ecosan training courses for tsc officials · • urine shall be drained to sealed receptacles...

Capacity Building for Ecological Sanitation

Ecosan Training Courses for TSC officials

UDD-Toilets and Urine Management

Dipl. Ing. Martin Wafler, seecon international, Austria

Contents

1. Overview of Urine-Diversion Components

i. Urine-Diversion Squatting Pans and Pedestals

ii. Waterless Urinals

2. Quantification and Characterisation of Human Excreta

3. Estimated Excretion of Nutrients per capita in Different Countries

4. Double-Vault UDD-Toilets4. Double-Vault UDD-Toilets

A. Concept, Advantages and Limitations

B. UDDs implemented by

i. PEO/PPDO/GTZ (Philippines)

ii. ENPHO (Nepal)

iii. Practical Action (Sri Lanka)

iv. Chinese models

v. SCOPE (India)

vi. Rural Dev. Dep. Karnataka State (India)

vii.Ecosan Services Foundation (India)

C. Sizing of UDDs

J. Heeb

Contents

5. Single-Vault UDD-Toilets

A. Concept, Advantages and Limitations

B. UDDs implemented by

i. PEO/PPDO/GTZ (Philippines)

ii. ENPHO (Nepal)

6. UDDs in Multi-storyed Buildings and Public Places

7. UDD-Toilet Design Quiz

8. Barriers to Prevent Transmission of Disease/Spread of Pathogens

9. New WHO Guidelines

10.Guidelines Urine Application

J. Heeb

Urine-Diversion Squatting Pans & Pedestals

(photos: seecon gmbh)

• different types and designs ofurine-diversion squatting pans areavailable in the Indian market;

• the urine is collected in the frontcompartment and led away by apipe;

• feces drop through the rearopening;

• if wet anal cleansing habits prevailin a community installation of ananal clenasing water collectiondevice has to be planned for; source (1)

Urinals Without Stench Trap & with Membrane Stench Trap

• easiest way to provide a urinecollection system for males;

• divert urine to a separate collectiontank;

• don‘t provide cisterns or waterconnections for flushing urinals aftereach use to avoid dilution;

(photo: M. Wafler)

• the stench barrier consists of a thinrubber tube;

• urine passes through thismembrane, which then closes whenthe urine flow stops and effectivelyseals the urine outlet, preventingsmell;

(photos: M. Wafler)

Waterless Urinals with Liquid Stench Trap & Ladies Urinals

• urine passes through a liquid havinga lower specific gravity than theurine itself, which acts as an odourseal, overflows into the central tubeand runs down the collection pipe;

• sealing liquid has to be replenishedperiodically; frequency ofreplenishing depends upon thetraffic to the fixture;

(source: http://www.waterless.com/)

• squatting-type ladies urinals (lefthand side) are available in theIndian market;

• a ladies urinal designed by adutch company (right handside);

(source: unknown)

(source: http://www.sphinx.nl/)

Waterless Urinals with Hydrostatic or Electromagnetic Float Assembly

• a replaceable odour-locking element(A) receives the urine and channelsit (without water) into the wastepipe;

• the float assembly seals the element(without using sealing liquid) andprevents the development of odour;

• the urine flows into the cylinder-shaped piece (B) in the siphon, and

Zur Anzeige wird der QuickTime™ Dekompressor „TIFF (Uncompressed)“

benötigt.

Zur Anzeige wird der QuickTime™ Dekompressor „TIFF (Uncompressed)“

benötigt.

(source: http://www.urimat.com/)shaped piece (B) in the siphon, andfrom there into the overflow areasand overflow basin (C), from whereit is fed into the waste pipe;

• with the electromagnetic floatassembly an electronic signal sentfrom the capacitance sensoractivates the process-controlledmagnet which draws the floatassembly (D) down;

(source: http://www.urimat.com/)

Quantification and Characterization of Human Feces

parameter unit no of

samples min. max.

standard

deviation average median value

volume * [l/ppd] 9 0.07 0.4 0.05 0.18 0.15 0.15

weight * [g/ppd] 9 200 400 50 180 150 150

Total Solids [g/ppd] 6 30 60 8.6 44.7 45.0 45

organic Total

Solids [g/ppd] 4 26 58 6.2 44.8 42.0 42

organic carbon [g/ppd] 6 13.2 33 4.1 21.4 21.8 22

BOD [g/ppd] 1 6 18 - 11.1 11.1 11

Averaged values from various studies conducted in North America and Europe

BOD5 [g/ppd] 1 6 18 - 11.1 11.1 11

COD [g/ppd] 1 19 55 - 33.0 33.0 33

Total Nitrogen [g/ppd] 11 0.25 4.2 0.9 2.0 1.9 2

Total

Phosphorus [g/ppd] 11 0.1 1.7 0.33 0.7 0.6 0.6

Potassium [g/ppd] 7 0.2 1.3 0.21 0.7 0.6 0.6

Calcium [g/ppd] 2 0.67 1.4 0.52 1.1 1.1 1.1

Magnesium [g/ppd] 1 0.12 0.18 - 0.15 0.15 0.15

carbon to

nitrogen [-] 5 5 11.3 1.79 8.2 7.5 7.5

* density = 1.0 kg/dm3 ppd = per person per day g = grams l = liters

source (2)

Quantification and Characterization of Human Urine

parameter unit no of

samples min. max.

standard

deviation average median value

volume * [l/ppd] 16 0.5 2.0 0.26 1.2 1.2 1.2

weight * [g/ppd] 16 500 2,000 260 1,200 1,200 1,200

Total Solids [g/ppd] 7 20 147 32.9 72.4 60.0 60

organic Total

Solids [g/ppd] 5 65 85 9.58 39.1 45 45

organic

carbon [g/ppd] 5 1.8 11.9 2.83 6.6 8.4 8.5

BOD [g/ppd] 2 1.8 13.6 2.17 7.5 7.5 7.5

Averaged values from various studies conducted in North America and Europe

BOD5 [g/ppd] 2 1.8 13.6 2.17 7.5 7.5 7.5

COD [g/ppd] 2 5.4 30 4.74 15.1 15.1 15

Total

Nitrogen [g/ppd] 14 3.6 16 2.45 10.4 10.9 11

Total

Phosphorus [g/ppd] 14 0.5 2.5 0.41 1.1 1.0 1

Potassium [g/ppd] 11 1.0 4.9 0.59 2.3 2.5 2.5

Calcium [g/ppd] 6 0.15 2.2 1.06 1.3 1.4 1.4

Magnesium [g/ppd] 4 0.06 0.2 0.14 0.2 0.1 0.1

carbon to

nitrogen [-] 6 0.4 1.2 0.27 0.8 0.8 0.8

* density = 1.0 kg/dm3 ppd = per person per day g = grams l = liters

source (2)

Average Daily Quantities of Excrements Produced per Person in India

For Indian conditions, for example, daily volume of excreted feces isgiven with less than 200 ml [3] to about 300 ml [4] per person.

Let`s separate!

Specific urine production is about 1.2 litres per person per day ([5], [3]).

Jef Vivant

Estimated Excretion of Nutrients per capita in Different Countries

source (7) in (6)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets

• designed to operate in batches;

• collection and storage of feces is done in twin pit compartments which are used alternately;

• after each use a handfull of cover material (wood ash, saw dust, soil, etc.) is sprinkled over the feces to absorb moisture and help in speeding up the dehydration process;

(photo: M. Wafler)

up the dehydration process;

• when "full", the respectivecompartment is sealed off while theother compartment is put in use;

• storage time is counted from the dateof the last faecal matter contributionto a compartment and should be atleast one year;

• urine and anal cleansing waterdiversion is recommended forpractical reasons;(photo: M. Wafler)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets (contd.)

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS

• suitable for hard rock soil areas,high ground water levels andareas prone to floodings;

• increased surface area for construction of toilet (compared to Single-Vault UDDs);

• no contamination of groundwater • possibility of smell if too much• no contamination of groundwater sources due to contained processing of human feces;

• possibility of smell if too muchliquid (urine, anal cleansing water,etc.) enters the processingcompartment

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets by PEO/PPDO/GTZ (Philippines)

(photo

s: G

TZ

, P

hili

ppin

es)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets by ENPHO (Nepal)

(photo: M. Wafler)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets by Practical Action (Sri Lanka)

(photos: M. Wafler)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets (China)

In-door Double-Vault UDD, China(source: UNESCO-IHE)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets (China)

(photo

s: G

TZ

, M

ore

l)

Different sites with urine diverting toilets: in the house yard, in-house, outside the house or on upper floor, China

(photo

s: G

TZ

, M

ore

l)

(photo

: G

TZ

)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets by SCOPE (India)

(photos: SCOPE)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets by Rural Dev. Dep. Karnataka State (India)

(photos: M. Wafler)

Double-Vault UDD-Toilets by Ecosan Services Foundation (India)

(photos: N. Zimmermann)

Common Chamber Sizes of Double-Vault UDD-Toilets

implementing organisationsize of processing chambers

length [m] width [m] height [m]

PEO/PPDO/GTZ (Philippines)ca. 1.65 to 2.30

(sloping cover)ca. 0.60 ca. 0.80

Practical Action (Sri Lanka) ca. 0.90 ca. 0.60 0.60 to 0.75Practical Action (Sri Lanka) ca. 0.90 ca. 0.60 0.60 to 0.75

Ecosan Services Foundation (India) ca. 1.20 ca. 1.00 ca. 0.65

SCOPE (India) ca. 1.30 ca. 0.75 ca. 0.60

Sizing of Double-Vault UDD-Toilet (contd.)

Calculation of volume of processing compartments

V

PC= N �SSC �T

V

PC= 5 g0.35 g365 g1.25 ≈ 800 l

assumptions for sample design problem:

number of users (N): 5

spec. storage capacity (SSC): 0.35 l/p/d

working days (T): 365 d/a

safety margin: 25%

where:

VPC volume of one processingcompartment �l�

N number of people actually usingtoilet for defecation �heads/d�

SSC specific storage capacity �l/p/d�

T working days per year �d�


• A list of suitable building materials is given below:

� processing compartments: natural stone masonry, bricks, cementconcrete solid blocks, cement concrete hollow blocks, solid blocks madefrom locally availabe rock (e.g. Laterite, etc.), etc.

� removeable cover: steel sheets, FRP sheets, cement concrete slabs,etc.

� squatting slab: reinforced cement concrete, etc.

Construction details and other important information

� squatting slab: reinforced cement concrete, etc.

� cubicle: natural stone masonry, bricks, ferro-cement slabs, cementconcrete solid blocks, cement concrete hollow blocks, solid blocks madefrom locally availabe rock (e.g. Laterite, etc.), corrugated sheet metal,etc.

� ventilation system: stone-ware pipes, plastic pipes, etc.

� urine and wash water collection system: flexible hoses, rigid plasticpipes, etc.

� roofing: corrugated cement sheets, corrugated sheet metal, Mangaloretiles, cement concrete slab, stone slab, etc.


• Processing compartments shall be sealed (either by removeable concreteslabs or lockable covers) to prevent rainwater and insects from entering thecompartments.

• The bottom slab of the processing chamber shall be raised about 10 cmabove the surrounding ground level to prevent flood water from entering thecompartment.

• Plaster has to be applied to inner walls and the bottom slab to provide asmooth surface.

Construction details and other important information (contd.)

smooth surface.

• Squatting pans must either have a rim or be raised ca. 2 cm above thefinished floor level of the toilet to prevent water used for cleaning the toiletfrom entering both, the processing compartments and the urine collectionsystem.

• Squatting pans/pedestals have to be provided tight fitting covers to preventinsects from entering the processing compartments.

• Inner and outer wall areas of cubicles may be left as rough walls (withoutplastering). But, inner wall areas should be tiled up to a hight correspondingto 60 cm from the finished floor level for ease of cleaning.


• Each processing compartment must be provided a straight ventilation pipe(Ø ≥ 150 mm) that runs above the roof (at least 50 cm), is screenedagainst flies and capped for rain.

• To avoid leakiness of the roof in rainy season, the vent pipes shall not beinstalled inside the cubicle but be attached to the outside wall for notpenetrating the roofing.

• Urine shall be drained to sealed receptacles (jerry can, transportable plastic


• Urine shall be drained to sealed receptacles (jerry can, transportable plastictank, etc) which may be stored out-side the toilet.

• Use corrosion resistant material (plastic) for urine pipes, provide forproper diameter (Ø ≥ 50 mm) and slope (≥ 4%) to avoid stagnation(reduces smell and slows down incrustation by crystallisation), extend urinepipe to ca. 3” above bottom of receptacle.

• If wet anal cleansing habits should prevail in a community, cleansing watermust be diverted from faecal matter for practical reason. Cleansing watermay either be used for subsurface irrigation of nearby plants or beingdisposed off by infiltration into the soil.

Urine Collection

(photo: M. Wafler)

Infiltration of Greywater & Cleansing Water

source: GTZ, Philippines



• Even if a treatment is aimed at elimination of the risk of pathogentransmission and its potential has been proven, process stepps maymalfunction, resulting in a fertilizer product that is not completely hygienicallysafe. Therefore additional measures should be taken in order to furtherminimize the risk for disease transmission. Thus [10]:

� Equipment used for e.g. transportation of unsanitized faeces should notbe used for the treated (sanitized) product;be used for the treated (sanitized) product;

� When applying faeces to soil, precautions related to the handling ofpotentially infectious material should be taken. These precautions shouldinclude personal protection and hygiene. Hand washing should naturallybe done.

� Faeces should be worked into the soil as soon as possible and not beleft on the soil surface.

� Improperly sanitized faeces should not be used for vegetables, fruits orroot crops that will be consumed raw, excluding fruit trees.

Costs of UDD-Toilets in Nepal and India

ca. INR 11,000

(source: Rural Development Department Karnataka State)

USD 230 - 250(where community contributes ca. 40%)

(source: ENPHO, Nepal)

(photo: Wafler M.)(photo: Shrestha R.R.)

Costs of UDD-Toilets in India

ca. INR 12,000

(source: SCOPE) (source: http://www.eco-solutions.org/)

ca. INR 13,000

Costs of UDD-Toilets in India

Scope for cost reduction:

• construction material;

• pan (design, material, ...);

• ...

ca. INR 15,000

(photo: N. Zimmermann)

but NOT compromising on durability of UDD-Toilet

Single-Vault (Using Drums) UDD-Toilets

• Single-Vault UDD-Toilets, unlikeDouble-Vault UDD-Toilets, provide onlyone collection compartment forcollection and/or containment of feces;

• Building costs of a single vault deviceis less than of a double-vault;

• secondray storage or other types ofground level

feces drop hole

door

R.C.C. slab

ventilation pipe(¯ ³ 150 mm, raised at least 50 cmabove roof, screened at both ends

against flies and capped against rain)

window

door

• secondray storage or other types oftreatment (e.g. co-composting, etc.)must be planned for;

• urine and anal cleansing waterdiversion is equally important forSingle-Vault UDD-Toilets as fordehydration toilets providing twincompartments;

(source: UNESCO-IHE)

(source: M. Wafler)

Single-Vault (Using Drums) UDD-Toilets (contd.)

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS

• suitable for hard rock soil areas, high ground water levels and areas prone to floodings;

• regular shifting of drums;

• transport of unsanitised human excreta to secondary storage and/or processing site;and/or processing site;

• no contamination of groundwatersources due to containedprocessing of human feces

• reduced construction costs;

• possibility of smell if too muchliquid (urine, anal cleansing water,etc.) enters the processingcompartment;

Pictures from UUD-Toilets, Philippines

(photos: GTZ, Philippines)

Single-Vault UDD-Toilet by ENPHO (Nepal)

UDD inside building in Kathmandu, Nepal

(photos: M. Wafler)

UDD-Toilets in Multi-storyed Buildings

Winblad & Simpson-Hébert (15) (source: SEI)

Examples of Public Compost Toilet in Europe

Composting toilet at roadside facility in Sweden,

elected the best roadside facility in Sweden in 2002

(photos: P. Jenssen)

UUD-Toilet Quiz

(photo

s: M

. W

afler)

TOO CLOSE TO FENCE VENT PIPE DIA. OK, STRAIGHT, RUNS ABOVE ROOF, SCREENED & CAPPED

UUD-Toilet Quiz

(photos: M. Wafler)

COVER MATERIAL & WASTE BIN FOR DISPOSAL OF TOILET PAPER

URINAL FOR MALES, SOAP & WASH BASIN ARE PROVIDED

UUD-Toilet Quiz

VENT PIPE TOO SHORT INPROPER DISCHARGE OF GREYWATER & CLEANSING WATER

(photo

s: M

. W

afler)

UUD-Toilet Quiz

(photos: M. Wafler)

TOO SMALE DIAMETER & TOO MANY BENDS

PROPER DIAMETER & SLOPE OF PIPE OF URINE COLLECTION PIPE

UUD-Toilet Quiz

(photos: M. Wafler)

POOR DESIGN OF SLOPING COVER ALLOWING RAINWATER TO ENTER PROCESSING CHAMBERS

UUD-Toilet Quiz

source: GTZ, Philippines

DIAMETER TOO SMALEPIPE TOO SHORT (SHOULD END ABOUT 3“ ABOVE BOTTOM)

Environmental Transmission Routes and Barriers

Transmission routes for enteric pathogens • provision of water for hand washing,• elevated or lined collection chamber,• using ash, lime, etc.,• informed persons collecting and

transporting excreta,• suitable choice of location,• treatment in closed systems,• information signs in place,• informed farmers reusing excreta,• special equippment available,

source: [3]

barriers to prevent the transmission of disease/spread of pathogens

• special equippment available,• working excreta into the ground,• choice of suitable crops,• washing hands,• keeping toilet area clean,• wearing cloves and protective clothing

while handling excreta,• washing the equipment used,• avoid newly fertilized fields,• proper preparation and cooking of food

products,• cleanliness of kitchen surface & utensils

Zone of Safety - Pathogen Die-Off in Relation to Time & Temperature

new WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater (2006)

4 Volumes:

• Volume 1: Policy and regulatory aspects

• Volume 2: Wastewater use in agriculture

• Volume 3: Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture

• Volume 4: Excreta and greywater use in agriculture

With these new guidelines WHO …

recognizes that the reuse of wastewater, greywater and excreta in agricultureand aquaculture is practiced worldwide on a large scale, however often withoutsufficient health production measures;

recognizes the importance of reuse of wastewater, greywater and excreta forsustainable food production and improved livelihood;

recognizes source-separation as a special and valid approach which cancontribute to risk reduction and

provides guidance on health protection measures for safe reuse.

Adapted protection level for wastewater/excreta use in agriculture in new WHO guidelines

adopted protection level for wastewater/excreta use in agriculture in the new WHO guidelines:

tolerable additional disease burden = 10-6 DALYs or 1 µDaly / person / year

= only one of a million human life years expectancy will be lost due to the potential additional disease from wastewater/excreta reuse

= same protection level as used in the WHO guideline for drinking water

Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs)DALYs are a measure of population health in terms of the burden due to a

specific disease or risk factor.DALYs attempt to measure healthy years of life lost because of disability or

death from a disease.DALYs account for not only acute health effects but also for delayed and chronic

effects.different health outcomes (e.g., cancer vs. diarrhea) can be compared and risk

management decisions can be prioritized.

water

Examples of health protection measures

crop restriction:a) non-food crops such as cotton, “biodiesel” crops, etc;b) food-crops that are processed before consumption (e.g. wheat);c) food-crops that have to be cooked (e.g. potatoes, rice, etc.).

wastewater application techniques:

a) flood and furrow irrigation;b) spray and sprinkler irrigation;c) localized irrigation (e.g. bubbler, drip, trickle, ect.);d) cessation of irrigation with wastewater 1 or 2 weeks prior to harvest.d) cessation of irrigation with wastewater 1 or 2 weeks prior to harvest.

pathogen die-off before consumption:

food preparation measures:

• produce washing with water; disinfecting; peeling; cooking.

human exposure control:

• field workers, consumers.

wastewater treatment:

• primary/secondary/tertiary treatment, disinfection (chlorination, UV)

Pathogen reductions achievable by various healthprotection measures

Health protection measure Pathogen reduction

(log units)

Wastewater treatment 1 - 6

Localized (drip) irrigation (low-growing crops) 2

Localized (drip) irrigation (high-growing crops) 4

Spray drift control (spray irrigation) 1

Spray buffer zone (spray irrigation) 1

Pathogen die-off 0.5 - 2 per day

Produce washing with water 1

Produce disinfection 2

Produce peeling 2

Produce cooking 6 - 7

(source: WHO)

Examples of options for pathogen reduction by different combinations of health protection measures

(source: WHO)

Different Scales of Urine Reuse Systems

Single households:

• the urine mixture can be used without storage for all type of crops, if crop is intended for the household’s own consumption;

• a withholding period of one month passes between fertilizing and harvesting;

• one reason for less stringent guidelines for single households is that the risk for person-to-person transmission will exceed the risk from urine-related environmental transmission!

(photo: M. Wafler)

(photo: M. Wafler)

Different Scales of Urine Reuse Systems (contd.)

Small domestic systems:

• direct use or use with short storage periods is applicable;

• in situations where the prevalence of some enteric infections is high, and where technical systems do not safeguard against faecal cross-contamination, an increased time of

ladies urinals

gents urinals

urinecollection/

storage tank

greywatergarden

urinecollection/

storage tank

urinecollection/

storage tank

urinecollection/

storage tank

contamination, an increased time of storage is recommended;

garden

urine storage tank

Ho

ste

l/K

itch

en

Bu

ild

ing

or

Ad

min

istr

ati

on

/Tra

inin

g B

uild

ing

transportation of urinefrom point of

collection to storagetanks by cart

urinecollection

tank (plastic)

Vurine Vurine

Vurine

inspection pipefor checking urine volume

(source: M. Wafler)

(source: M. Wafler)


Large scale systems:

• specific recommendations may need to be adapted, based on local conditions, and accounting for behavioural factors and the chosen technical system;

• based on the risk assessment calculations for urine, it can be concluded that a withholding time of a few weeks in the fields corresponds to the suggested storage time of one month at 20°C;

• the only difference when not requiring storage systems would thus be that the persons who apply the urine or who work in the fields are exposed to potentially higher concentrations of pathogens


• Inactivation of pathogens will also occur on agricultural land after application of the excreta as fertilizer

• Pathogens may even be inactivated in and on crops that may have become contaminated by fertilizer during the growth phase, or from splashes from the soil during heavy rains.from splashes from the soil during heavy rains.

• The inactivation is dependent on ambient temperature, moisture and sunshine (that will increase the temperature, decrease the moisture and affect pathogens by UV-light).

• In the soil, the naturally occurring microorganisms will also compete with the introduced pathogens and enhance their die-off.

Capacity Building for Ecological Sanitation

Ecosan Training Courses for TSC officials

Dipl. Ing. Martin Wafler, seecon international, Austria

Thank you for your attention!

++ References

(1) Austin, L.M., van Vuuren, S.J. (2002). Sanitation, Public Health and the Environment: Looking BeyondCurrent Technologies http://www.csir.co.za/websource/ptl0002/docs/boutek/akani/2002/mar/auspaper1.pdf(last accessed February 28th, 2007)

(2) Del Porto, D. (1999). The Composting Toilet System Book: A Practical Guide to Choosing, Planning andMaintaining Composting Toilet Systems. Chelsea Green Pub

(3) CDC (2003a). http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/leptospirosis_t.htm (last reviewed March 7th,2003)

(4) CDC (2003b). http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/typhoidfever_g.htm. (last reviewed June 20th,2003)

(5) Schönning, C., Stenström, A. (2004). Guidelines on the Safe Use of Urine and Faeces in EcologicalSanitation Systems

(6) SEI (2004). Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Faeces in Crop Production http://www.ecosanres.org/

(7) Jönsson, H. & Vinnerås, B. 2004. Adapting the nutrient content of urine and faeces in different countriesusing FAO and Swedish data. In: Ecosan – Closing the loop. Proceedings of the 2nd InternationalSymposium on Ecological Sanitation, incorporating the 1st IWA specialist group conference on sustainablesanitation, 7th-11th April 2003, Lübeck, Germany. pp 623-626

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