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International Symposium on Geography Environment and Culture in the Mediterranean Region

ECOREGIONS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA AND THE LAKES REGION OF TURKEY

İbrahim ATALAY, Recep EFE

Abstract The Mediterranean climate prevailing on the coastal belt of the Mediterranean Sea

undergoes to change toward the inner part of the Anatolia in accordance with the increase of altitude, mountain range barriers, the tectonic structure of the region, and tectonic-karstic depressions. Continentality also plays a critical role in the micro-climates that prevail across the various eco-regions. This study is focused the division of ecosystems, depending on climate and topographic effects. Two main eco-regions are established: 1) The Mediterranean zonobiome, and 2) the Mediterranean transitional biome, extending between the Mediterranean zonobiome and 3) Inner Anatolian Continental zonobiome that can be called the zonoecotone.

The Mediterranean zonobiome, which covers the southern slopes of the Taurus Mountains that abruptly rise on the coastal belt of Mediterranean Sea, is divided into orobiomes, pedobiomes, hydrobiome, etc. In this zonobiome, the main bio-graphical occurrences are the red pine (Pinus brutia) and maquis vegetation. The Mediterranean orobiome starts after the Pinus brutia forests and rises up to 2000 meters in altitude on which cedar, Taurus fir and black pine grow. The second orobiome is mountain grass areas containing subalpine grass and some steppe vegetation. The Mediterranean Transitional Region covers the backward section or the northern part of the Taurus Mountains built on a tectonic structure and on tectonic-karstic depressions on which alluvial plains and lakes occur. This region is divided into the bottom of the tectonic depression and the orobiomes with forest and subalpine orobiomes, and hydrobiomes surrounding of the lakes.

Introduction Ecology is the scientific study of the interaction between organisms (vegetation and

fauna) and their natural environment. Ecology examines the relationships between organisms belonging to both the same and different taxonomic groups and between those organisms and their physical environmental circumstances. In nature there are close relationships between climate, organisms (especially vegetation), and soil, topography and parent materials. Ecosystems are discrete units that consists of living and non-living elements parts; the specific spatial unit where all these interact and form stable systems.

Geographers are interested in the ecology and ecosystem studies in order to establish and understanding of the divisions of the natural environments, considering biotic and abiotic factors. Ecosystem study is very important in the assessment of bio-geographical conditions, and to put forward an understanding of the positive potentials and problems of the natural environment. This research contributes valuable data and knowledge for decision makers and the local authorities for the planning of agricultural, forest, water management, and land use, and other related activities. The other aim of this study is to illuminate the ecological properties of Turkey's Mediterranean regions and its mountainous hinterland and to take a comparative look at other countries in the Mediterranean region.

Methods and Materials

In order to establish the ecosystem or ecoregion of the study area, biome criteria,

such as zonobiome, zonoecotone, orobiome are used. It is commonly known that biomes of mixed community of plants and animals (a biotic community) occupy any major geographical area on a continental scale. Each biome is characterized by a similarity of vegetation


structure or physiognomy rather than by similarity of species composition, and is this factor is usually related to climate. Within a particular biome the plants and animals are regarded as being well adopted to each other and to broadly similar environmental conditions, especially climate. Both climax vegetation and sereal communities are represented. A group of biomes in which plant and animal communities exhibit similar adaptations form a biome type. A zonobiome is characterized by main climatic regions like equatorial, Mediterranean, subequatorial, temperate, and cold climatic regions. Zonoecotone is the transitional region extending between two main climatic zones. A zonoecotone is an area of ecological tension over which one type of vegetation is gradually replaced by another, e.g., deciduous forests by steppes. For example the northern part of the Mediterranean region is the transitional region between the Mediterranean climate and Inner Anatolian continental climate. For that reason the Mediterranean Transitional Region contains both Mediterranean vegetation such as Pinus brutia and maquis vegetation, and the Inner Anatolian region, dry forest and steppe vegetation. Orobiomes. Owing to the presence of mountains, the zonobiome can be divided vertically as well as horizontally, and this has to be considered three dimensions. Mountains differ climatically from the climate of the zones from which they rise and must be considered separately. For example the Taurus Mountains in the Mediterranean region form another biome which is termed an “orobiome” due to the decrease of temperature which means a reduction in the vegetation period with increasing altitude. In the mountain ranges above 1000 meters, cedar, fir and black pine forests appear. Above 2000 meters on these mountain ranges a subalpine meadow region begins. For this reason, the Taurus Mountains can be divided vertically into three zones. Pedobiomes. Exceptional situations within a zonobiome are also presented by areas with extreme types of soil and azonal vegetation. In zonobiome or orobiome a place may contain harmful substances such as salt. Thus, in such areas, the vegetation may differ from that which is typical of the zonobiome. The vegetation of the pedobiomes is influenced to a greater extent by the soil than by the climate. Pedobiomes are designated according to soil type: lithobiomes (stony soil), psammobiomes (sandy soil), halobiomes (salty soil), helobiomes (moor or swamp soils), hydrobiomes (soil covered with water), peniobiomes (soils poor of deficient in nutriments), etc. For example sand deposits occurring from place-to-place along the coastal belt of Mediterranean Sea support only the growth of psammophylls such as stone pine (Pinus pinea). In the present study, climatic data was obtained from the Meteorology Service of Turkey. Information on parent material, soil, and vegetation was gathered through the authors’ field study. The criteria used in dividing ecosystem were taken from Atalay's Ecoregions of Turkey (2002). In the introduction of the ecosystem, firstly the abiotic factors i.e. parent material, climate, soil and topography are examined and then the relationships between the vegetation cover and abiotic factors are assessed.

I. The Mediterranean Zonobiome

This zonobiome which corresponds to a Mediterranean climate prevails in the regions

of SW part of Marmara, Aegean and Mediterranean. The Mediterranean climatic region begins at the Biga Peninsula in the NW, to the extends Aegean region in the west and the Mediterranean region in the south of Turkey. An pure Mediterranean climate prevails in the coastal belts of the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean Zonobiome in the study area encompasses the southern part of the Taurus Mountains. It begins at the sea level and goes to the highest parts of the mountains. The relative altitude between the sea level and the upper part of the mountains is more than 2000 meters.

A. Subregions of Mediterranean Zonobiome. Altitude, special soil, hydrologic and

parent material conditions is responsible for the dividing into different ecosystem and/or habitats in this region. The subregions include the Lower Subregion, the Mediterranean Mountain Forest Subregion, and the Mediterranean Mountain Grass Steppe Subregion.


1. The Lower Subregion of the Mediterranean Zonobiome. This subregion covers

the coastal belt of the Mediterranean region. It begins at the sea level and continues up to 800-1200 meters on the southern slopes of the Taurus Mountains. This subregion is the main area for the occurrence of red pine forests. a. The General Ecological Properties of the Mediterranean Zonobiome. The general ecological properties of the Mediterranean zonobiome include parent materials, the topography, the climate, the soil, and vegetation. Parent Materials. In terms of parent materials, the Taurus Mountains having a typical orogenic belt within the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic range contain mostly carbonate rocks with ophiolitic series containing ultrabasic rocks such as serpentine-peridotite. Very thick mesozoic comprehensive limestones which are very rich in karstic landforms such as polje or karstic plain, doline, sinkhole are found. The Tertiary sedimentary rocks mostly composed of soft limestone, marly and clayey stones, sandstone and conglomerate are widespread along the eastern coastal belt and tectonic corridors. Travertine deposits overlaying the Miocene sediment are common on the northern part of Antalya Gulf. Topography. In terms of topography, the Taurus Mountains, covering almost all part of Turkey’s Mediterranean region rise abruptly along the cost of the sea, and their summits exceed 3000 meters in altitude. The karstic land of the Taurus Mountains is in an appearance of very rugged and rocky land. The southern part of the Taurus Mountains has been deeply dissected by rivers, including the Dalaman, Eşen, Kumluca, Aksu, Köprüçay and the Manavgat, all of which run from the east to west. "U"- shaped deep valleys appear on the karstic land, due to chemical dissolution of limestones by river water. The ultrabasic rocks outcropping in different places show a somewhat undulating and hilly topography. Natural passes extending between the Taurus Mountains and inland area are found on the ultrabasic rocks. Coastal lowland extends on the Miocene sedimentary strata, especially in the eastern part of Antalya. Small coastal plains fitting alluvial deposits are found in the deltaic area of the rivers.

Climate. The Climate is characterized by mild and rainy winters. Warm and dry summers prevail in this region. This is mostly related to the air mass occupying the region. Indeed, during the summer periods the fronts forming encountering between the maritime tropical air mass (mT) coming from the Atlantic Ocean and the maritime polar air mass originated from Western Europe lead to heavy rainfall. The amount of daily rainfall sometimes excesses 200 millimeters. Intense rainfall and storms also cause severe floods, resulting in heavy damage to the agricultural land and green houses. The summer season in the Mediterranean region is under the only maritime tropical (mT) and continental tropical (cT) air masses. For this reason summer is the rainless period. The mean annual precipitation varies between 800 and 2000 millimeters. The distribution of the precipitation is determined by frontal activities, exposure, the direction of mountain ranges, and altitude. The rainy area of the region is the southwest slopes of the Taurus Mountains due to the fact that the fronts coming from the Mediterranean Sea are mostly prevented by the mountains. Orographic rainfall also causes increase of precipitation, especially on the southern high slopes of the Taurus Mountains. That is why the amount of the yearly rainfall of this area is more than 1000 millimeters. This situation leads to an increase of precipitation, whereas the amount of the precipitation decreases in the rain shadow areas. For example, the yearly rainfall is less than 500 millimeters in the poljes occurring in the vicinity of Antalya.

Rainfall begins at the beginning of autumn season and last to the early month of spring season. Approximately a half of the total yearly precipitation falls during the winter season. The mean relative humidity is over 60 %. Especially in hot summer days, the relative humidity exceeds 90 % in the late night and early morning, due to decreases in temperature. During these days dew and fog occur along the coastal belt. High relative moisture causes a decrease in evapotranspiration. That is why the effect of the drought is less than in other part of the Mediterranean coastal areas, due to high moisture content.

As to winds, yearly dominant wind blows in the direction of N9oW and S13oE, the dominant direction of January is N9°W and July is S 9°E, second direction is N4.5°W. The winds coming on the Mediterranean Sea cause an increase of relative humidity. The winds come from the north and northeast leads to the decrease of air humidity due to föhn effects.


The mean annual temperature is about 18°C on the Me diterranean coastal belt. This

figure is about 11-12°C at the height of 1000 meter s. The mean July temperature is over 25°C on the Mediterranean coastal area. The tempera ture changes between the day and night is about 10°C due to the high moisture conten t of air. The mean January temperature is 10°C on the Mediterranean shore. The absolute minim um temperature is recorded as -4°C at Antalya. Frost rarely occurs.

The zonal or climatic soil type is the reddish Mediterranean soils. This soil is found on the all parent materials on flat and/or slightly undulating areas, notably on the karstic lands. Soil formation in the karstic lands is mainly determined by the limestone purity, the situation of the cracks and the inclination of the limestone layer. The thin bedded limestones produce richer soils than the massive rocks. For instance the red Mediterranean soil (Terra Rossa or Alfisol) is abundantly found on the thin bedded and fractured limestones, while soils which are found on or in massive and hard limestones are very thin. The dissolution of limestones along the vertical fractures leads to the widening of fractures. This process is very well expressed in the Mesozoic limestones in the Alpine mountains extending in the northern part of Mediterranean Sea.

Soils. Soils which developed along the fractures have been transported vertically by a widening of the fractures via dissolution of the limestones. Thus, the soil mass may be removed from the near surface to much deeper zones by vertical transportation with time. Such soils in general are red and completely decalcified. This explains why soils are found in the fillings of caves and of karstic depressions.

Thin fracture and bedding planes are favorable sites for water retention. Therefore the process of weathering and soil formation take place in locations where water is held. The tree roots penetrate easily into the deeper part of the rocks through the fractures and accelerate soil formation.

Soil erosion processes generally do not occur on the surfaces of the karstic lands because of the fact that the run-off is very low and the rock has a high infiltration capacity. The fractures in the limestones provide suitable conditions for oxidation so that through Fe oxidation soils attain a reddish color. Soil material in the karstic land is of clay, which is the main remaining material after the removal of calcium carbonate. For this reason the soil which is found in the karstic land is in clayey texture.

Brown forest soils are found on the schist and marly materials under the forests containing red pine, black pine and oak stands. Intrazonal soils cover the sloppy areas having sparse vegetation. Rendzina soils are widespread on the marly deposits accumulated neogene lake within the tectonic depressions and the eastern coastal belt of the Mediterranean Sea. Hydromorphic and halomorphic soils are found in places ground water level is high notably on the lowlands of the deltaic deposits of the rivers. Hydromorphic alluvial soil is seen around the Lake Köyceğiz, and Lake Işıklar, Lake Beyşehir where ground water table is high.

Vegetation. In the Mediterranean region there are two main vegetation formations in accordance with the temperature conditions: In the lower belt is the main natural occurrence area of Pinus brutia forests. The maquis and garrigues are the secondary vegetation where Pinus brutia forests have been partly and completely destroyed. The upper belt of Taurus Mountains is a belt with significant black pine (Pinus nigra), cedar, (Cedrus libani), and Taurus fir (Abies cilicica).

Red pine (Pinus brutia) forest is the climax tree of the lower Mediterranean climatic belt. It grows all parent material and soils excluding halomorphic soil. The biomass productivity and the physionomic appearance of the Pinus brutia are determined by the physical and chemical properties of parent materials and the amount of precipitation or ground water level. Good stands occur on soft marly and flysch deposits and limestones as well as when abundant yearly precipitation and ground water table is high. Here yearly biomass productivity is about 20 m3 in a hectare. Meanwhile, the biomass productivity is very low on quartzite and peridotite -serpentine parent material. For example, red pine stands occurring on serpentine in the vicinity of Kemer are shrubby in appearance. At the lower level, the shrub layer of the Pinus brutia forests is generally associated with Quercus coccifera, Phillyrea latifolia, and Pistacia terebinthus.


The most productive red pine forests occur between 400-800 meters. The increase in

rainfall and the decrease of the temperature during the night in this belt contribute to suitable conditions for the growth of red pine. In fact, cool night decrease the respiration of red pine.

Maquis vegetation is the “underground” or understory vegetation of red pine forests. Maquis spreads when Pinus brutia forest has been completely destroyed. For this reason the maquis vegetation corresponds to the natural occurrence areas of Pinus brutia forests. There is competition between maquis and Pinus brutia. In dense maquis areas, the regeneration of the red pine is very hard due to the fact that red pine seeds only germinate under direct sun radiation on bare land. But if there is a bare surface within the maquis communities, the red pine plants grows fast, so maquis again becomes the shrub layer of red pine stands. Some maquis elements grow as trees in protected areas. For example Quercus coccifera, Laurus nobilis and Ceratonia siliqua attain 7-8 meters in height in some protected areas.

It can be stated that maquis is a secondary succession type of vegetation for Mediterranean region of Turkey. The leading species of maquis are Quercus coccifera, Arbutus unedo, Arbutus andrachne, Phillyrea latifolia, Olea europea var. sylvestris, Pistacia lentiscus, Pistacia terebinthus, Juniperus oxycedrus, Mrytus communis, Ceratonia siliqua, Spartium junceum, Vitex agnus castus, Nerium oleander, Laurus nobilis. Most of the maquis elements are evergreen. Deciduous elements are Calycotome villosa, Spartium junceum, Cretaegus monogyna, Styrax offinalis, and Paliurus spina-christi. The floristic composition and the marquis distribution changes, depending on anthropogenic factors, humidity, and parent material effects. For instance, Mrytus communis and Arbutus andrachne are widespread along the coastal belt of the Mediterranean Sea, especially in the northern part of the town of Kaş, in the western part of the region. Mrytus communis, Nerium oleander, Spartium junceum, and Laurus nobilis are widespread along the creeks and where the ground water table is high.

Maquis vegetation, notably Quercus coccifera, rises up to 1500-1600 meters along the southern slopes of the mountains. The karstic lands in this lower belt are generally occupied by maquis vegetation. Goats are being continually grazed on the maquis vegetation, and maquis communities appear as climax communities in the karstic lands, because the roots of most of maquis elements easily develop along the cracks. This type of vegetation mainly regenerates via root suckers even if completely cleared. Some maquis elements grow on special habitats. Indeed Arbutus unedo, Arbutus andrachne, Mrytus communis, and Laurus nobilis prefer a somewhat humid area, notably on slopes facing north, whereas Quercus coccifera, Crategus monogyna, and Calicotome villosa all grow in poor and semiarid areas. Nerium oleander, Vitex agnus-castus and Spartium junceum appear along valleys and in the places where ground water level is high.

Garrigue vegetation containing short tall shrubs are found on abandoned agricultural lands, in poor habitats, and where forest and maquis have been completely cleared. Its height varies between 0.5 and 1 meter. Garrigues grow very well on sunny habitats and are very resistant to drought. During the summer period its leaves decrease, and large leaves are replaced by small ones. Leading garrigue elements are Sarcopoterium spinosum, Coridothymus capitatus. Fumana thymifolia, Cistus parviflorus, C. salviifolius, C. creticus, Micromeria nervosa, Teucrium divaricatum, Genista acanthoclada, Erica manipuliflora, Satureija thymbra, Thymbra spicata, and Anthyllis hermanniae. Common species are composed of Cistus parviflorus, Cistus salvifolius and Sarcopoterium spinosum.

Garrigue vegetation is mostly widespread along the coastal belt extending between Kaş and Dalaman. Here, the understory of poor Pinus brutia forest is associated with the Genista species and the destroyed areas on the ultrabasic rocks are occupied by garrigues, most notably Sarcopoterium spinosum.

b. Other Biomes of the Lower Subregion Other biomes of the lower subregion include the Psammobiome (sandy soil or

material), hydrobiomes, and a travertine biome. Psammobiome. The psammobiome consists of large sandy deposits and materials

found in the southern part of Kumluca town (Kumluca mean containing sand deposits). Here, plants that grow only on sand deposits are seen.


Hydrobiomes. Hydrobiomes have contributed the growth of relict and endemic plants,

notably of the Liquidambar orientalis in the vicinity of Lake Köyceğiz and along Dalaman River.

Travertine biome. A thick travertine deposit covers the vast area in the northern part of Antalya Gulf to form a distinct habitat. This travertine deposit has formed as the result of the evaporation of water containing rich calcium bicarbonate coming from the karstic resources and sheet floods in the Taurus Mountains. Today, the water deriving from the many karstic resources that are found on the southern edge of the Taurus Mountains feeds not only the streams flowing into Mediterranean Sea but also ground rivers. These waters supply all of the drinking and irrigation water of Antalya. The flat terrace levels containing soil constitute the main agricultural areas of Antalya. The bottom of the dolines which have developed on the terrace level fits dry farming and citrus production areas. The high porosity rate of the travertine deposits generally prevents irrigation due to speed infiltration of water.

c. Land Use Agricultural areas are found only along the coastal belts of the Mediterranean Sea and

the karstic depressions covering small areas. Flat lands extending to coastal belt are the main production areas of citrus, vegetables and flowers, some of which are exported. Mostly commercial agricultural production is being obtained from the green houses established in the vicinity of Antalya, Serik and the Kumluca Plains. Almost all parts of the Kumluca Plains are covered by green houses.

The settlement history of the Mediterranean region is back to Paleolithic period. Archaeological findings obtained from the Karain Cave, one of the important Paleolithic cave settlements not only for Turkey but for the Middle East, north of Antalya at the edge of Taurus Mountains, showed that the main livelihood of Paleolithic humans was based on the collecting of food and hunting of wild animals. Especially during the Roman periods the vegetation covers of the coastal areas were considerably destroyed for agricultural purposes, notably to open agricultural fields. The suitable climatic conditions and fertile soils enabled humans to grow various agricultural products. Timbers obtained from the forests contributed to development of a ship-building industry. Transhumance activities that have been carried between the coastal belts of the Mediterranean coast and the upland areas are the main reason for the destruction of forests. Nomads have grazed their animals in the forest area and they have destroyed the forests on the upland areas for heating and cooking requirements. The destructive activities that continued for thousands of years led to the spread of maquis vegetation and to the degeneration of forests and of forest productivity.

2. The Mediterranean Mountain Forest Subregion This subregion begins at an altitude of 800-1200 meters, fitting approximately the

upper line of red pine and rises up to 2000 meters. This orobiome is the growing environment of the black pine, cedar, fir and some oak species. The vertical distance of the mountain forest subregion between the lower Mediterranean Subregion and the Mountain Grass-Steppe Subregion is about 1000 meters.

Climate. The mean annual temperature changes between 14-8oC. Mean July temperature ranges between 15-20oC. As a general rule, the amount of annul rainfall is higher than the coastal belt of the Mediterranean region. This is related to orographic rainfall and the preventing of fronts. Indeed, the southwest of the mountains extending both to the western part of the Antalya Gulf and the southern part of the Teke Peninsula receives more than 2000 millimeters of annual rainfall. The mountain climate of the Mediterranean region can be characterized as having snowy and cold winters, and cool, sunny and rainless summers.

Vegetation. Pinus nigra forests grow, notably on the soft and deeply weathered parent material containing flysch, colluvial deposit, and schist. Productive black pine stands occur on the Geyik Mountain in the west, and on the mountainous area extending between Alanya and Gazipaşa. The Taurus Mountains are the main occurrence and productive areas of cedar forests. These forests begin in the Ahır and Nur Mountains in the east and continue to the Boz Mountains near Denizli in the west. A vertical spreading area is found between 800 and 2000 meters. Cedar grows on all parent materials, especially on limestone.


Thick snow cover and cool winds and sunny habitats support the growth of cedar. For

that reason cedar grows very well on the slopes getting cool winds. These areas are found on the southern slopes of the Mediterranean sector and the northern slopes in the inner areas. The southern slopes of the Transitional Mediterranean Region receive the northerly wind called the Etesian wind during the summer period. In that period, general air flow continues from the northern part of the Aegean Region towards the Mediterranean Sea.

Pure stands of Taurus fir (Abies cilicica) only grow on the slopes facing north and are also found as mixed stands with cedar and black pine, because its optimum growth depends on diffuse radiation. The pure Taurus fir stands that are found in the other areas are related to the cutting of the cedar and black pine forest. One can see fir cones converting to a reddening color due to intense direct solar radiation.

The large spreading areas of Juniperus communities on the upper parts of the Taurus Mountains are mainly related to be destroyed cedar and black pine forests, because juniper species grow within the montane forest. Indeed Juniperus sp stands composed of Juniperus excelsa, J. foetidissima and J. communis are mostly widespread in the vicinity of temporary settlement areas.

Oak forests are generally found on the transitional belt between the red pine forests and oro Mediterranean coniferous forests. For this reason, they spread commonly between 800-1200 meters in the western part of the Taurus Mountains. Oak forests contain the species of Quercus infectoria, Q. cerris, Q. libani and Q. frainetto.

The karstic depressions in the western part of the Taurus are the habitat of the some relict and endemic species. For instance, Quercus vulcanica being a endemic oak species is found within the doline in the Dedegöl and Davraz mountains. Some Black Sea elements containing Fagus orientalis also appear in karstic depressions.

3. The Mediterranean Grass-Steppic Subregion The upper part of mountainous areas rising on the natural timberline form the

mountain subregion on which some subalpine and steppe grasses grow. Leading plants species are spiny cushion plants such as the Acantholimon and Astragalus species. The dominance of these species is related to the facts that they are very resistant to over grazing. These areas are found on the Mediterranean mountain Subregion and only exist on the high slopes facing to the south of the Bey Mountains, the Ak Mountains and the Dedegöl Mountains.

II. The Mediterranean Transitional Region

This region is found between the Mediterranean and the Inner Anatolian regions. In

other words, this region occurring between the continental and maritime climate corresponds to a transitional climatic region and/or zonoecotone. This transitional region covers the Teke Peninsula or Teke District and Lake District geographical Subregion of Turkey in the SW part of the Anatolia.

A. General Ecological Properties The important ecological properties which will be described in this section are the

parent material, the topography, the climate, the soil and the vegetation of the transitional zone.

Parent Material. As a general rule, the parent materials of the highlands are mainly composed of mesozoic limestone and ultrabazic rocks, and the lowlands generally of neogene clayey, marly materials, soft limestone, sandstone and alluvion.

Topography. The present topographical feature of the Mediterranean Transitional Region is mostly related to post Alpine vertical tectonic movements. It can be said that this region was cut by faults that formed post-alpine or neotectonic vertical movements. For that reason the fault scarps and fault mirrors can be seen clearly on the steep slopes encircling the depressions. Basin and range topographic systems and/or horsts and grabens form dominant appearances. Some tectonic basins have plains, the bottoms of some basins are occupied by lakes, such as Lake Burdur, Lake Acı in the western section, and Lake Egirdir and Lake Beyşehir, which contains fresh water. There are also karstic-tectonic depressions,


including Elmalı, Sugla, Beyşehir and Egirdir. Mountains encircling the depressions are the Bey Mountains (3069 meters), Elma Mountain, Kohu Mountain in the west, and Dedegöl, Barla and Sultan Mountains in the east. The summit regions of these mountains exceed 2000 meters.

Tectonic movements are also responsible for the capture of some closed basins. Depressions that have collapsed due to faulting movements have led to the backward erosion of the rivers flowing into tectonic basins and to the Mediterranean Sea. For example, Baklan Basin is captured by the Büyük Menderes River flowing into Büyük Menderes Graben. Acıpayan Basin is captured by Eşen River flowing into Mediterranean Sea.

Karstification processes have played an important role, not only in the shaping of the region but also in the formation of ground water systems. Different kinds of karstic landforms such as polje, doline, lapies have been formed. Indeed some tectonic depressions such as Lake Beyşehir, Lake Eğirdir and Lake Acı have been enlarged as the result of karstic dissolution. The ground river system or karstic drainage has contributed the feeding of the some rivers and water circulation in the lakes. Indeed, excess water of Lake Egirdir flows into the Lake Kovada closed basin. The water of Lake Kovada feeds Aksu Stream, flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. The collected water within the depressions is drained by sinkholes.

Climate. The climate of the region is characterized by hot and dry summers, somewhat cold winters, and rainy winter and spring seasons. The mean annual temperature on the bottom land of the region nearly at altitude of 1000 meters is 11-14°C (Burdur 13°C, Bucak 14.1°C, Egirdir 13.5°C, Isparta 12.0°C, Tefen ni 11.6°C, Acıpayam 12.4°C, Gölhisar 12.5°C). This figures fall 6-7°C at 2000 meters. Th e mean January temperature on the bottom land ranges from 0.6°C to 3°C ( Isparta 1.7° C, Burdur 2.6°C, Acıpayam 1.7°C, Tefenni 0.6°C, Bucak 3.5°C, Egirdir 3.4°C); the low est drop is below -15°C. Frost day duration is recorded to be 65 days at Isparta, 53 days at Burdur, 70 days at Acıpayam and 86 day at Tefenni. Frost days start at the end of the November and continue first week of April.

The mean July temperature is 23-24°C, 18-20°C at 20 00 meters. The diurnal temperature between night and day during the summer is about 15°C due to the continental effects. The mean annual rainfall varies between 400 millimeters on the depressions and 700 millimeters on mountainous areas. There is considerable variation in the amount of yearly rainfall. The lowest yearly rainfall was recorded as 320 millimeters at Isparta, 269 millimeters at Burdur, and 303 millimeters at Beyşehir. The highest variation in the monthly rainfall occurs in winter months. In fact, the variation for January was recorded at between 0 millimeters and 169 millimeters at Burdur.

The mean yearly relative humidity is about 40-50 %. This figure decreases to as low as 10% during August. So it can be stated that the decrease in the relative humidity causes intense evapotranspiration.

The dominant winds with a frequency of 30-60 % blow in the direction of the NE, the NW and the SE. During the winter period, southerly and northerly winds flow alternately, depending on frontal activities. But general air flow is in the north direction. Because during then summer period the northern part of the Aegean region is under the high pressure, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is the centre of low pressure. The northerly cool wind strongly supports the growth of cedar trees. When the winds reach the Mediterranean coastal belt, it creates föhn effects. In this period, the relative humidity decreases and the temperature suddenly increases on the coastal belt of the Mediterranean region.

Soil. Climatic or zonal soil on the karstic terrains is the reddish Mediterranean soil; the soil which is found in the depressions is chestnut soil containing carbonate accumulation in the subsoil. Rendzina soils appear on marly deposits within depressions. Parent material is exposed mostly on steep slopes where natural vegetation has been destroyed. Indeed, Neogene marly deposits are seen in the southern part of Lake Burdur. Peridotite and serpentine rocky areas are exposed on slopes around the Elmalı basin. Thin soils appear on the volcanic sand in the vicinity of Lake Gölcük, Isparta.

In the bottom land of the Çeltikçi, Bozova, Korkuteli and Tefenni Depressions, alluvial soils are found due to flooding. The hydromorphic alluvial soils are common in places where


ground water level is high and swamp areas occurring in the vicinity of lakes. Organic soil is only found in the southern part of Lake Işıklar and on the lower part of the Sögüt Depression.

Vegetation. There are different vegetation communities depending of altitude, the amount of rain and exposure direction of the mountain slopes. Lowlands are covered with steppe with red pine and maquis; whereas cedar, black pine and oak stands are found on mountainous areas. The karstic landforms promote biodiversity of the region. Deep cracks and small holes, deep and narrow dolines with soil and lapies containing soil create the formation of the microhabitats and shelter areas for some plants. For that reason many endemic and relic plants are only found in karstic lands. For example the Quercus vulcanica, an endemic oak species, only grows on damp areas of dolines of the Barla and Dedegöl Mountains.

B. Subregions of the Transitional Region The Transitional Mediterranean Region is divided four subregions according to

ecological conditions. i. The Lower Dry Forest Subregion This subregion covers the interior part of the Teke Peninsula in the west and the

bottom lands of the Lakes Region in the east. The altitude of the subregion is about 900-1200 meters. The subregion is the spreading areas of red pine, maquis, notably Quercus coccifera and anthropogenic steppe. Pinus brutia forests are found in the southern part of the subregion, especially in the Bucak and Korkuteli Depression. Destroyed Pinus brutia areas were replaced by maquis and anthropogenic steppe. Toward the north, depending on the increase of continentality and a decrease of rainfall, Mediterranean plants are replaced by the Inner Anatolian oaks and xerophytic annual species. Some oaks clusters are seen on the slopes of mountains, due to the excessive destruction of natural vegetation to obtain fuel requirements and to open agricultural land. Anthropogenic steppes have been widespread on the Elmalı, Bozova, Burdur, Acıpayam, Tefenni and Gölhisar Depressions, due to the destruction of the oak communities. Here, shrub communities that are composed of juniper (Juniperus excelsa, J. foetidissima), kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), spiny cushion plants such as Acantholimon and Astragalus kadın tuzluğu, gyik dikenli are common.

Hydromorphic biomes in the Lower subregion are found along the lakes and the depressions where the ground water table is high. Lake Işıklar is one of the wetland of the region. Swamplands supporting hydrophytic vegetation exist around the Lake Beyşehir and Lake Egirdir.

ii. The Mountain Forest Subregion This subregion begins on the edges of depressions rises up to 2000-2200 meters. The

leading forest vegetation is black pine, cedar, fir and juniper. Black pine (Pinus nigra) forests are widespread in the southern part of Lake Beyşehir and Egirdir, and Dedegöl and in the vicinity of Bucak. Cedar forest, which is the main climax forest of the oro-mediterranean region, is found on the Bey Mountains, notably on the slopes facing the Elmalı Depression. In addition to this, the Dedegöl, Barla and Davraz Mountains are the leading growing areas of cedar. The northern and eastern slopes of the Barla Mountains, east of Egirdir Lake and the southern slopes of the Davras Mountains, form a subhumid environment compared to other sections. Here, leading tree and shrub species are Cedrus libani, Tilia rubra subsp. caucasica, Cornus mass, C. sanguinea, Corylus avellana, Sorbus torminalis, Quercus vulcanica, Fraxinus ornus, F. angustifolia, and Quercus cerris. On the deep and moist surfaces, Ulmus glabra, Lonicera orientalis, Euonymus latifolia, Vitis vinifera exist.

Productive and pure cedar stands are common on the slopes of the Ak and Bey Mountains encircling the southern part of the Elmali Depression. The cedar stands that are composed of juniper species (Juniperus foetidissima), Juniperus communis, J. excelsa) at the lower slopes of the mountains at the altitude of 1000-1200 meters is replaced by the dense and pure cedar forest towards the upper part of the mountains. This is related to the decrease of temperature and increase of precipitation. The optimum growing areas of the cedar is found on the orobiome areas covering the southwest part of the region. Mixed cedar


forest, which is associated with Abies cilicica, Corylus avellana, Sorbus torminalis, Acer platonoides, Populus tremula are extensively found on the Barla and Davraz Mountains.

Pure Taurus fir (Abies cilicica) communities growing in diffuse radiation conditions are found on the slopes facing north of Taurus Mountain extending to the Beyşehir-Seydişehir, and Dedegöl and Davraz Mountains. In other places, fir is found together with black pine and cedar or the mixed forest that are composed of cedar, fir and black pine forests exist in all parts of the southern orobiome of the region. The pure fir stands which are found on the southern slopes and flat land is related to the cutting of the cedar and black pine because these trees are being used for the construction and timber industries. The wood and timber of the Taurus fir is unsuitable for the timber industry and also it gives relatively low heat. In such areas, the cones of the fir converts into a red color, due to direct radiation.

Oak forests are generally widespread on the middle part of mountainous areas. The main spreading areas are in the Lakes region, notably in the vicinity of Lake Egirdir and Beyşehir. Quercus volcanica, being an endemic oak species, occurs in the karstic depression of the Davraz (Barla) and the Dedegöl Mountains. These doline and/or "U" shaped karstic depressions, with thick soils, create suitable conditions for the growth of Quercus vulcanica and some hydrophytes such as Sorbus torminalis, Cornus mass, Corylus avellana, Celtis orientalis, Ostrya carpinifolia and Tilia tomentosa belonging to the mild-humid plant types of the Black Sea Region.

Juniper communities composed of Juniperus foetidissima, J. excelsa, and J. communis are generally found in the lower parts of the mountains. Juniperus nana is seen on the upper timberline of the mountains. The juniper communities which exist on the upper part of the forests is related to the destruction of black pine and cedar. The birds eating the juniper seeds are responsible of the spreading of juniper, because the bark of juniper seed undergoes weathering processes in the birds’ stomachs and the seeds falling with the excrement of birds easily germinate on the soils. For that reason, destroyed areas have been covered by the juniper species.

iii. The Mountain Steppe-Grass Subregion This subregion cover the area above the natural timberline of the mountains extending

to the backward section of Mediterranean Region. Subalpine grasses and steppe elements are found together, due to the continental effect. This subregion is found on the Barla, Davraz, Ak and Bey Mountains. Here, some alpine and subalpine plants appear at an altitude of 2000 meters and rise up to the summit part of the mountains. Leading herbaceous species are Astragalus, Acantholimon, Verbascum, Festuca, Daphane and Phlomis. The majority of spiny-cushion species, such as Acantholimon and Astragalus is related to over-grazing, as these species are very resistant to the over-grazing. Some dwarf trees like Juniperus nana can be seen.

Land use System. The Mediterranean Transitional Region has important agricultural

production and forestry potential. The bottom of the tectonic graben is devoted to the agricultural production. Agriculture is mainly carried out on the bottom of the tectonic depression on which wheat is being produced. Abundant apple producing areas are the in the vicinity of Lake Egirdir and the Isparta Plain. Cherry production gardens are found near Lake Egirdir and Isparta and in the Burdur Depression. Sugar beet grows on the irrigation areas of the Burdur, Bucak, Beyşehir-Yalvaç corridors. Rosa grows very well on the volcanic tuffs near Isparta. Here this is a monopoly of rosa oil production, and it is also a perfume industry area.

One of the first Neolithic settlements was set on the shores of Lake Burdur and Beyşehir in the Mediterranean Transitional Region. The Hacılar settlement was set up 8000 years BP and is one of best known Neolithic settlements of the Anatolia. The first forest destruction in the Anatolia was started 3000-4000 years ago in the vicinity of Lake Beyşehir. The increase in herbaceous and oak pollen show clear forest destruction in the vicinity of Lake Beyşehir. For that reason, the period is called the "Beyşehir Occupation Phase". As a result of the continual destruction and degenerating of oaks and red pine, cedar, black pine forest areas have been replaced by anthropogenic steppe. The maquis become the dominant vegetation in places where red pine had been completely destroyed


Conclusions The following results can be cited in terms of ecosystem dividing in the southwest of

Anatolia. 1) One zonobiome and one zonoecotone is established in area extending from the

Mediterranean coastal belt to the inner section of Anatolia. The Mediterranean zonobiome is under the influence of the Mediterranean climate that is characterized by mild and rainy winters, and dry, hot summers. The lower part of the Mediterranean Region or Coastal belt raising 800-1200 meters is the natural occurrence areas of Pinus brutia forests. Maquis vegetation is widespread where Pinus brutia forest has been partly and completely destroyed. The orographic conditions or altitude leads to the differentiation of the Mediterranean climate. The area more than 800 meters high in the Taurus Mountains is termed an orobiome. The orobiome is responsible for the growth of oro-Mediterranean forests that are composed of cedar black pine and Taurus fir. The upper timberline of the Taurus Mountains is the main occurrence area of mountain grasses. Thus, the Mediterranean zonobiome is divided into three subregions: the Lower Mediterranean; the Oro-Mediterranean Forest; and the Oro-Mediterranean Steppe-Grass.

2) The mountainous areas with tectonic and karstic-tectonic depressions extending between the Mediterranean Region and Inner Anatolian Region is the transitional region. This region is called the Mediterranean Transitional Region or Ecotone. Topographic properties, notably altitude, have produced different habitats for the growth of various vegetation communities. The lower part of the tectonic depression on which semiarid climatic conditions prevails is the main occurrence area of dry forest, steppe forest which is composed of Pinus brutia, Quercus, Juniperus and trees with steppe. Destroyed areas have been covered by anthropogenic steppes. The upper areas encircling the depressions form a distinctive habitat for the growth of forests. The forests that are composed of cedar, Taurus fir and black pine are found in the southern parts of the mountains. Pure black pine and oak forests are common toward the inland parts of the region, due to continental effects. Hydrophytic species belonging to Black Sea region and oro-Mediterranean trees are found together on subhumid part of the mountainous areas mostly occurring on the southern slopes. The karstic depressions with thick damp soil are the main growing habitats for the Quercus vulcanica that is the endemic oak species. The upper section of the timberline is the mountain steppe and grass region. So the Mediterranean Transitional Region is divided into three subregions: the Lower Subregion with dry forest; the Mountain Subregion with forest; and the Upper Mountain Region with subalpine grass and steppic vegetation. References

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