) 35.5% (16) 42.9% (6)

Talks About Safety 22.2% (10) 40% (18) 50% (7)Supporting Her

Sense of Self-Worth

20% (9) 15.5% (7) 21.4% (3)

Self-Disclosure 26.7% (12) 35.5% (16) 57.1% (8)Couple Counseling 2.2% (1) 0.0% (0) 0.0% (0)Social Support 31.4% (14) 31.1% (14) 21.4% (3)




were rated as empathic or addressing the friend’s feelings. Sample responses for Time 1 included the following: “Oh my God. Are you serious? You should leave that jerk ASAP,” “Leave him alone for a while and talk to an advisor,” and “Leave him. You may love him but he doesn’t love you. You can stay with me for a while and we are going to fill out a police report.” At Time 1, the ratings of the responses were not at all helpful (28.9%), slightly helpful (46.7%), moderately helpful (15.6%), and extremely helpful (6.7%).

At the end of the didactic class, fewer students took charge, gave advice, or told the friend what to do, and more of the responses included referrals to spe-cific resources. More students addressed action planning or safety concerns. Interestingly, self-disclosure was more present and responses addressing emo-tions or being empathic were fewer. The provision of social support and support-ing the survivor’s sense of self-worth appeared stable over time. Quality ratings also appeared to change with only 4.4% rated as not at all helpful, 28.9% slightly helpful, 31.1% moderately helpful, and 28.9% extremely helpful. Time 2 responses included the following: “His behavior is not a sign of love and I’m truly concerned about you as my friend. Do me favor and please contact the domestic violence hotline because I do not want to see you hurt any worse,” and

That must really hurt for someone you love to hit you. I am here to support you in whatever you decide. No one deserves to be hit or abused. If you need a place to stay or anything at all just call me or come to my door. I support you and your decisions because only you know what’s the best course of action for yourself.

After volunteering in the shelter, empathic responses or those that addressed emotions increased greatly as did responses that described at least one resource, addressed safety, and included action planning or goal setting. The majority of responses included self-disclosure and many of the responses gave advice, told the friend what to do, or took charge. With regard to quality, none of the responses were rated as being not at all helpful, 21.4% were slightly helpful, 7.1% were moderately helpful, and 64.3% were extremely helpful. One student responded, “I care about you and I’m worried about your safety. If it’s okay, I’d like to give you some resources that can help you if you want it, and I’ll support you either way” and another student wrote,

I understand you love your boyfriend and are afraid of what he may do to you but do you think your best option is to stay with him? Leaving him may be a very difficult thing to do and I am here to help guide you to resources which can make this easier for you. But if you decide to stay I will support you regardless. Maybe we can think through your feelings about each option and their consequences.




Perceptions Regarding How Students Changed as a Result of the Courses

The percentage of agreement between the graduate student and at least one undergraduate student ranged from 80% to 98% for the themes addressing perceptions of change as a result of enrollment in the courses. At both Time 2 and Time 3, many students reported having a greater awareness of intimate partner violence as a result of their involvement in the courses (see Table 4). For example, one student stated, “I am much more aware of the severity of intimate partner violence and I also have learned that it is a much larger and more frequent problem than I originally believed it was.” Another student wrote,

I am more aware of how the social structure influences domestic violence after taking this class. I view domestic violence not as a personal problem but as a social issue. I also have seen how inadequate services are, but realize that it is complicated to improve them because there are so many things to consider (individually and socially).

After the didactic course, the responses indicated that the students now understood the complexities associated with why women remain in abusive relationships and how difficult it is to leave an abusive relationship (e.g., “I definitely see this matter of intimate partner violence differently. I didn’t understand before why a woman couldn’t just leave their partner who was violent. I now understand that it is not only extremely dangerous but can be very overwhelming. Much more less judgmental.”). Another student wrote, “I am more understanding of why women stay in domestic violence relation-ships and have a more complete understanding of domestic violence as a complex issue.”

After participation in the service-learning course, some students reported greater knowledge regarding the warning signs of an abusive relationship (e.g., “I see intimate partner/intimate partner violence everywhere. I will not accept a boyfriend who emotionally degrades me. I have realized how social justice oriented I am and I want to change the world . . . but it seems so over-whelming.”). More responses included comments about becoming less judg-mental and having fewer stereotypes about survivors of intimate partner violence (e.g., “I have learned so much more about DV, poverty, and social injustice in general. I’m more aware now. I’m more understanding of people in poverty and less likely to make stupid judgments about them. I’m more likely to argue with people who do have intolerant judgmental views.”). Most striking was the theme of increased awareness of inequalities in our society.




At Time 2, no student included this topic in his or her response, but after the service-learning course, many students reported enhanced understanding regarding inequities. For example, one student wrote, “It has opened my eyes to the faults in systems and injustices that many face. It has made me more aware of signs and has helped me appreciate what I have and to work on mak-ing my relationships healthier.” Another student indicated,

In general, the most important thing I learned was that I was very ignorant about the injustices in our society. While I used to believe there was not much discrimination or that the government did much to help those in need, I came to understand that that was not the case . . . While it is something I do not want to believe, our society does discriminate against the underprivileged and does

Table 4. Themes for Students’ Perceptions of Changes as a Result of Course Participation at Time 2 and Time 3.

Themes Time 2 (n = 45) Time 3 (n = 14)

Enhanced Awareness of Intimate Partner Violence

51.1% (23) 64.3% (9)

Developed Commitment to Volunteer

11.1% (5) 14.3% (2)

Awareness of Inequalities 0.0% (0) 35.7% (5)Fewer Stereotypes/Less

Judgmental6.7% (3) 21.4% (3)

Understand Why Women Remain in Abusive Relationships

37.7% (17) 7.1% (1)

Understand That Survivors Need to Make Their Own Decisions

4.4% (2) 0.0% (0)

Less Tolerant of Jokes/Media

4.4% (2) 14.3% (2)

Knowledge of Prevalence/Frequency of Intimate Partner Violence

6.7% (3) 0.0% (0)

Increased Confidence in Helping Others

13.3% (6) 14.3% (2)

Knowledge of Warning Signs

4.4% (2) 42.9% (6)

Other (varied responses not fitting in the above themes)

26.7% (12) 42.9% (6)




little to help them get a proper education and affordable housing in a neighborhood that is not filled with crime. The women and children in [the] shelter have to deal with issues such as these, on top of the domestic violence, that just add stress and make it seem impossible to live a happy life. I admit that I have been sheltered most of my life in the safe and rich city of (location deleted). However, this does not mean that I should be ignoring issues in our society and actually, I believe that those who are privileged should have a higher moral responsibility to help out. Volunteering for only one day a week this semester has made me aware of the problems of gender control and male dominance in our society. While now it seems crazy that I was not fully aware of these before, I am glad that I am now so that I can try and work on them in our society.

Finally and somewhat unexpectedly, several students commented on how the experience affected their career development. A small number of students learned that a future career in counseling was not compatible with their inter-ests or strengths after volunteering in the shelter, an important outcome prior to investing years in graduate education. However, some students returned to volunteer at the shelter after graduation from college and the majority of students reported being committed to using their knowledge in their future occupations as psychologists, social workers, lawyers, or in medical fields. One student who will be attending medical school stated,

As a physician, I will see my patients not as a collection of symptoms, but I will consider social and environmental factors that are affecting their illness. I can use both the information I have learned from these courses as a doctor to look for warning signs in female patients who may be experiencing domestic violence. If I notice signs in a patient, I will be patient and understanding because I know it is not easy to leave. However, I also hope to be knowledgeable about the local resources and shelters available for victims of abuse so I can connect my patients with the necessary agencies.

Discussion

Quantitative and qualitative analyses indicated that after participation in the university–community partnership, undergraduate students gained knowl-edge about intimate partner violence and the resources available to survivors, and improved in their responses to a hypothetical scenario where a friend was being abused. In addition, the students reported enhanced awareness of the complexities associated with intimate partner violence, including the reasons why women choose to remain in abusive relationships. Importantly, students identified the warning signs of an abusive relationship, increased in




awareness of societal inequities, and reported having fewer stereotypes about and being less judgmental of survivors of intimate partner violence.

These results were consistent with a meta-analysis investigating the effi-cacy of service-learning courses (Conway et al., 2009). The meta-analysis found that students involved in service-learning courses gained significant knowledge regarding academic content. In our study, students reported improved knowledge about intimate partner violence after the didactic course but not after the service-learning course. Students entering the second semes-ter had high levels of knowledge regarding intimate partner violence and thus were not likely to show substantive changes in this construct after the ser-vice-learning experience. They were, however, able to accurately identify additional resources for survivors as students showed increased knowledge of resources after both the didactic course and the service-learning course. It is likely that work in the shelter exposed students to additional resources not described in the first course.

It is important to note that the average change in knowledge from partici-pation in the courses was small. Examination of the items on the KIPVS showed the most change in the items assessing the degree to which students should encourage women to leave abusive relationships (even if they are not ready) and the items assessing the degree to which advocates should make decisions or describe the best option for the survivors. The course sequence clearly educated students about the need to respect the choices of survivors of intimate partner violence. In addition, the quantitative findings call into ques-tion the practical versus statistical significance of the changes that occurred; one might conclude that changes in knowledge were small after the analysis of the quantitative data. However, the most substantive changes appear to be captured by the qualitative analyses. For example, a different type of learning (focused on social inequities) seemed to occur in the service-learning course as demonstrated by the results of the qualitative analyses described below.

Change occurred with regard to responses to a hypothetical scenario in which a friend shared that she was being abused. Prior to completion of the courses, students took charge and told the friend what she should do—some-thing that is rarely helpful if the individual has not committed to the action. After the didactic course, students provided supportive statements, illustrat-ing an understanding of the challenges associated with leaving an abusive relationship. After volunteering in the shelter, students’ responses evolved to include empathic understanding, concern regarding safety, referrals to com-munity resources, and engagement in action planning or goal setting. The students demonstrated an increased understanding regarding the importance of listening, providing support, and educating about resources while under-standing the need for an individualized approach to each survivor.




Interestingly, self-disclosure increased over time and examination of the responses showed that the content of the disclosures differed. Initially, stu-dents indicated what they would do if they were in the situation (e.g., “If it were me, I would break things off”), whereas after the service-learning course, the disclosures were more likely to express concern (e.g., “I care about you and I am worried for your safety”). This is a critical change, pro-viding strong evidence that the course succeeded in teaching students to use a survivor-defined advocacy approach (Davies & Lyon, 2013). Working with survivors of intimate partner violence is challenging and frustrating work; sometimes it means watching a survivor choose priorities other than safety, which can be difficult for advocates to experience and understand (Slattery & Goodman, 2009). It is often tempting, even for seasoned advocates, to impose their views about what survivors should do—sometimes in an effort to pro-tect against pain. Yet, over the course of a relatively short period of time, these students appear to have learned to replace judgment with an honest declaration of their feeling. This seemingly simple shift suggests that not only did they come to understand the uselessness of giving advice but that they were able to examine, identify, and then articulate the concern that often triggers advice-giving.

In reflecting on what they learned from involvement in the courses, the majority of students noted an in-depth understanding of intimate partner vio-lence and the difficulty associated with leaving abusive relationships. They commented on knowing the warning signs to look for in their romantic rela-tionships (e.g., not to confuse excessive jealousy and possessiveness with love). After the service-learning course, students were more aware of societal inequalities and held fewer stereotypes about survivors of intimate partner violence.

It is possible that students might learn even more when working directly with the survivors of intimate partner violence. However, in our experience, the match between undergraduate students and children worked best (when piloting the intervention in previous years in a different shelter, students ran groups for women which at times were not as well received as those for the children, as the survivors sometimes questioned the students’ expertise and life experience). Although interactions with adult survivors were minimal, the students benefited from learning about intimate partner violence in class and then being exposed to the survivors at the shelter and directly experienc-ing the effects of abuse on the children. Furthermore, providing services to the children in the shelter responded to an unmet need, as no other program-ming was available to the children at that time.

It is salient to note that this innovative university–community partnership addressed two significant limitations associated with college service-learning




experiences in community agencies. First, college students often lack the req-uisite skills or confidence to be effective volunteers (Heckert, 2010; Lowery et al., 2006). By providing a semester-long, in-depth course focused on the societal issue prior to the service-learning experience, students are more pre-pared for the experience and can make a greater contribution. This seems especially important for issues such as intimate partner violence where indi-viduals lack knowledge regarding the complexities of the issue and may hold negative stereotypes regarding the individuals involved. For example, although students might learn after interacting with an abused woman that it is not easy to leave the situation, it is preferable that this knowledge is gained prior to entry into the shelter to ensure that the survivors spend less time edu-cating the students and are not adversely affected by their presence. Moreover, having the students enrolled in a course prior to the service experience enabled the professor to evaluate the degree to which the student would be effective in shelter. As noted previously, students who were repeatedly absent, tardy, or did not perform well were not allowed to enroll in the service-learn-ing course. This increased the likelihood that the students who were placed in the shelter would have the potential to make valuable contributions to the children in shelter.

Second, some universities require volunteer service, which has been shown to result in less positive outcomes (Beehr et al., 2010). Enrollment in our service-learning course was voluntary and students were educated about the level of commitment prior to registration. The students were also exposed to undergraduate students who had completed the service-learning course previously and several shelter staff members who provided lectures during the first semester. Thus, students were able to make educated decisions regarding whether or not to enroll in the service-learning course.

It is also important to note that university–community partnerships neces-sitate a significant expenditure of time and effort by professors (Heckert, 2010). To lessen the work required for overseeing a service-learning course beyond that of a typical course, the professor applied for small course devel-opment grants and involved graduates of the course sequence as teaching assistants in the first semester and team leaders in the second semester. Moreover, the professor developed working relationships with the shelter director and staff by volunteering to serve on the board of directors for the shelter. These relationships enhanced the collaboration between the univer-sity and the community agency. In addition, the intensity of the learning and the close relationships with the students were rewarding, which offset the challenges associated with developing and implementing this service-learn-ing course.




Some of the limitations associated with this study include measurement issues, the lack of control group, and the percentage of agreement on the quality ratings of responses to the abused friend scenario. The KIPVS was developed for use in this study, and the small sample did not allow for ade-quate investigation of the measure’s psychometric properties. Also, without a control group, we were unable to ascertain the degree to which the course resulted in the observed changes in our sample. Moreover, consistency in the ratings of the quality of responses to the abused friend scenario could be improved by providing additional training to the raters and clearer guidelines regarding what constituted a typical response for each point in the response scale. In the future, researchers should test the factor structure and psycho-metric properties of the newly developed measure, include a control group, and increase the sample size, perhaps collecting data over several additional years. Researchers might consider a larger study to test the effectiveness of this model of a university–community partnership in other universities and with other shelters for survivors of intimate partner violence across the United States.

Also of interest in future research is the degree to which involvement in this university–community partnership sequence serves as a protective, pre-ventive measure to reduce intimate partner violence among college students through education about warning signs as well as the resources available should violence occur in their relationships. This is consistent with recom-mendations from Courtois and Gold (2009) who suggested that education about trauma, interpersonal violence, and the associated consequences should be integrated into psychology curricula at the undergraduate level. Given the negative consequences associated with intimate partner violence and the high incidence of violence in dating relationships, this course should be evaluated as a possible intervention to reduce intimate partner violence among college students.

Furthermore, researchers could evaluate the influence of the course on the career development and commitment to volunteer work/community involve-ment among participants. Consistent with Krieshok, Black, and McKay’s (2009) notion of the importance of experience and non-conscious processes in career decision making, the course has the potential to play a salient role in career development. Future research might systematically investigate the career paths of students who completed the course to assess their perceptions regarding the role of the course in their vocational development.

Finally, as Goodman and her colleagues (2004) noted, counseling psy-chologists often fail to address the societal inequities that perpetuate social injustices. Future courses might include advocacy efforts at the state and national levels aimed at changing laws and structures that perpetuate




violence against women and children. Students (with their instructor) could write letters to, or meet with, legislators to request additional funding for shelters and programs for survivors of intimate partner violence. Students might also benefit from education regarding grant proposal development or from participation in fund-raising efforts to fund interventions that they iden-tify as needed based on their service-learning experience. The service-learn-ing course could include a requirement that students identify legal changes that would benefit children who experienced violence in their families, and then advocate for modification of these laws with their congresspersons.

To conclude, this innovative university–community partnership was asso-ciated with enhanced student learning regarding intimate partner violence, resources for survivors, and societal inequities. Future research is needed to implement this model in other communities and universities to advance col-lege student learning, further the work of non-profit agencies, and ensure that universities give back to their surrounding communities. Consistent with the prominent role of reflection in service learning, we conclude with the thoughts of one of the students in her final paper for the service-learning course:

The greatest thing I have learned through this experience is that one person really can make a difference. Last semester in [the first course], I usually left class feeling very hopeless. Domestic violence is such a complicated and global problem and I felt as if there were nothing I could do to fix it. But visiting shelter has taught me that even I, one little person, can make a significant difference in these children’s lives. In this way I can lessen the problem of domestic violence one child at a time. This work has also very much changed the way I think. It is one thing to know poverty, inequality, and racism exists. It is another to stare it in the face and hear the personal stories that make your blood boil. I now feel more passionate about these issues than ever before, and see them as major and urgent problems. As a citizen of this country, these realizations have definitely changed the way I see our society; I look at our movies differently, hear our music differently, and have realized that we have not moved past racism. These lessons have brought me out of my ignorance and naiveté, and have both frustrated and empowered me. With a new understanding of my personal power, I feel emboldened and encouraged that I can make this world a better place.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the assistance of Samantha Lichbach and Elizabeth Sauber with data analyses. Much gratitude is extended to the staff, women, and children at the Family Crisis Center of Prince George’s County, Inc. and to the University of Maryland undergraduate students who have contributed much to the children in shelter.




Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study was funded through a grant from the University of Maryland Center for Teaching Excellence.

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Author Biographies

Karen M. O’Brien, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Psychology and co-director of the Counseling Psychology Doctoral Program at the University of Maryland. Her research focuses on women’s vocational development (e.g., factors associated with successful management of work and family) and domestic violence. Dr. O’Brien is a licensed psychologist in the State of Maryland and serves on the board of directors of the Family Crisis Center of Prince George’s County, Inc.

Cristina M. Risco, PhD, is a research associate at the Center for Addictions, Personality, and Emotion Research at the University of Maryland, College Park. She also holds an affiliate faculty position with the doctoral program in Counseling Psychology at the University of Maryland. Dr. Risco’s research focuses on the educa-tional/vocational development of racial/ethnic minority students, as well as socio-cultural contributors to the emergence of health-related risk behavior among racial/ethnic minority adolescents and young adults.

Janice E. Castro, BA, received her undergraduate degree in psychology at the University of Maryland. Currently, she is a second-year doctoral student in the Counseling Psychology Program at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Her research interests include intimate partner violence and Latina/os advancing in higher education.

Lisa A. Goodman, PhD, is a professor and director of training in the Department of Counseling and Applied Developmental Psychology at Boston College. Her research focuses on community responses to intimate partner violence, the effects of partner violence on marginalized women, and innovative community-based mental health practices for vulnerable families. Dr. Goodman is co-founder of the ROAD (Reaching Out About Depression) Advocacy Resource Team, and co-creator of the relational advocacy model upon which it is based.



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