ecosystems and energy - napa valley college study of interactions among and between organisms in...
TRANSCRIPT
Ecosystems and Energy3
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Overview of Chapter 3
◻ What is Ecology?◻ The Energy of Life
⬜ Laws of Thermodynamics⬜ Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
◻ Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems⬜ Producers, Consumers and Decomposers⬜ Path of Energy Flow: Who Eats Whom⬜ Ecological Pyramids⬜ Ecosystem Productivity
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chesapeake Bay salt marshes
◻ An estuary – semi-enclosed body of water where freshwater drains into ocean⬜ Tidal – gradual changed from fresh to salt water
◻ Cordgrass dominates – brackish◻ Home to insects and birds,
nursery for fish◻ Very important buffer for
coasts against storms
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecology
◻ Ecology⬜ “logy” study of, “eco” house – study of one’s house⬜ The study of interactions among and between
organisms in their abiotic environment◻ Biotic - living environment
⬜ Includes all organisms◻ Abiotic - non living or physical environment
⬜ Includes living space, sunlight, soil, precipitation, etc.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecology
◻ Organisms interact with biotic components, but also effect many physical and chemical processes
◻ Physical – walking on soil
◻ Chemical – CO2, O2, wastes
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecology
◻ Ecologists are interested in the levels of life above that of organism
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecology Definitions
◻ Species - A group of similar organisms whose members freely interbreed to produce fertile offspring
◻ Population - A group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area at the same time
◻ Community - All the populations of different species that live and interact in the same area at the same time
◻ Ecosystem - A community and its physical (abiotic) environment
◻ Landscape - Several interacting ecosystems (ex: bear hunting for salmon in a river, living in adjacent forest)
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Part of Earth that contains living organisms
Ecology
Community and physical environment
Individuals
Group of same species
All populations of species in an area
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecology
◻ Coral Reef communities – similar to rainforests for number of species and productivity
◻ Threatened with changing climate◻ How can communities
be protected from warming waters?
◻ What could loss mean?
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecology◻ Biosphere contains earth’s communities,
ecosystems and landscapes, and includes:▪ Atmosphere-
gaseous envelope surrounding earth
▪ Hydrosphere- earth’s supply of water
▪ Lithosphere- soil and rock of the earth’s crust
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecology
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Energy of Life
◻ The ability or capacity to do work◻ Chemical, Thermal, Mechanical, Nuclear,
Electrical, and Radiant/Solar (below)
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
◻ Solar radiation is the primary source of energy on planet
Energy of Life
Plants turn solar radiation into food
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Energy of Life
◻ Energy exists as:⬜ Potential energy
(stored energy) ⬜ Kinetic energy
(energy of motion)
◻ Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as arrow is released from bow
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Thermodynamics
◻ Study of energy and its transformations◻ System- the object being studied
▪ Closed System- Does not exchange energy with surroundings (rare in nature)
▪ Open System- exchanges energy with surroundings
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Laws of Thermodynamics
◻ First Law of Thermodynamics⬜ Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can
change from one form to another
▪ Energy is absorbed by water and plate, but not lost
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Laws of Thermodynamics
◻ Second Law of Thermodynamics⬜ When energy is converted form one form to
another, some of it is degraded to heat⬜ Heat is highly entropic (disorganized)
▪ Water in sunlight will get warmer
▪ Engine converts chemical energy of gasoline into mechanical energy inefficiently
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Photosynthesis
◻ Biological process by which energy from the sun (radiant energy) is transformed into chemical energy of carbohydrate (sugar) molecules
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + radiant energy
C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2
Chlorophyll in plants
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cellular Respiration
◻ The process where the chemical energy captured in photosynthesis is released within cells of plants and animals
◻ This energy is then used for biological work
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + energy
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Life without Sun
◻ 1970s – discovered hydrothermal vents in deep ocean (200oC or 392oF)
◻ Rich ecosystem supported without light◻ Bacteria perform
chemosynthesis⬜ Similar to
photosynthesis, but use chemical (H2S) not sunlight
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
◻ Passage of energy through an ecosystem
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Food Chains- The Path of Energy Flow
◻ Energy from food passes from one organism to another based on their Trophic Level⬜ Definition: An organism’s position in a food chain,
which is determined by its feeding relationships◻ First Trophic Level: Producers◻ Second Trophic Level: Primary Consumers◻ Third Trophic Level: Secondary Consumers◻ Decomposers are present at all trophic levels
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Food chains
◻ Autotrophs = Producers⬜ Auto “self” and tropho “nourishment”⬜ Produce own food from inorganic material⬜ Ex: plants via photosynthesis and hydrothermal
vent bacteria via chemosynthesis
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Food chains
◻ Heterotrophs = Consumers⬜ heter “different” and tropho “nourishment”⬜ Uses bodies of other organisms as food
◻ Omnivores – eat both plants and animals
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Food chains
◻ Consumers of detritus (detritivores)⬜ Eat dead material such as leaves, carcasses,
feces⬜ Ex: crabs, worms, millipedes, snails
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Food chains
◻ Decomposers or saprotrophs⬜ sapro “rotten” and tropho “nourishment”⬜ Breakdown dead organic material⬜ Release inorganic molecules (CO2 and nutrients)
that producers can use⬜ Ex: fungus,
bacteria⬜ Involved in
all aspects of food chains
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Food Web
◻ Food web visualizes feeding relationships within a community⬜ More complex
than food chain⬜ Still simplified
compared to nature
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecological Pyramids
◻ Graphically represent the relative energy value of each trophic level⬜ Important feature - large amount of energy is lost
as heat between trophic levels◻ Three main types
⬜ Pyramid of numbers ⬜ Pyramid of biomass⬜ Pyramid of energy
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Pyramid of Numbers
◻ Illustrates the number of organisms at each trophic level▪ Fewer organisms
occupy each successive level
❑ Does not indicate:▪ biomass of organisms
at each level▪ amount of energy
transferred between levels
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Pyramid of Biomass
◻ Illustrates the total biomass at each successive trophic level
❑ Biomass: measure of the total amount of living material
❑ ~90% reduction in biomass through trophic levels❑ 100 to 10
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Pyramid of Energy
◻ Illustrates how much energy is present at each trophic level and how much is transferred to the next level
◻ Most energy dissipates between trophic levels⬜ Lost as heat and energy
to maintain each level◻ Explains why there are
so few trophic levels
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecosystem Productivity
◻ Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)⬜ Total amount of energy that plants capture and
assimilate in a given period of time◻ Cellular respiration (R)
⬜ Plants use some energy of GPP to maintain themselves
⬜ Plants respire too◻ Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
⬜ Productivity after respiration losses are subtracted⬜ What is available as food for other organisms
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ecosystem Productivity
◻ GPP is similar to gross pay in paycheck◻ R is similar to taxes◻ NPP is similar to take home pay
Net Primary Productivity
(plant growth per area per time)
Gross Primary Productivity (total photosynthesis per
area per time)
Plant Cellular Respiration
(per area per time)= -
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Variation in NPP by Ecosystem
◻ Coral reefs are near tropical rain forests
◻ Humans consume a large amount of global NPP⬜ ~30% but we make up ~0.
5% of biomass
◻ This represents a threat to planet’s ability to support both human and non-human inhabitants
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Energy and Climate Change
◻ Humans use a large portion of global NPP◻ If we use more biomass as energy rather than
fossil fuels, our use of NPP may increase⬜ Corn as fuel, wood for heat⬜ This removes arable land from food production
use.◻ How can we balance our needs with other
organisms?
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
ENVIRONEWS
◻ Use of satellite imagery improves biomass estimates of forests⬜ Help protect tropic forests in developing countries⬜ Developed countries pay to keep forests intact
◻ Need to ground truth satellite models with monitoring data from forest
Ecosystems and the Physical Environment4
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Overview of Chapter 4
◻ Cycling of Materials within Ecosystems◻ Solar Radiation◻ The Atmosphere◻ The Global Ocean◻ Weather and Climate◻ Internal Planetary Processes
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest
◻ Experimental area in White Mountains, 1950s◻ Long-term ecological data
⬜ Data on salamanders since 1970⬜ Effects of deforestation
■ Measured chemistry of stream water after forest was logged and compared to control catchment (unlogged)
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cycling of Materials
◻ Matter moves among organisms, ecosystems, and the abiotic environment
◻ Biogeochemical cycling⬜ Interactions between biological,
geological, and chemical aspects of environment
◻ Five major cycles: ⬜ Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Sulfur, and Water (Hydrologic)
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Carbon (C) Cycle
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Carbon (C) Cycle
◻ Global circulation of C between living and non-living environment
◻ Major processes⬜ Photosynthesis⬜ Respiration
■ Soil, in particular⬜ Combustion of fossil
fuels⬜ CO2 dissolving into
ocean
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Carbon-Silicate Cycle
◻ Over millions of years, C will interact with silicate cycle
◻ CO2 with rainwater becomes H2CO3 and will slowly weather silicate rich rocks ⬜ Calcium minerals also released
◻ Ocean organisms use Ca2+ and Si4+ to form shells
◻ When die, shells become buried and over time formed into limestone
◻ Geologic uplift or subduction
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Human Affects on C Cycle
◻ Higher CO2 creates lots of feedbacks in environment⬜ > CO2 dissolved in
ocean
◻ CO2 was 0.029% of atmosphere (1700s)◻ CO2 is 0.04% (2014)◻ Expected 0.06% by 2100
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
◻ N needed for proteins and nucleic acids (DNA)◻ Atmosphere is 78% N2, but most cannot use
this form◻ Five steps
⬜ Nitrogen fixation⬜ Nitrification⬜ Assimilation⬜ Ammonification⬜ Denitrification
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Nitrogen (N) Cycle
1. Nitrogen fixation2. Nitrification3. Assimilation4. Ammonification5. Denitrification
N2
NH3 or NH4
+
NO2-
NO3-2.
Plants
1.3.
3.
4.
5.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Nitrogen (N) Cycle◻ Nitrogen fixation
⬜ By bacteria (via nitrogenase enzyme), lightening, volcanoes, industrial processes
◻ Nitrification⬜ Soil bacteria convert to NO2
- then NO3-
◻ Assimilation⬜ Plants absorb NO3, NH3, or NH4
+, moves into food web◻ Ammonification
⬜ Bacteria convert organic N into NH3 or NH4+
◻ Denitrification⬜ Bacteria convert NO3
- into N2
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Human Affect on N Cycle
◻ Humans have doubled N fixation⬜ Haber- Bosch process sped fertilizer production⬜ Great for efficiently growing vegetables⬜ N pollution in natural environments causes
eutrophication, over fertilization of forests◻ Combustion of fossil fuels
⬜ Produces photochemical smog⬜ Increases production of acid rain
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Properties of Water
◻ Composed of 2 Hydrogen and 1 oxygen
◻ Exists as solid, liquid or gas
◻ High heat capacity◻ Polar◻ Forms hydrogen bond
between 2 water molecules⬜ H-bonds define water’s
physical properties
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle