editorial board - sudeesa.lk 001.pdf4 publication of seacology-sudeesa mangrove museum 1(1) 2017:...

Editorial Board:

Editor – in – Chief

K.B. Ranawana, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya

Editorial Assistance

H.M.D.R. Herath, Department of Sociology, University of Peradeniya

J.M.P.K. Jayasinghe, Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Wayamba University

R. Gnaneswaran, Department of Zoology, University of Jaffna

M.G. Manoj Prasanna, Ministry of Mahaweli Development & Environment

Publisher: Small Fisher Federation (Sudeesa), Sri Lanka

Printed by: Sanduni Offset Printers (Pvt) Ltd

Cover Image:

Editorial

1 Seacology-Sudeesa Sri Lanka Mangrove Conservation Programme Life

Giving Eternal Mangroves

Anuradha Wickramasinghe

Review Articles

3 Mangrove Associated Vegetation in Sri Lanka and Their Ethno-Botanical

Values

H.M.D.R. Herath

9 Environmental Concerns of Utilization of Coastal Acid Soils in Mangrove

Areas with Special Reference to Aquaculture

J.M.P.K. Jayasinghe and D.G.N.D. Gamage

13 Mangroves Science and Lessons

Ananda Mallawatantri and Kumudini Ekaratne

19 This is the Time to Take Necessary Actions to Conserve Critically

Endangered Mangrove Species Ceriopsdecandra (Rhizophoraceae) in Sri

Lanka

M. G. Manoj Prasanna

23 Global Perspective of Mangrove Conservation

D. Wijayasinghe

25 Mangroves of Sri Lanka

K.B. Ranawana

29 Screening of Selected Mangrove Plants in Sri Lanka for Anti- Cancer

Activity and Isolation of Anti Cancer Compounds from A Selected Plant

S. R. Samarakoon

Seacology-Sudeesa Sri Lanka Mangrove Conservation Programme

Life Giving Eternal Mangroves

Mangroves are part of coastal ecosystems,

consisting trees and shrubs that grow in coastal

habitats of the tropical and subtropical regions.

Mangroves are bound with coastlines and grow

in lagoon systems, mudflats and riverbanks in

association with the brackish water margins

between the land and the sea. Mangrove mudflats

and roots systems embody a solution for global

warming and climate change. This solution is the

capacity of mangroves in atmospheric carbon

burial and provides life support system as being

a part of the global food web that gives

sustainable living for people by eradicating

hunger. In last four decades over 9000 ha of

mangrove forest has been destroyed in Sri Lanka

for commercial purposes without assessing the

ecologically, economically and climatologically

expanded natural services of mangroves. Only

little over 15,000 ha of mangroves remain at

present. Nowadays, natural disasters have

encompassed our lives.

Seacology supported mangrove

conservation program provides a demonstration

value for carbon burial process and life support

system for the community. Most comprehensive

action of Seacology supported mangrove

conservation program is to conserve 15,000 ha of

mangroves by deploying 1,500 community

organizations with 15,000 members in 48 major

lagoon systems in 14 coastal districts of Sri

Lanka. As great services for the entire world, a

mangrove museum has also been set up by

Seacology as mangrove knowledge base for the

community, school children, and all the

mangrove lovers. In addition, Seacology

provides financial support for nurseries to

produce over 500,000 mangrove seedlings to

replant in vacant mangrove lands.

Formation of Community Organizations

and training of communities has already been

commenced by giving wider focus for widows

and unemployed youth in the coastal belt where

the mangrove conservation activities are in

operation. Acommunity livelihood development

center has also been set up in Pambala with

micro financial facilities for women and youth.

"Sudeesa" brand name has been legalized already

for their business and gets support of

Government and Privet sector organizations. By

providing sustainable jobs with Micro finance

facilities, it is aimed to strengthen community

participation to protect mangroves in their

respective villages and lagoon systems in entire

coastal belt of the country. At this great juncture

of mangrove conservation process, we greatly

appreciate the Government Patronage and

Seacology financial support with monitoring the

success of Mangrove conservation efforts in the

country.

Anuradha Wickramasinghe

Chairman

Small Fishers Federation (Sudeesa)

EDITORIAL

Publication of Seacology-Sudeesa Mangrove Museum 1(1) 2017: 1-1

*Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Mangrove Associated Vegetation in Sri Lanka and Their Ethno-Botanical

Values

H.M.D.R. Herath

No. 325 F, New Gampola Road, Meewathura, Peradeniya

Mangrove associated vegetation is found

occurring naturally in close proximity to oceans

and along coastal areas in tropical regions of the

world. Mangrove associated ecosystems have

been identified in 123 countries in the tropical

regions. Mangrove associates have unique

environmental, economic, social and cultural

importance. In the world, there are about 18

million hectares of land covered naturally by

mangrove associated plant species. Due to

physical and other diversities, different

adaptations can be observed in these plant

species. About 70 to 80 plant species have been

observed in association with mangroves across

the tropics.

According to Tomlinson (1986) mangrove

vegetation can be categorized into three broad

groups. They are:

1. Major components

2. Minor components

3. Associated components

Some mangrove associated plant species may not

be necessarily found within the mangrove plant

community, but they may be found in abundance

in the mangrove associated highland.

A special feature of mangrove associated areas is

that the plant species which are abundant in this

habitat also grow in other ecosystems as well.

Since they possess medicinal value or some other

uses, the mangrove associated plant species have

a ethno-botanical importance. Therefore, the aim

of this paper is to discuss the ethno-botanical

importance attributable to mangrove associated

plant species.

In Sri Lanka, according to the indigenous plant

classification, all plant species are included into

three categories, namely “gas” (trees) (Table 1)

“wel” (creepers or vines) (Table 2), and

“pala”(leafy) species (Herath 2000). However,

according to the universal classification, they are

categorized into five groups, trees (“gas”), shrubs

(“panduru”) vine (“wel” or creepers) ferns

(“meevana”) and Grass (“thanakola”) (Kitamura,

1997).

The mangrove associated plant species, are used

by humans for diverse medicinal practices such

as, snake-bite treatment (Table 3), treating boils,

swellings, joint complications, phlegm and

phlegm associated ailments (Table4), as well as

for treating domestic animals, especially cattle

and buffaloes. In addition, they are used for

specific social and cultural needs and can be

categorized accordingly. Some plant species are

more frequently used while some others are only

used for specialized forms of indigenous medical

treatment.


REVIEW ARTICLE

4


Table 1: Mangrove associated tree species in Sri Lanka.

Family Species Local Name

Combretaceae Terminalia catappa Kottamba

Apocynaceae Cerbera odollam Gon Kaduru

Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata Magul Karanda

Lecythidaceae Barringtonia asiatica Mudilla

Lecythidaceae Barringtonia racemosa Goda-Midella

Malvaceae Thespesia populnea Gansuriya

Apocyanaceae Calotropis gigantea Wara

Calophyllaceae Calophyllum inophyllum Domba

Lamiaceae Premna obtusifolia Middee Gas/Maha Midi

Arecaceae Phoenix pusilla Indi

Sapotaceae Mimusops elengi Munamal

Annonaceae Annona glabra Wal Anoda

Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceus Beli-Patta

Fabaceae Cynometra iripa Opalu

Bignoniaceae Dolichandrone spathacea Diya Danga

Amaranthaceae Suaeda monoica Omari

Table 2: Mangrove associated vine (“wel”) species in Sri Lanka.

Family Species Local name

Fabaceae Caesalpinia bonduc Kumburu Wel

Fabaceae Derris trifoliata Kala Wel

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-caprae Muhudu Tamburu

Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica Govi Wel

Aizoaceae Sesuviam portulacastrum Maha Sarana

Table 3: Mangrove associated plants used in snake bite treatment.

Plants Species Local name Nature of

Panchangaya*

Name of

Snake

Mode of Uses

Special Uses

Pongamia pinnata Karanda

seed, root,

bark

all snakes Garundaraj Guliya

Vishaneela Oil

Visha raja Guli

Mimusops elengi Munamal

seed, bark

all snakes Visha Harana Guli

Calotropis gigantea Wara

leaves,

roots, seeds

all snake Vishaneela Oil

Visha raja Guli,

smoking, apply paste

on bite-side

Caesalpinia bonduc Kumburu

Seed kernel,

buds, roots

Cobra and

other

snakes

Vishakapala Guli

Maha Beheth Guli Sarpavisha

Guli

Ipomoea asarifolia Elabintamburu Panchangaya Cobra and

other snakes

Rasaranjana Guli

*Additional ingredients need to be used in preparation

5

H.M.D.R. Herath

UTILIZATION OF MEDICINAL PLANT

SPECIES

There is a distinctly observable pattern in the use

of medicinal plants by indigenous medical

practitioners. In some medicinal plants, specific

plant parts or extracts are used. However, in

some cases five parts of the plants, namely the

roots, bark, leaves and buds, flowers, fruits or

pod are used and they are referred to as

“panchangaya”. Some prescriptions include

“panchangaya” and in special treatments

inclusion of “panchangaya” is essential.

However, depending on the prescription the

following specific plant parts are used:

- roots

- stems and bark

- tender growing parts

- buds

- flowers

- bark or seed kernel

- outer portion of fruit

- juice of plant (eg. Diyanilla)

- “boowa” (eg. Achiviya, Palu)

- leaves (mature leaves/buds)

In addition to treating human ailments such as

joint pains, they are also used in indigenous

veterinary treatment systems. These medicinal

plants are also used in general medicine, but it is

not discussed in this paper. Some of these

medicinal plants are very highly esteemed in

indigenous medical practice. An example is the

Karanda plant (Pongamia pinnata) which has

many medicinal uses and therefore appropriately

regarded as the mother of all medicinal plants.

Wara (Calotropis gigantea) is considered as a

divine medicinal plant and is very widely used in

the treatment of highly poisonous snake bites.

The above discussion indicates the medicinal

value of some of the mangrove associated plant

species. Some indigenous medical practitioners

use them as major ingredients in medicinal

preparations and also consider them to be

indispensable for specific medicinal preparations.

In some locations, a specific plant might be used

predominantly as a food plant while in another

location it is used primarily for its medicinal

properties.

Furthermore, there is diversity on the basis of

divisional and regional levels with regard to the

use of plant species associated with mangroves

(Table 5). The author anticipates that more

research work will be done in the future; both on

mangroves and mangrove associates.

Mangrove associated plant species referred to in

this paper could be classified on the basis of Sri

Lankan categorization developed by Herath

(2000) (Table 6).

The following factors have influenced the

categorization (Herath 2000):

The classification of plants based on the

geographical zone of the earth such as

highland, water, air and sea ……………..(1)

The classification on the basics of

geographical and climatic zones …….…(2)

Classification on the basis of domesticated

plant species and naturally Occurring plant

species ………………………………….(3)

Classification based on observable features

such as large, thin, or small……….……...(4)

Classification on the basis of different

colours observed on the plants………...…(5)

Classification on the basis of inherent

characteristics of the plant………………..(6)

Classification on the basis of plant

extracts………………………………….(7)

Classification on the basis of taste of flower

detected by humans………………..……..(8)

Classification on the basis of association

with living organisms ……...…………….(9)

Classification on the basis of another

plant………………..……………………(10)

REFERENCES

Herath, H.M.D.R. (2000). Indigenous

classification of flora in the North Central

Province: an ethnobotanical study. Ph.D.thesis.

Peradeniya University of Peradeniya

(unpublished).

Kitamura, S. (1997). Handbook of Mangroves and

Associates. Indonesia. Ministry of Forestry

Indonesia and Japan International -Corporation

Agency.

Tomlinson, P. B. (1986).The Botany of Mangroves.

Cambridge University Press.

.

6


Table 4. Medicinal plants found in association with mangroves which are used for physical ailments.

Family Species Local Name Nature of

“panchangaya

Uses Method of Preparation

Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata Karanda bark, roots,

seeds, juice,

buds.

joint pains, wound dressing (bruises),

to stop bleeding, crocodile bites,

wounds in ear

Powdered roots and bark

scraped Karanda

boiled and put in oil

Sapotaceae Mimusops elengi Munamall bark gum decay and blisters in

gums

decoction

Asclepiadaceae Calotropis gigantea Wara bark, roots,

latex charcoal

root, seeds,

kernel

stop bleeding, fractures,

Rabies treatments, wound

dressing oil

decoction

for external application. powder mixed with other

ingredients

Fabaceae Caesalpinia bonduc Kumburu Wel leaves wounds, aramana oil mixed with other ingredients

Convolvulaceae Ipomoea asarifolia Elabintamburu leaves, bark joint treatments mixed with other ingredients

Malvaceae Thespesia populnea Gansuriya panchangaya fallen down from a height, blood

accumulation

mixed with other ingredients

Clusiaceae Callophyllum

inophyllum

Domba panchangaya softens bones and joints fractures domba oil mixed with other

ingredients

Verbenaceae Premna divaritica Wal Midi panchangaya pregnancy complications, female

disorders and complications

decoction mixed with other

ingredients

Flagellaria indica Goi Wel stems and

leaves

used to prevent blisters

mixed with other ingredients

Fabaceae Derris trifoliata Kala Wel stems, bark

flowers and

roots

treating joint disorders and boils

Wal Gurunda panchangaya disinfectant used in diverse ways control mumps chicken fox and

infectious diseases

7

H.M.D.R. Herath

Table 5 : Use of mangrove associated plants in cultural and other practices.

Family Species Local Name Social Relevance Other Uses

Malvaceae Thespesia populnea Gansuriya To tie the chair offered to chief priest, in

chanting Pirith. Referred to as Raja gaha this is

a ritualistic plant.

Esteemed to make furniture.

Used as a special manure in the dry

zone.

Fabaceae Pongomia pinnata Karanda Used in oil anointing ritual. Recognized as

mother of medicinal plant species and

attributed to planet Venus. Used to brush teeth

since Anuradhapura Period.

Leaves used to manure paddy crop. It

repels paddy pests. To reduce alkalinity

of soil levels and fungus soil

incorporated at tillage

Malvaceae Hibiscus tiliaceus Wal Beli In addition to medicinal uses, peeled out bark is

used to wrap Kitul spathes (Caryota urens

inflorescence in treacle making), rope making

and diverse packing uses.

Clusiaceae Callophyllum inophyllum Domba Regarded as a light weight timber used to make

yokes, cart making

and rafters in roof making, roof constructing.

Sweet smell is thought to bring Goddess

Srikantha, and she blesses the land

Arecaceae Phoenix pusilla Indi Natural growth of this plant is regarded as an

indicator of saline and sandy soil.

In addition to medicinal use, mats, hats

and containers made from leaves.

Combreataceae Terminalia catappa Kottamba Kernel of seed has aphrodisiac property, kernel

used in making in chocolate.

Fruit is edible. Useful timber. Used as

rafters in roof construction. Used as a

shade tree.

Pteridaceae Acrostichum aurerum Karan Koku Tender leaves coocked as a

vegetable. Esteemed for medicinal properties.

Fabaceae Derris trifoliata Kala Wel Crushed leaves, stems and roots used as a fish

poison.

Used to manure chenas, farmers believe

it adds nitrogen to the soil. The plant is

not destroyed, but only crushed to

prevent over -growth.

8


Table 6: Categorization of mangrove associated plants based on the system developed by Herath (2000).

Plant Species Common

name

Categorization

1 2 3 5 6 8

Terminalia catappa Kottamba Rathu Kottamba

Sudu Kottamba

Cerbera odollam Kaduru Goda kaduru, Mudu

kaduu (Gon kaduru),

Wala kaduru, Diya

kaduru

Wela kaduru Vasa

kaduru,

Divi

kaduru

Pongamia pinnata Karanda Gal karanda

Barringtonia racemosa Midella Goda midella, Diya

midella, Lunu

medella

Wal midella Ela midella Wata midella

Thespesia populnea Gansuriya Wana suriya

Calotropis gigantea Wara Diya wara, Goda

wara

Gal wara,

Weliwara

Ela wara, Ranawara,

Suduwara, Rathuwara,

Alu wara

Calophyllum sp Domba

Premna sp Midi Wal midi,

Beheth midi

Maha midi, Hee nmidi

Phoenix pusilla Indi Walindi

Abutilon indicum Anoda Weli anoda Wal anoda Heen anoda, Maha

anoda

Ela anoda

Naringi crenulata Beli Wal Beli

Mimusops elengi Munamal Wal munamal

Dolichandrone

spathacea

Diyadanga

Salvadora persica Malitthan

Azima tetracantha Katuniyada Mahaniyada


Environmental Concerns of Utilization of Coastal Acid Soils in Mangrove

Areas with Special Reference to Aquaculture


Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries and Nutrition, Wayamba University

of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila (NWP)

Sri Lanka has extensive systems of lagoons and

estuaries around the country. The coastal areas

and adjoining wetlands are the areas available for

various development activities to cater to the

demand of rapidly expanding population and

industries. Coastal aquaculture, especially shrimp

aquaculture has developed to an industrial status

where around 7000MT of shrimp are produced

annually. Coastal wetlands are reclaimed for

urban expansion, construction of roads,

agriculture and aquaculture. More than 70% of

the shrimp ponds are developed on coastal

wetlands.

The coastal areas of Sri Lanka have a

conducive environment for the formation of acid

sulphate and potential acid sulphate soils. These

soils contain acid sulphate materials. They are

rich in iron, aluminium and manganese

compounds. Acid soils are developed from

sediments that have high content of sulphites

which have been accumulated by the reduction of

water and occur in narrow coastal areas on

swampy land which are regularly flooded by

brackish water.

Acid soils are very common in monsoonal

humid tropics where the tidal areas are covered

with dense mangrove forests. An abundance of

organic matter from mangroves with saturation

of brackish water or sea water will lead to a

situation where anaerobic sulphate reduction

takes place. If iron is available in sediments this

results in formation of pyrites.

DISTRIBUTION OF ACID SULPHIDE

SOILS

Although Sri Lanka has an estimated area of

around 16,000ha, in South and South-East Asia

there are extensive areas of acid sulphate soils

distributed in coastal areas (Table 01).

Table 01: Extent of acid soils in South and South-East Asia

Country Extent ( ha)

Bangladesh 700000

Myanmar 180,000

India 390,000

Indonesia 2,000,000

Cambodia 200,000

Malaysia 160,000

Philippines 527,000

Sri Lanka 16,000

Thailand 778,000

Vietnam 1,000,000

In coastal areas of Sri Lanka, ecologically

sensitive areas of mangroves and salt marshes are

found bordering main lagoon systems. A pyritic

layer consisting of acid sulphide soils is found

under recently accumulated sediments. The

majority of coastal areas belong to the

government has been leased for various

purposes. Although these areas have been earlier

designated as common property resources, they

have been transformed to a single property with

limited access to the community. Some of these

areas have been reclaimed for agriculture, mainly

paddy and coconuts. In urban areas, these are the

lands available for construction of roads, houses

and expansion of residential areas.


REVIEW ARTICLE

10


Figure 1: The natural setting in coastal areas.

Figure 2: Iron coating on plants.

The pyritic zone (Figure 1) in coastal areas

is found insulated under the recently formed

sediment layer but gets exposed during

reclamation of these lands for aquaculture and

agriculture. Oxidation of pyrites results in

various iron hydroxides and sulphuric acids.

Several environmental concerns have emerged

due to the utilization of pyritic sediment for

various purposes. The adverse environmental

impacts have been categorized as short term and

long-term impacts. Coastal land conversion into

other areas affects the various ecosystem services

provided by these sensitive areas. There are

several impacts on aquaculture in general and

shrimp aquaculture in particular, which has

developed as an industry. Increased dominance

of acid tolerant plants and plankton species is

one. These affect the biodiversity and the natural

productivity of the coastal ecosystems. Changes

in food chains and food webs are also a matter of

concern.

Temperature of natural waters will

increase due to increased light penetration. The

acids that get produced tend to dissolve heavy

metals such as iron, aluminum, manganese in

soil and concentration of these toxic elements

will increase in the environment. Persistent iron

coatings (Figure 2) have been observed on

aquatic plants in these areas, where acid sulphate

soils are reclaimed. Reduction of spawning

success due to destruction of undeveloped eggs

and increased acidity in the surrounding water

will affect the reproductive behavior of the

organisms in the environment. Leaching of water

rich with toxic elements into coastal waters

adjacent to the reclaimed areas create chemical

migration barriers to the fish, shrimp and other

species that migrate in estuarine and lagoon

environments.

11


Figure 3: Iron hydroxides accumulation among gills.

Acid sulphate soil areas have been

identified as areas not suitable or marginal for

aquaculture activities. But due to the pressure for

lands and unavailability of suitable areas,

location of aquaculture sites in pyritic soils areas

is unavoidable. Fish kills are common in those

ponds constructed on acid soils. During the

periods of heavy rains, after pro-longed drought

periods, sulphuric acids forms and get washed

into the ponds due to rains. Sudden fish kills are

recorded in those areas in natural waters as well

as in aquaculture ponds. When crustaceans and

fishes use their gills in respiration, colloidal irons

that get formed during oxidation process of

pyrites can accumulate between the gill lamellae

(Figure 3) and obstruct respiratory current.

This process damages the gill surface and

causes the inflammation of gill lamellae, leading

to black-brown gill syndrome. Organisms may

suffer from oxygen depletion. The growth and

productivity of aquaculture organisms in ponds

constructed on acid soils are poor. Toxic effects

of iron, aluminum, and manganese affect the

general health of the aquaculture organisms. Poor

natural productivity in the pond environment and

the absence of beneficial plankton may also

reduce the productivity of these ponds. High iron

content in these sediments tends to bind

phosphate fertilizer to the sediments and

phosphates will not available for the productivity

of the environment.

Although pyritic soils are marginal for

aquaculture development, the productivity of the

ponds constructed on acid soil can be increased

and environment problems can be minimized

using various reclamation measures. Before

selecting pyritic soils for reclamation, it is best to

conduct a soil survey. Criteria for classification

and mapping of those soils have been developed

by the International Land Reclamation Institute

(ILRI). According to the ILRI classification,

various soil classes soil profile forms have been

listed.

There are soil classes and soil profile forms

which are not very harmful. If reclaimed, the

impact is minimal on the environment,

agriculture and aquaculture. Use of agricultural

lime (dolomite), repeated drying and flushing,

leaching of pond dikes, construction of dikes

with non-mangrove soil, reduction of size of

dikes, increase pond size and water depth,

stocking large hardy fishes, continuous water

exchange, addition of higher doses of phosphate

fertilizer in dissolve form more frequently,

regular water quality monitoring, addition of

organic fertilizer and growing of vegetation

cover on dike are suggested measures by various

authors to reduce the adverse impacts on

aquaculture in ponds constructed on acid soils.

REFERENCES

Harkes, I.H.T. Drengstig, A. Kumara, M.P.

Jayasinghe, J.M.P.K. and Huxham, M. (2015).

Shrimp aquaculture as a vehicle for climate

compatible development in Sri Lanka. Marine

policy. 61: pp273-283.

Jayasinghe, J.M.P.K., Gunarathna, T.V.N.M.,

Sandaruwan, K.R.P. (2013). Brackish water

shrimp culture in Sri Lanka: Better Management

Practices, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka,

Makandura, Gonawila. Sri Lanka. 150pp.

Jayasinghe, J.M.P.K. (1991). The utilization of acid

sulphate zone for shrimp culture on the West

coast of Sri Lanka. Ph.D. thesis. University of

Stirlin. UK: 210.

Jayasinghe, J.M.P.K., Wijesekara, R.G.S. (2014).

Shrimp health management in Sri Lanka.

Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura,

Gonawila, Sri Lanka. 70-72.

FAO (2013). FISH TO 2030.Prospects for Fisheries

and Aquaculture. WORLD BANK REPORT

NUMBER 83177-GLB. 80 pp. 1818 H Street

NW. Washington DC 20433.


Mangroves Science and Lessons


IUCN Sri Lanka , 53 Horton Place, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka

INTRODUCTION

Mangroves thrive in hot, muddy,

waterlogged conditions with less oxygen and

salty conditions. These conditions will cause

death to many other plant species within

hours. However, mangrove varieties use a

range of techniques including an inbuilt salt

filtration system that keeps out much of the

salt and a complex root system helping

mangroves to stay upright in the shifting

sediments where sediments from land

sources meet sea water. Some mangroves

have snorkel-like roots called

pneumatophores that stick out of the mud to

take in air. Therefore, mangrove forests are

comprised of salt tolerant (halophytic) trees,

evergreen trees, shrubs and other plants that

thrive in brackish to saline tidal waters, and

associated fauna benefiting the inter-tidal

ecosystems in the tropics and subtropics.

Mangrove habitats support a multitude of

diverse creatures with some unique to

mangrove habitats.

Mangrove communities are

economically and ecologically valuable as

the most productive ecosystems of the world

(Box 1). Coastal communities depend on the

valuable services provided by mangroves by

way of construction material, firewood or

charcoal, leaves as feed material, habitats for

fish, extractions as dyes and tannins etc.

Mangrove areas in Sri Lanka cover

10,000-12,000 ha existing as inter-tidal

patches within partially enclosed estuaries

and lagoons, except along the Mannar-

Poonereyn coast line (IUCN, 2011).

Mangrove species that are found exclusively

in the inter-tidal areas are known as “true

mangroves” and those that are found in both

inter-tidal areas and other freshwater wetland

areas are known as “mangrove associates”.

A total of 21 species of true mangroves and

23 mangrove associates have been recorded

in Sri Lanka (IUCN, 2009).


REVIEW ARTICLE

Box 1: Mangroves Services

As forests of the Tide, living at the place land

meets the sea, mangrove forests support to our

lives and to the health of the planet much more

than we think. Mangroves provide us with:

1) Provisioning services: Direct goods

provided by mangrove habitats which can be

used for consumption and sale. e.g. food,

timber, fuel wood, medicine and other non-

timber products.

2) Regulating services: Benefits obtained from

the regulation of ecosystem processes. e.g.

protecting the shoreline, trapping pollutants

and reducing floods.

3) Supporting services: Ecosystem services

that are necessary for the production of all

other ecosystem services. e.g. biodiversity,

sequestering carbon, sediment retention/land

accretion, and primary production.

4) Aesthetic services: Non-material benefits

people obtain from ecosystem through

spiritual enrichment, recreation and aesthetic

experience.

(IUCN, 2009, Miththapala, 2008)

14


There are a number of emerging questions

we are faced with:

How long will these magnificent

mangrove forests survive the negative

actions of human activities?

Do we have mechanisms to educate

everyone including future

generations about the usefulness of

mangroves to our health and to the

planet?

How to explain the science behind

mangrove ecosystems including tidal

influence and land based pollution

impacts in a simplified manner?

What we should do to increase the

investments and include or

mainstream the value of mangroves

in national and sub-national

planning?

Can we stop environmentally and

ethically bad practices such as using

mangrove planting to reclaim

wetlands and coastal lands by

accelerated sediment trapping?

Are we selecting the right varieties of

mangroves for the environment

conditions to plant during

rehabilitation work?

MANGROVES FORESTS AROUND THE

WORLD

Mangroves are found in over 118 countries and

territories in the tropical and subtropical regions

of the world. Approximately 75% of world‟s

mangroves are found in just 15 countries. Asia

has the largest coverage (42%) of the world‟s

mangroves, followed by Africa (21%),

North/Central America (15%), Oceania (12%)

and South America (11%) (Wikipedia). The

Sundarbans, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,

has the largest single block of mangrove forest in

the world, covering parts of Bangladesh‟s Khuna

Division and the Indian state of West Bengal

(Wikipedia).

Mangroves dominate 75% of the tropical

and sub-tropical coastlines between the latitudes

of 25˚N and 25˚S or higher latitudes around the

equator. They are tropical species that do not

develop well when the average temperature is

less than 19˚C or higher than 42˚C (IUCN,

2009). They need coastal areas that are free from

direct wave action and conditions to receive

some freshwater from inland sources along with

nutrients. Mangrove plants maintain an optimum

salinity balance despite varying water salinity

and obtain nutrients mostly from terrestrial

runoff (de Silva and de Silva In: IUCN, 2011).

The most extensive treaty for the

protection of mangroves all over the world is The

Convention on Wetlands — Ramsar Convention,

signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. This is an

intergovernmental treaty which provides the

framework for national action and international

cooperation for the conservation and wise use of

wetlands and their resources.

SUSTAINABILITY OF MANGROVES

Globally, the rate of mangrove deforestation is

between 2-8% per year (Miththapala, 2008).

Indirect threats include oil spills, chemical

pollution, sediment overload, and disruption of

their sensitive water and salinity balance. The

situation is further compounded by

planting/rehabilitating mangroves without

technical guidance. In Sri Lanka, planting

propagules in the name of restoration but with a

hidden intension of encroaching to water bodies

and thereby expanding private land is common

among those in the low-income category.

In most instances, the developers clear-cut

mangroves and dredge fill to raise the elevation

of the land. Dr. McKee and other researchers at

National Wetland Research Centre of US

Geological Survey have found that when

mangroves are removed, the islands landscapes

begin to sink and erode. Nearby reef flats and

seagrass beds are also destroyed because dredge

material is taken from those habitats. Other land

uses of mangroves areas and habitat destructions

owing to establishment of salt pans, aquaculture

ponds, housing and hotels and extraction of fuel

wood are some of the main human led causes of

mangroves destruction.

Given the diversity of life inhabiting

mangrove systems, many countries have started

to tap into the tourism potential of their

mangrove forests. Preah Sihanouk in Cambodia,

Hoi An in Vietnam, Krabi in Thailand, Louisiana

in the USA and Maduganga in Sri Lanka are few

such examples. The services provided vary from

15


information centers, boat rides and bird watching

towers to nature trails and board walks.

Community members trained as tour guides are

thus able to generate a regular income. However

the benefits derived out of mangrove related

natural resources are not re-invested on

conservation and development of mangrove

resources. In other words, the Payment for

Ecosystem Services (PES) by mangroves are not

factored in the business models, including eco-

tourism.

ADMINISTRATION OF MANGROVE

AREAS

Until 1995, all mangrove forest areas were

classed as „marginal lands‟ or „waste land‟ and

were under the purview of the Divisional and

District Secretaries. The attitude towards

mangrove forests in Sri Lanka began to change

only when selected mangrove forests were

handed over to the Forest Department (FD) and

subsequently designated as Conservation Forest

Areas1. This initiative of the FD was

subsequently supported by the bi-laterally funded

Mangrove Conservation Project2, which

pioneered mangrove management and

conservation in three locations on the west coast

of Sri Lanka, and formulated mangrove forest

management plans.

However, these developments came too

late. Between 1990 and 2000, large tracts of

mangroves in the northwest of Sri Lanka were

indiscriminately converted into shrimp farms and

salt pans creating serious environmental hazards

and biodiversity destruction, with permission

granted by the local-level authority. Even today,

‟protected status‟ only applies to mangrove

forests designated as Conservation Forest Areas

by the FD, and mangroves found in the Wildlife

Protected Areas under the Department of

Wildlife Conservation (DWC). All other

mangroves remain categorized as „marginal

lands‟, and come under the jurisdiction of the

Divisional and District Secretaries.

Notwithstanding the lack of accurate data,

it can be safely assumed that more than half the

extent of mangrove forests is located outside the

1 Under the Forest Department’s Circular No.5 of 2001

2 Co-financed by Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation

between 2001 and 2003.

conservation and protected areas of the FD and

DWC, and thus remain highly vulnerable to

being encroached, damaged or destroyed (IUCN,

2011).

SUCCESS OF SMALL FISHERS’

FEDERATION (SFF)

SFF commenced working on mangroves in 1994,

in response to local fishermen‟s appeal to

address the increasingly negative impacts of the

shrimp farming industry in Chilaw, Mundel and

Puttalam Lagoons (IUCN, 2011). Over a ten-year

period, mangrove coverage dropped from 3,210

ha to 1,590 ha in Chilaw Lagoon, causing a

dramatic reduction in fish and wild prawn

production. Sediment discharged by prawn farms

contributed to increasing siltation rates in all

three lagoons, particularly in the Hamilton and

the Dutch Canals, further affecting water quality

and fisheries productivity in the three lagoons.

Thanks to SFF activities, over a period of

15 years, SFF was able to plant over 198,600

seedlings and propagules, in an area covering

approximately 185 ha of Chilaw, Mundel and

Puttalam Lagoons and along the banks of the

Dutch and Hamilton Canals. SFF had

successfully propagated and planted 18 of the 21

„true‟ mangroves species in Sri Lanka, including

several endemic species. Most importantly, the

SFF‟s mangrove planting programmes managed

to bring science into the practice through

collaborations with the Ruhuna University and

National Aquatic Research & Development

Agency (NARA). In recognition of SFF‟s

experience, their technical knowledge has been

sought by others, notably in the Eastern

Province.

SCIENCE IN PLANTING /

REHABILITATING MANGROVES:

The global success rate for mangrove restoration

and rehabilitation by planting propagules and

seeds is around 33%. Generally, success rates are

higher in high tidal environments. As such, in Sri

Lanka the survival of propagules and seedlings

might be low (IUCN, 2011), therefore, extra care

and better scientific understanding on the

mangrove species to match with the sites,

hydrology and environmental factors are

necessary for the success.

16


For example, the lack of using science was

demonstrated in post-tsunami mangrove

rehabilitation in Rekawa Lagoon. Data indicated

about 75,000 propagules and seedlings had been

planted by state agencies and non-government

organizations, covering an extent equivalent to

24% in Rekawa Lagoon. However, the damage

to the mangroves in Rekawa Lagoon was

marginal and limited to a small area around the

lagoon mouth, which had begun to recover

naturally within nine months of the tsunami

(IUCN, 2011). As mangrove planting and

aftercare require long periods, the efforts to

restore mangroves by projects may implement

after project sustainability mechanisms such as

community ownership or private sector

sponsorships to maintain the planted areas.

Further the mangrove planting in Sri Lanka‟s

micro-tidal barrier-built estuaries and lagoons

produced a number of disturbing results with

adverse impacts on the hydrology of barrier-built

estuaries including progressive sediment

accumulation that eventually resulted in the loss

of productive habitats. In a barrier-built estuary,

fisheries will tend to collapse when the

hydrology diminishes below a threshold due to

sediment entrapment.

IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature

IUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society organisations.

It provides public, private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that

enable human progress, economic development and nature conservation to take place together.

Created in 1948, IUCN is now the world‟s largest and most diverse environmental network, harnessing

the knowledge, resources and reach of more than 1,300 Member organisations and some 16,000

experts. It is a leading provider of conservation data, assessments and analysis. Its broad membership

enables IUCN to fill the role of incubator and trusted repository of best practices, tools and

international standards.

IUCN provides a neutral space in which diverse stakeholders including governments, NGOs, scientists,

businesses, local communities, indigenous people‟s organisations and others can work together to

forge and implement solutions to environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development.

Working with many partners and supporters, IUCN implements a large and diverse portfolio of

conservation projects worldwide. Combining the latest science with the traditional knowledge of local

communities, these projects work to reverse habitat loss, restore ecosystems and improve people‟s

well-being.

IUCN has been working in Sri Lanka since 1988, in partnership with the Ministry of Mahaweli

Development & Environment, Forest Department, Department of Wildlife Conservation, Central

Environmental Authority and leading non-governmental organizations in the field of conservation and

management. IUCN is pro-development and supports making projects and programmes

environmentally sustainable and resilient while sharing the benefits to local communities. In that

context, IUCN Sri Lanka works closely with UN agencies, World Bank, Asian Development Bank,

bilateral and civil society organizations.

17


CONCLUSION

The conditions in Sri Lanka are very opportune

for a number of ecosystem based science and

socio-economic studies to highlight the value of

mangroves and make the mangrove contribution

to national development visible for policy

makers and planners. In addition, the knowledge

base, both traditional and modern, on mangrove

ecosystems and services needs to be assembled

in an easy to accessible manner to researchers,

students and communities and disseminated

using simplified illustrations, interpretations and

in local languages in order to educate and

convince different groups on the value of

mangroves. Finally, as a continental island, Sri

Lanka is in a position to capitalize on mangrove

ecosystems to enhance socio-economic benefits

and sustainability and resilience of coastal

communities.

REFERENCES

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/mangrov

es/warne-text

IUCN (2011). An Appraisal of Mangrove

Management in Micro-tidal Estuaries and

Lagoons in Sri Lanka. IUCN Sri Lanka Country

Office, Colombo. viii+116pp.

IUCN (2009). Mangroves: A resource book for

secondary school teachers. Colombo: IUCN

Country Office. iv+48pp..

Miththapala, S. (2008) Mangroves. Coastal

Ecosystems Series Volume 2. Ecosystems and

Livelihoods Group Asia, Colombo. iii+28pp6.

UNEP 2011. Economic Analysis of Mangrove

Forests: A case study in Gazi Bay, Kenya, UNEP,

iii+42 pp

..


This is the Time to Take Necessary Actions to Conserve Critically

Endangered Mangrove Species Ceriops decandra (Rhizophoraceae) in Sri

Lanka


Air Resources Management & National Ozone Unit, Ministry of Mahaweli Development & Environment, Sri

Lanka

Sri Lanka is an island which possesses a typical

tropical climate with high temperature, rain fall

and high percentage of humidity throughout the

year. It has been identified as a biodiversity

hotspot along with the Western Ghats mountain

range of the Indian sub-continent. Biodiversity

hotspots possess a high number of species and

high endemism in 10,000 sq.km with highly

threatened species. Therefore, Sri Lanka shows a

high degree of genetic, species as well as

ecosystem diversity in Asia.

Mangrove ecosystems are economically

and ecologically valuable, providing a significant

range of ecosystem goods and services.

Mangroves play a major role in carbon

sequestration, providing protection to coastal

zones against the force of storms and energetic

waves such as tsunamis. They also have the

ability to absorb many pollutants and purify

water as a natural filter. Therefore, they have a

strong potential to contribute to climate change

mitigation. Mangrove ecosystems are unique and

vulnerable and confined to the intertidal areas.

They possess several adaptations such as

viviparous fruits, salt glands, aerial root systems

and thick cuticles in leaves to survive in hard

conditions in inter tidal zones. Mangroves show

a patchy distribution around the country

bordering lagoons, estuaries, salt marshes and

sheltered bays (Plate 1). They provide essential

services to humans and many faunal groups.

They are associated with tropical coastal

environments and are comprised of woody

halophytes that are well adapted to intertidal

conditions. There are 65-70 true mangrove

species identified globally while 21 true

mangrove species have been identified from Sri

Lanka (National Red List, 2012). The global

coverage of mangroves is 15.2 million ha and

distributed in 123 tropical and some sub-tropical

countries. In Sri Lanka, they are distributed in

15,000 ha. Though the area of distribution is less

than 0.1%, the species composition in Sri Lanka

is around 1/3 of the total number of the

mangrove species of the world.

Plate 1: The mangrove ecosystem.


REWIEW ARTICLE

20


Therefore, the species diversity of the

mangroves in Sri Lanka is comparatively high.

There are two true mangrove species namely

Lumnitzera littoria (Plate 2) and Ceriops

decandra (Plate 3) in Sri Lanka which are listed

as Critically Endangered, (National Red List,

2012) Lumnitzera littoria is confined to the

Maduganga estuary which belongs to the

Balapitiya Divisional Secretariat in Galle

District. The Maduganga estuary is gazetted as a

sanctuary under the Flora and Fauna Protection

Ordinance and it has been declared as the third

Ramsar wetland in Sri Lanka under the Ramsar

Convention. Therefore, this ecosystem as well as

Lumnitzera littoria is protected under the

purview of the Department of Wildlife

Conservation.

Plate 2: Lumnitzera littoria. at Madugana Estuary.

Plate 3: Ceriops decandra (Rhizophoraceae) Plant, fruits and flowers.

21


In this short communication, I would like to to

draw your attention to Ceriops decandra which

is listed as Critically Endangered species. Few

researchers such as Abeywickrema, (1960) De

Silva and Balasubramaniam,(1984–85),

Amarasinghe, (1996), and Pinto (1986) have

mentioned that C. decandra as a true mangrove

species in Sri Lanka. However, they have not

mentioned locations of the species nor have they

included photographs in their publications for

proper identification. Jayathissa (2012)

rediscovered this rare mangrove species from

Trincomalee and published its conservation

status as Critically Endangered in the National

Red List 2012. It is considered as a globally rare

species according to the World Atlas of

Mangroves and it has been recorded in 10 out of

the 112 countries where mangroves exist.

However, Sri Lanka has not been identified as a

country of its occurrence. Discovery of this

species by Jayatissa (2012) was the first recent

record. Thereafter, detailed photographs of the

species was published by Prasanna and

Ranawana (2014) in the Guide to Mangroves of

Sri Lanka which was published by the

Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of

Environment. In 2015, a voucher specimen was

deposited in the national herbarium by

Ekanayake (2016). This is the first substantiated

record of Ceriops decandra (Rhizophoraceae) in

Sri Lanka. It was also declared as a protected

plant under the Fauna and Flora protection

Ordinance (1937).

Ceriops decandra is a small tree or shrub

which grows to a maximum height of 5 m. The

bark of this tree has been used to extract tannin

and dye which are traditionally used for staining

fishing nets and sails. Leaves are oval to obovate

and 4–10 cm long with rounded to emarginated

apex and has 8-10 lateral veins. Distinctive

features of this species are found in the

hypocotyl. Hypocotyl of C. decandra is erect and

it is shorter than the hypocotyl of C. tagal.

Further, the cotyledonary collar of C. decandra

is dark red in mature fruits while in C. tagal it is

yellowish.

Presently Ceriops decandra is recorded

from Pulmuddai, Thambalagamuwa,

Poduvikkadu and Upparu (Figure 1) in

Trincomalee District in Sri Lanka. Three

locations in Pulmuddai were recorded by

Ekanayake (2016) and three other locations was

recorded by the author of this article. All these

populations are comparatively small and under

severe threat of human pressure caused by

habitat destruction and unawareness of this

species. Therefore, I would like to propose that it

is the right time to take immediate, appropriate

and effective measures to protect this threatened

species as well as to protect the mangrove

ecosystems in Sri Lanka.

Figure 1: Distribution of Ceriops decandra.

REFERENCES

De Silva, K. H. G. M. and S. Balasubramaniam,

1984–85. Some ecological aspects of the

mangroves on the west coast of Sri Lanka,

Ceylon Journal of Science (Bio Science), 17-18:

22-40.

De Silva, M. and De Silva, P. K. (1998). Status,

diversity and conservation of the mangrove

forests of Sri Lanka, Journal of South Asian

Natural history, 1: 79-102.

De Silva, M. and De Silva, P. K. (2006). A guide to

the mangrove flora of Sri Lanka, WHT

publications, Colombo: 64.

Ekanayake, S.P., de A. Goonetilleke, W. L. D. P. T.

S., Jayasekera, A. M. S. M. R. W., Asela M. D.

C., Pieris, A. L. and Bandara, K. M. A. (2016),

First substantiated record of Ceriops decandra

(Rhizophoraceae) in Sri Lanka,

TAPROBANICA, ISSN 1800–427X. March,

2016. Vol. 08, No. 01: pp. 37-40, Research

Center for Climate Change, University of

Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

Jayatissa,L.P. (2012). Present Status Mangroves in

Sri Lanka. In: The National Red List 2012 of Sri

Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and

Flora. Weerakoon, D.K. & S. Wijesundara Eds.,

Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

197 - 199 pp.

22


Jayatissa, L. P., F. Dahdouh-Guebas, and Koedam, N.

(2002). A review of the floral composition and

distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka, Botanical

Journal of the Linnean Society. 138: 29- 43

Ministry of Environment, 2012. The National Red

List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of

the Fauna & Flora; Ministry of Environment,

Colombo, Sri Lanka

Perera, K. A. R. S., Amarasinghe, M. D., Somaratna,

S. 2013. Vegetation Structure and Species

Distribution of Mangroves along a Soil Salinity

Gradient in a Micro Tidal Estuary on the North-

western Coast of Sri Lanka. American Journal of

Marine Science 1, no. 1 : 7-15. doi:

10.12691/marine-1-1.

Pinto, L., (1986). Mangroves of Sri Lanka, Natural

Resource, Energy and Science Authority of Sri

Lanka, Colombo. 54.

Prasanna, M. G. M, (2008). Kadolana Parisaraya

(Sinhala), Biodiversity secretariat, Ministry of

Environment and Natural Resources, Colombo:

113.

Ranawana, K. B. and Prasanna, M. G. M.(2007). A

field guide to the mangroves of Sri Lanka,

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources,

Colombo: 54pp.


Global Perspective of Mangrove Conservation

Dhammika Wijayasinghe

Sri Lanka National Commission for UNESCO (SLNCU), Isurupaya ,"5th Floor", Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte

The General Conference of the United Nations

Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO) proclaimed 26th July as

“International Day for the Conservation of the

Mangrove Ecosystem” at its 38th Session. This

was a result of a proposal submitted to UNESCO

by Ecuador with the support of the Latin

American and Caribbean group. The proposal

underlined the importance of mangrove

ecosystems to coastline protection, climate

change mitigation and food security for local

communities. Another significance of mangrove

protection to UNESCO is that there are about 84

sites under UNESCO Man and Biosphere

Programme with mangrove components. Most of

these sites are located in developing countries

and small island developing states. All member

states unanimously supported proposal in view

on global significance of conservation of

mangroves.

The entire world is currently facing the

dire consequences of climate change. The

impacts are felt by different countries in varying

degrees. Some countries are more vulnerable to

the effects of climate change than others.

Increase of global temperature due to greenhouse

gases results melting of glaciers, which, in turn,

contribute to sea level rise. Island nations and

coastal areas are at higher risks of vanishing

from the global map or being completely

inundated. Small islands and developing

countries are more vulnerable to the adverse

impacts of climate change due to the fact they are

unable to combat these challenges. Hence it is

worthwhile to look at more cost-effective climate

change adaptations than turning to expensive,

high tech methods.

Mangroves play a major role in sustainable

development since their services are multi-

faceted. Some researchers and academics have

broadly categorized ecosystem services rendered

by mangroves into three groups. They are

provisioning services (economic), regulating &

supporting services (environmental), and cultural

(social) services. The provisioning services

include many goods that people obtain from

mangroves such as food, timber, medicine,

firewood, roofing material etc. Many mangrove

species yield valuable timber because of their

high resistance to rotting and insect damage.

Some mangrove species are also used in

production of pulp, wood chips, tannins and

charcoal. In addition to direct food material

provided by mangroves, they provide breeding

grounds for many species of fish, prawns and

crabs that are consumed by humans. They also

contribute to substantial portion of the income of

local communities. Leaves of mangrove species

are also used as animal fodder. Several species of

mangroves are known to have medicinal value

and are used in indigenous medical practices.

Traditionally, people used to harvest these

products in a sustainable manner that did not

compromise the mangrove forest. However, with

increasing populations and human demands, the

extraction reached a level which is detrimental to

the mangrove ecosystem.

The regulatory services of mangroves are

broader services that help the environment cope

with climate change, coping with ecosystem

processes and management of the coastal areas.

They are beneficial to humans as well as all other

living beings. One of the most significant

features of mangroves is their high carbon

sequestration capacity. Hence, they remove

carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is a

main greenhouse gas that contributes to global

warming. Research has shown that mangroves

have double the living biomass of tropical

forests. Another interesting fact is that unlike in

other peat forests that liberate substantial amount

of methane, which is another greenhouse gas, the


REVIEW ARTICLE

24


saline soil in mangrove forests, does not produce

methane. Hence, the mangrove soil creates an

effective carbon repository. This makes

mangroves an important factor in the mitigation

of global warming. However, the fact remains

that despite current mitigation actions, it is

difficult to stop global warming. Therefore,

resorting to climate change adaptations is of

utmost importance for the survival of all the

living beings on this planet.

Mangrove ecosystems provide vital

services to the environment as a major player in

climate change adaptations. They protect the

coastal areas though soil stabilization from being

eroded by strong waves and tropical cyclones.

There are records of less damage reported from

coastal belts with mangrove coverage during

destructive tsunamis from several countries. It is

proven that the wave height reduces while

travelling through the mangrove roots thus

reducing their strength when waves meet sandy

soils. Mangroves also contribute to reclamation

of land by deposition of sediments and debris.

Their unique root system traps and binds soil and

nutrients in a manner that will not allow them to

be easily washed away. This trapping of

sediments by mangrove roots is beneficial to the

corals and sea-grass beds by protecting them

from being smothered in sediments. It improves

the health of coral reefs and related fish and other

coral reef inhabitants. Another very important

ecosystem service rendered by mangroves is the

maintenance of water quality. Some mangrove

species have the ability to absorb and retain toxic

materials dissolved in water thus purifying

surrounding water. They filter and assimilate

pollutant from upland run-offs.

Eco-tourism and recreational activities are

two of the most important cultural services of

mangrove. They improve the aesthetic value of

the coastal area and enriches coastal habitats.

Mangroves attract a lot of bird watchers since

they provide ideal habitat for bird nesting. In

addition to direct mangrove forest tourism and

bird watching, they add value to nearby coral

reefs and beaches which attract diverse and

swimmers. The educational and scientific

research value of this unique ecosystem, which

contributes to enhancement of knowledge base

for the future, is another important social

ecosystem service of mangroves.

UNESCO is an organization that is

dedicated to achieving global sustainability

through education, economic development and a

culture of peace. Recognizing that mangrove

conservation contribute towards realizing several

Sustainable Development Goals and that it will

contribute to saving many small islands from

consequences of sea level rise, UNESCO

proclaimed 26th of July each year, which was

unofficially recognized as the National

Mangrove Conservation Day by many countries

in the world, as the International Day for

Mangrove Conservation. It is expected that

member states, through their governmental and

non-government structures would take necessary

steps to protect and conserve mangroves that

provide numerous ecosystem services to us. That

is where Sudeesa-Seacology comes in with their

important endeavor for the conservation of

mangroves. Their work addresses sustainable

development in a holistic manner and is directly

in line with UNESCO’s aspirations. They deal

with all three pillars of sustainability, viz,

economic, social and environmental aspects.

Sudeesa-Seacology is working closely with state

partners such as the Ministry of Education,

Ministry of Environment, the National

Commission for UNESCO and other

development partners like World Food Program

in order to ensure the sustainability of the

program and our planet.


Mangroves of Sri Lanka

K.B. Ranawana

Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

INTRODUCTION

Mangroves are salt tolerant woody plant

communities of trees and shrubs found along

sheltered lagoons, bays and estuaries in the

tropics. These unique intertidal plant

communities of different families show

remarkable adaptations to survive in saline and

water-logged soils. Since mangroves are usually

found in soft intertidal sediments their

distribution is governed by the tidal amplitude.

While occupying a margin between land and sea,

mangrove swamps attract faunal components

from adjoining terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems

in addition to the species that have taken

advantage of living in mangrove swamps

permanently. Land mammals, reptiles, and birds

use the landward periphery of a mangrove

swamp for food and shelter sites, while crabs,

prawns, and fish migrate into the mangrove

swamp for the same purpose. Macnae, (1969)

and Macintosh (1982) showed that there is

usually a considerable tidal out—flow of

mangrove plant litter into coastal waters and a

smaller, but comparable inflow of freshwater

borne materials from landward sources.

Therefore, the mangrove ecosystem is an open

one, interacting with adjoining ecosystems and

extending its influence far beyond the intertidal

zone. The term mangrove has been used to refer

to the plant community as well as its component

species.

MANGROVES IN SRI LANKA

The width of a mangrove forest depends on the

tidal amplitude (Macnae, 1969) and in Sri Lanka

where tidal amplitude is very low (75 cm),

mangroves are usually limited to rather narrow

belts. The major mangroves in Sri Lanka are

located around Jaffna, Wadamarchchi,

Thondaimanar lagoons (northern coast) Kokkilai,

Navarau, lagoons, Trinkomalee, Kathiraveli,

Valaichcenai, Batticaloa, Pothuvil (astern coast)

Weligama, Gintota (southern coast) Balapitiya,

Bentota, Nogambo and Chillaw lagoons,

Puttalam lagoon, and Mannar (western and

northwestern coasts). Amarasinghe (1989) and

Pinto (1986) described mangroves in Sri Lanka

as being discontinuously distributed along the

coast around lagoons, bays and estuaries

covering an area between 8,000—7,000 ha.

However, a recent estimate by Edirisinghe et al.,

(2010) showed that the extent of mangroves in

Sri Lanka is about 15,670 ha, and their

distribution in the coastal districts of the island is

shown in Figure 1.

MANGROVE SPECIES COMPOSITION

Although records on the true mangrove species

from Sri Lanka are inconsistent, occurrence of 21

species of mangroves (Jayathissa, 2012) is

widely accepted now (Table 1). The most

common and widely distributed true mangroves

species are Avicennia marina (Family:

Avicenniaceae), Rhizophora mucornata,

Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, B.

sexangula (Family: Rhizophoraceae), Excoecaria

agallocha (Family: Euphorbiaceae), Sonneratia

caseolaris, (Family: Sonneratiaceae) Aegiceras

corniculatum, (Family: Myrsinaceae) and

Lumnitzera racemosa (Family: Combretaceae)

Occurrence of Nipa fruticans (Family: Palmae) is

limited to a few river mouths in the Southern and

Western provinces while Xylocarpus granatum

(Family: Meliaceae) also shows restricted

distribution in these two provinces. Lumnitzera

littoria (Family: Combretaceae) is restricted to a

few locations in Madu Gaga estuary.


REVIEW ARTICLE

26


Figure 1 : Distribution and extents of mangroves in the costal districts of Sri Lanka.

(Source: Edirisinghe et al., 2010)

27

K.B. Ranawana

Table 1: True mangrove species found in Sri Lanka.

Family Species Family Species

Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucornata Sterculaceae Heritiera littoralis

Rhizophora apiculata Palmae Nipa fruticans

Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Meliaceae Xylocarpus granatum

Bruguiera cylindrica Lythraceae Pemphis acidula

Bruguiera sexangula Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha

Ceriops tagal

Excoecaria indica (= Sapium

indicum)

Ceriops decandra Avicinnaceae Avicinnia marina

Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia caseolaris Avicinnia officinalis

Sonneratia alba Rubiaceae Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea

Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculatum

Combretaceae Lumnitzera racemosa

Lumnitzera littoria

(Source: Jayathissa, 2012)

IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVES

Mangroves are of benefit to man both directly

and indirectly. Some mangrove tree species

(especially Rhizophora, Bruguiera, and

Sonneratia) provide wood suitable for

construction of houses and canoes (Amrasinghe,

1988). But today the main use of mangrove

wood is for piles and temporary house

constructions. Bark of some mangrove trees,

especially R. apiculata, and C. tagal contain high

percentage of tannin (20.7% and 17.3%)

respectively and extracts of this tannin can be

used for tanning leather (Balasooriya et al.,

1982). It has also been used to dye cotton fish

nets and sails of the boats and ships. But with the

introduction of nylon fishing nets and

mechanized boats, the use of mangrove tannin

extracts has decreased in importance. The

mangrove palm N. fruticans provides alcohol,

sugar and vinegar in Malaysia (Macnae, 1968),

but is not widely used in Sri Lanka. Nypa leaves

are used as thatching material for the houses in

the vicinity of the mangrove areas. Leaves of

some mangrove species, especially Avicennia

spp. are preferred as fodder by goats and cattle.

In addition to this, mangrove leaves are used to a

limited extent as green manure. Fisherman in

some parts of Sri Lanka, particularly those living

around the Negombo Lagoon use branches of

some mangrove trees (especially Lurnnitzera,

and Rhizophora sp.) for the brush pile fisheries

(locally known as masathu). Fruits of Sonneratia

caseolaris is used to make a soft drink, and

tender leaves of Acrostichum aurerum are eaten

as a curry (Amrasinghe, 1988).

Mangrove communities contribute

significantly to the food chain in coastal areas of

the tropics. Numerous species of tropical finfish

and shellfish depend upon the mangrove derived

material for food. Many of these are

commercially important. The clams and crabs

occurring in mangrove swamps are also an

important source of protein for a large section of

low—income people in many tropical countries

(Linden and Jernelov, 1980).

Most of the peaneid shrimp species depend

upon mangroves for shelter and food during the

larval and juvenile stages of their development.

These shrimp species are highly valued for its

taste (as a gourmet dish) and subjected to

intensive fishery all over the tropics. These

shrimps spawn in near shore waters, and the

newly hatched larvae are transported to the

mangrove swamps along the coasts where they

remain until they reach the juvenile stage and

subsequently migrate offshore (Linden and

Jernelov, 1980).

The mangrove ecosystem forms nursery

grounds not only for marine species of fish and

shellfish but also for some freshwater species.

One example is the genus Macrobranchiam.

Here, the mature females migrate from

freshwater rivers and lakes to the mangrove

swamps along the coasts where the eggs hatch

into free swimming larvae. After completion of

28


the pelagic larval stage, the larvae metamorphose

to benthic larval forms and crawl back upstream

to freshwater habitats (Linden and Jernelov,

1980).

Mangroves also play an important role in

shoreline protection as their well-developed root

system prevent erosion of coastal and estuarine

areas. Decaying organic residues and other

particles carried by tides as well as run off and

drainage sediments are trapped by the closely set

root systems of genera such as Rhizophora,

Avicennia, and Sonneratia. This often leads to an

accretion of existing land areas but they are

partly balanced by erosion taking place from

other areas resulting in dynamic and changing

coastal geomorphology (Macnae, 1969).

THREAT TO MANGROVES

Mangroves in Sri Lanka are seriously threatened

due to development activities such as hotel

building and expansion of human settlements

along the coastal line. Further, urbanization,

water pollution, erosion and prawn farming are

major causes (Kumarasinghe, 1999). Mangroves

are perhaps the most misused coastal ecosystems

in Sri Lanka (De Silva and Balasubramanium,

1984). Protection of mangroves should include

prevention of i) outright destruction from filling,

ii) drainage and flooding, iii) any alteration of

hydrological circulation patterns, iv) introduction

of fine grained materials which might clog the

aerial roots such as clay, and v) oil spills.

Where mangroves have been destroyed,

they can be restored through careful planning and

replanting procedures. Mangroves of Sri Lanka

are disappearing fast and immediate action

should be taken to stop the destruction of this

valuable ecosystem.

REFERENCES

Amrasinghe, M.D. 1988. Socio economic status of

the huma communities of selected mangrove

areas on the west coast of Sri Lanka. Mangrove

ecosystems occasional papers, III. United

Nations Development Program, 19pp.

Amarasinghe, M.D. 1989. Structural and functional

properties of mangrove ecosystems in Puttalam

lagoon and Dutch Bay, Sri Lanka. M.Phil.

thesis, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka,

217pp (unpublished).

Balasooriya, S.J., Sootheeswaran, S. and

Balasubramanium, S. 1982. Economically

useful plants in Sri Lanka, Part (IV). Screening

of Sri Lanka plants for tanning. Journal of

National Science Foundation, Sri Lanka, 10: 213-

219.

de Silva, K.H.G.M., and Balasubramanium, S. 1984.

Some ecological aspects of the mangroves on the

west coast of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of

Science (Biological Sciences), 17 & 18: 22-41.

Edirisinghe, E.A.P.N., Ariyadasa, K.P., Chandani,

R.P.D.S. 2012. Forest Cover Assessment of Sri

Lanka, The Sri Lankan Forester, Journal of Sri

Lanka Forest Department, 34.

Jayathissa, L.P. 2012. Present Status of Mangroves

in Sri Lanka. In: The National Red List 2012 of

Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and

Flora. Weerakoon, D.K. & S. Wijesundara Eds.,

Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

197 -199 pp.

Kumarasinghe, C. 1999. Study of the distribution

and abundance of key mangrove plant species in

Pambala mangal. M.Sc. thesis, Postgraduate

Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya,

50pp (unpublished).

Linden, O. and Jernelov, A. 1980. The mangrove

swamp – an ecosystem in danger. Ambio, 9: 81 –

88.

Macintosh, D.J. 1982. Fisheries and aquaculture

significance of mangrove swamps, with species

reference to the Indo west Pacific region,. In:

Recent Advances in Aquaculture. Muir, J.F.

and Roberts, R.J. Eds., Westview press,

Colorado. 3-85 pp

Macnae, W. 1969. A general account of the fauna

and flora of mangrove swamps and forests in the

Indo-west Pacific region. Advances in Marine

Biology, 6: 73 – 270.

Manoj Prasanna, M.J. and Ranawana, K.B. 2014.

Guide to mangroves of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity

Secretariat, Ministry of Environment and

Renewable Energy. v+70 pp.

Pinto, L. 1986. Mangroves of Sri Lanka. Natural

Resources, Energy & Science Authority of Sri

Lanka. 54pp.

.


Screening of Selected Mangrove Plants in Sri Lanka for Anti- Cancer

Activity and Isolation of Anti Cancer Compounds from A Selected Plant

S. R. Samarakoon

Institute of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka

Cancer is a major cause of mortality in the world,

and is now considered to be secondary only to

myocardial infarction. With the increasing global

tendency for the use of herbal drugs for the

Alleviation of various disease conditions, many

investigations are now being carried out to

discover naturally occurring compounds which

can, (a) reduce the risk of or delay the

development or occurrence of cancer (chemo-

preventive agents), (b) be used effectively in

cancer treatment (anti-cancer agents) without

producing any serious toxic effects or (c) be used

as adjuncts to existing therapies such as

chemotherapy/ radiotherapy to enhance the

effectiveness of these therapies, or to reduce any

unpleasant side effects that current therapies may

produce.

Mangroves belong to twelve plant families

and they are botanically diverse. Almost all the

mangroves are halophytic species, well adapted

to grow in wet soil conditions and usually

possess some amount of viviparity. The

mangroves in Sri Lanka comprise of 22 true

species which are seen predominantly in the

amphibious mangrove ecosystem. The most

extensive mangroves occur in Puttlam, and

Kalpitiya areas in Sri Lanka. A wide range of

natural compounds, including novel chemical

compounds have been isolated form mangroves

and mangrove associates. Some isolated

compounds from mangroves are considered to

have bioactivities that may be beneficial to

improve human health and these compounds

might be very useful in new drug discovery

process. Mangrove plants have also been used as

folklore medicine and extracts from mangroves

have been reported to contain biological

activities including anticancer, antibacterial, anti-

viral and anti-inflammatory effects. Since most

of the mangrove plants found in Sri Lanka have

not been studied for their chemical,

pharmacological and toxicological properties and

since they have not been screened for possible

anti-carcinogenic compounds, we designed and

experiment to study 50 mangrove plants in Sri

Lanka for anti-cancer activities with the aim of

isolating a potent anti-cancer drug lead that can

be developed for global use for the treatment or

prevention of cancer. In addition, analysis of bio-

active properties of isolated compounds

indirectly enhances the value of the natural

sources in Sri Lanka. In this research, leaves and

stems of 15 mangrove plants were collected

separately and sequentially extracted in to

different solvent systems. Preliminary, anti-

cancer potentials of above extracts were tested in

two cancerous (Hepatocellular carcinoma, breast

adenocarcinoma) cell lines by using an

antiproliferative assay. According to the results

of the screening for antiproliferative effects, out

of 50 plants 9 plants were identified as plants

with at least one extract having potential

antiproliferative properties. Based on the results

of the preliminary cytotoxic screening, leaves of

Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, of which chemical

constitutes have not been previously studied in

detail was selected for activity guided compound

isolation. Altogether four anti-cancer compounds

(Ursolic acid, Oleanoic acid, Eichlerianic acid,

Hopenine I) were isolated for the first time from

S. hydrophyllace leaves.

In addition, two other studies were carried

out with the aim of strengthening and providing

supportive evidences for anti-cancer effect of

hexane and chloroform extracts of S.

hydrophyllace leaves containing the above four

compounds (Ursolic acid, Oleanoic acid,

Eichlerianic acid, Hopenine I). The hexane and

chloroform extracts of S. hydrophyllace leaves

showed anti-cancer effects via activation of


REVIEW ARTICLE

30


programmed cell death. This evidence was

obtained by analyzing expressions of selected

genes and proteins which are involved in

programmed cell death of cancer cells. The

results obtained from another experiment

indicated that the methanol leaf extract of Phenix

paludosa containes potent antioxidant and

anticancer activities against four cancer types

including breast, liver and renal cancers.

As a continuation of this project, we, at the

Institute of Biochemistry Molecular Biology and

Biotechnology, University of Colombo, plan to

collaborate with Sudeesa; Environmental

Ministry Sri Lanka and Seacology, USA to

isolate and modify anti-cancer compounds from

mangrove plants which can target cancer stem

cells. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) mediate

metastasis and relapses in many cancers. CSCs

exist as small side population in malignant

tumors with the capacity to cause initiation

progression and metastasis of cancer and they

withstand against multidrug chemotherapies.

Discovery of efficient compounds targeting

CSCs will uproot the drug resistance cancers

completely. This effort will enhance the value of

mangroves and medicinal plants.

Further details on work carried out can be

found in the three papers that have been

published.

REFERENCES

Samarakoon, S.R., Shanmuganathan, C., Ediriweera,

M.K., Piyathilake, P., Tennakoon and K.H.,

Thabrew, I. Screening of fifteen Mangrove Plants

found in Sri Lanka for in-vitro Cytotoxic

properties on Breast (MCF-7) and hepatocellular

carcinoma (HepG2) cells. European Journal of

Medicinal Plants. 2016.14.4. 1-11.

Samarakoon, S.R., Fernando, N., Ediriweera, M.K.,

Adhikari, A., Wijayabandara, L., De Silva, E.D.

and Tennakoon, K.H. Isolation of Hopenone-I

from the Leaves of Mangrove plant Scyphiphora

hydrophyllacea and its Cytoxix properties. British

Journal of Pharmaceutical research. Published

online 29th

December 2015: 10(1): 1-6.

Samarakoon, S.R., Chanthirika, S., Tennakoon, K.H.,

Thabrew, M.I., Ediriweera, P.M.K., Piyathilake

MAPC, de Silva ED. Potential in vitro cytotoxic

and antioxidant activity of leaf extracts of

mangrove plant Phoenix paludosa Roxb. Tropical

journal of pharamaceutical Research – 2016; 15

(1): 127-132.

Samarakoon, S.R., Chanthirika, S., Ediriweeram,

P.M.K., Tennekoon, K.H., Thabrew, M.I.,

Piyathilake, M.A.P.C. and De Silva, E.D. Anti-

carcinogenic, and antioxidant f effects of

mangrove plant Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea –

Pharmacognosy Magazine – In press.

.

.

Publication of Seacology-Sudeesa Sri Lanka Mangrove Museum is issued annually.

Seacology-Sudeesa Sri Lanka mangrove conservation program organizes an International

Mangrove Symposium on July 26th

each year, since 2016 to commemorate the International

Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem. This publication mainly contain

research articles presented at the symposium

Research articles to be presented at the symposium should be submitted to Mr. Anuradha

Wickramasinghe, Chairman, Small Fisher Federation, Pambala Kakkapalliya, Sri Lanka

([email protected]) or to Symposium secretary [email protected].

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

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