ecology of western horned tragopan (tragopan
TRANSCRIPT
ECOLOGY OF WESTERN HORNED TRAGOPAN (Tragopan
melanocephalus) IN MACHIARA NATIONAL PARK, AZAD
JAMMU AND KASHMIR, PAKISTAN
SARA SHABBIR
06-arid-608
Department of Wildlife Management
Faculty of Forestry, Range Management & Wildlife
Pir Mehr Ali Shah
Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi
Pakistan
2016
ECOLOGY OF WESTERN HORNED TRAGOPAN (Tragopan
melanocephalus) IN MACHIARA NATIONAL PARK, AZAD
JAMMU AND KASHMIR, PAKISTAN
by
SARA SHABBIR
(06-arid-608)
A thesis submitted in the partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Wildlife Management
Department of Wildlife Management
Faculty of Forestry, Range Management & Wildlife
Pir Mehr Ali Shah
Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi
Pakistan
2016
DEDICATED TO MY PARENTS
CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
List of Abbreviations xi
List of Appendices xiii
Acknowledgements xiv
ABSTRACT 1
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 4
1.1 INTRODUCTION 4
1.2 DISTRIBUTION 5
1.3 ECOLOGY 6
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY 8
1.5 STUDY AREA 8
1.5.1 Geographical Location 8
1.5.2 Climate 8
1.5.3 Topography 9
1.5.4 Flora 9
1.5.5 Fauna 9
1.5.6 Domestic Livestock 10
2. POPULATION OF WESTERN HORNED TRAGOPAN IN
MACHIARA NATIONAL PARK
12
2.1 INTRODUCTION 12
2.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 13
2.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 15
2.3.1 Methodology 15
2.4 RESULTS 16
2.5 DISCUSSION 17
3. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT USE OF WESTERN HORNED
TRAGOPAN IN MACHIARA NATIONAL PARK
22
3.1 INTRODUCTION 22
3.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 24
3.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 26
3.3.1 Methodology 26
3.3.2 Statistical Analysis 28
3.4 RESULTS 28
3.4.1 Seasonal Distribution and Habitat Use of Western Horned
Tragopan
28
3.5 DISCUSSION 29
4. DIET COMPOSITION OF WESTERN HORNED TRAGOPAN IN
MACHIARA NATIONAL PARK
40
4.1 INTRODUCTION 40
4.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 42
4.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 44
4.3.1 Sample Size 44
4.3.2 Sampling Procedure 45
4.3.3 Reference Plants Collection 46
4.3.4 Preparation of Plant Sample Slides 46
4.3.5 Preparation of Fecal Sample Slides 46
4.3.6 Analysis 47
4.3.7 Statistical Analysis 48
4.4 RESULTS 48
4.4.1 Diet Composition 48
4.4.1.1 Machiara 48
4.4.1.2 Serli Sacha 49
4.4.2 Seasonal Variation in Diet 51
4.4.2.1 Machiara 51
4.4.2.2 Serli Sacha 54
4.5 DISCUSSION 54
5. FACTORS AFFECTING WESTERN HORNED TRAGOPAN
HABITAT AND POPULATION
62
5.1 INTRODUCTION 62
5.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 65
5.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 67
5.4 RESULTS 68
5.4.1 Age Classes of Respondents 68
5.4.2 Occupation of Respondents 68
5.4.3 Population Trend of Western Horned Tragopan 69
5.4.4 Major Threats to Western Horned Tragopan Population and Its
Habitat
69
5.4.5 Hunting Methods 73
5.4.6 Trade Life Stage 73
5.4.7 Predators of Western Horned Tragopan 73
5.5 DISCUSSION 74
6. GENERAL DISCUSSION 81
SUMMARY 88
SUGGESTED CONSERVATION MEASURES 90
LITERATURE CITED 92
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page
2.1 Characteristics of study sites and number of calling sites
in Machiara National Park
19
2.2 Population density estimation of Western horned tragopan
in Machiara National Park during 2012-2013
21
3.1
3.2
Details of tracks walked for direct or indirect evidence of
Western horned tragopan occurrence in Machiara National
Park, Pakistan
Visual sightings and indirect evidences of Western horned
tragopan in Machiara National Park during 2012-2013
32
33
3.3 Habitat Analysis of Machiara site, Machiara National
Park
34
3.4 Habitat Analysis of Tragopan in Serli Sacha, Machiara
National Park
35
4.1 Composition of major, minor and trace food items in
droppings of Western horned tragopan
53
4.2 Food importance Index of diet components in fecal
samples of Western horned tragopan in Machiara National
Park
57
5.1 Threats to Western horned tragopan population in
Machiara National Park
76
5.2 Test statistics showing results of Chi-Square in Machiara
and Serli Sacha
76
Figure No.
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1.1 Map of Machiara National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir,
Pakistan
11
2.1 Map of the study area showing study sites of Western horned
tragopan
20
3.1 Plant species recorded in the habitat of Western tragopan in
Machiara National Park
36
3.2 Plant species recorded in winter habitat of Western tragopan in
Machiara National Park
37
3.3 Plant species recorded in summer habitat of Tragopan in
Machiara National Park
38
4.1 Diet composition of Western horned tragopan during Summer
and Winter season in Machiara
50
4.2 Diet composition of Western horned tragopan during Summer
and Winter season in Serli Sacha
52
4.3 Proportion of diet components in the diet of Western horned
tragopan during summer and winter in Machiara
55
4.4 Contribution of different plant life-forms in diet of Western
tragopan at Machiara
55
4.5 Food importance index of diet components found in diet of
Western horned tragopan during summer and winter at Machiara
56
4.6 Food importance index of diet components found in diet of
Western horned tragopan during summer and winter at Serli
56
Sacha
4.7 Food item categories in Machiara during summer and winter
season
58
4.8 Food item categories in Serli Sacha during summer and winter
season
58
5.1 Age classes of respondents based on questionnaire survey in
Machiara National Park
71
5.2 Occupation of respondents to questionnaire survey in Machiara
National Park
71
5.3 Population trend of Western horned tragopan in Machiara
National Park
72
5.4 Threats faced by Western horned tragopan in study area of
Machiara and Serli Sacha
75
5.5 Hunting methods used for Western horned tragopan in Machiara
National Park
78
5.6 Trade life stages of Western horned tragopan in Machiara
National Park
78
5.7 Predators of Western horned tragopan in Machiara National Park 79
List of Abbrevations
Kilometer Km
Kilogram Kg
Gram g
Meter m
Centi meter cm
Milimeter mm
Hacter ha
North N
East E
Machiara National Park MNP
Azad Jammu & Kashmir AJ & K
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa KPK
Government of Azad Jammu & Kashmir GOAJK
Great Himalayan National Park GHNP
World Wide Fund for Nature WWF
Convention on International trade of Endangered Species CITES
Vantage Points V
Relative Density RD
Relative Frequency RF
Relative Cover RC
Importance Value IV
Machiara Track MT
Serli Sacha Track ST
Food Importance Index FII
Analysis of Variance ANOVA
Degree of freedom df
International Union for Consevation of Nature IUCN
Non-timber Forest Products NTFP
LIST OF APPENDECES
Appendix No
Page
1.
2.
3.
4.
Vegetation Survey Performa
Data Sheet for Call Count of Western horned tragopan
Interview Performa for Western horned tragopan
Indirect signs and Habitat of Western horned tragopan
113
114
115
116
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All praise and glory to Allah Almighty, Who is exalted and sublime,Who is
Benevolent and Merciful. I am grateful to Him for His never ending favors and vast
bounties and to His Holy Prophet, Hazrat Muhammad (P.B.U.H), who is a
beacon of light and acme of knowledge.
I feel great pleasure in expressing my sincerest thanks to ever
affectionatesupervisor Prof. Dr. Maqsood Anwar, Dean FFRM&W and
Chairman, Department of Wildlife Management, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid
Agriculture University Rawalpindi, for his skillful supervision, sincere support and
inspiring guidance throughout this study.
It is a great privilege for me to record my heartiest and sincerest thanks to
member Dr. Tariq Mahmood, Assistant Professor, Department of Wildlife
Management, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi, for his
scholastic guidance throughout the course of study and research work.
I have honor to offer my deep sense of gratitude to member Prof. Dr.
Mirza Azhar Beg, Department of Zoology, Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture
University Rawalpindi, for his generous support and guidance.
I wish to pay my thanks to my lab fellows, friends and fellows especially
Nasra Ashraf, Misbah Sarwar, Sangam Khalil, Huma Qureshi, Huma Qamar,
Ayesha Qamar, Saleha Abbasi whose assistance, cooperation and healthy
suggestions will never be forgotten during this work. My special thanks go to my
family for their support and encouragement.
Sara Shabbir
1
ABSTRACT
Tragopan spp. belongs to Order Galliformes and Family Phasianidae.
Pheasants own a central position in the food web and are important bio-indicators.
Tragopan genera have five species; Satyr tragopan (Tragopan satyr), Western
horned tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus), Temminck’s tragopan (Tragopan
temmincki), Cabot’s tragopan (Tragopan caboti) and Blyth’s tragopan (Tragopan
blythi). Tragopan melanocephalus is a medium sized, brightly plumaged,
dimorphic pheasant distributed in northeastern areas of Pakistan, India and China.
IUCN listed Western horned tragopan as a vulnerable species in Pakistan. In
Pakistan, Western horned tragopan is found in Palas and Kaghan valleys of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province and Neelum valley in Azad Jammu and Kashmir
(AJ&K).
Present study was conducted in Machiara National Park (MNP) of AJ&K to
determine distribution of Western horned tragopan, population density, diet
composition, habitat use and anthropogenic and natural factors that impose
negative impacts on its population and habitat. Reconnaissance survey was
conducted in the study area to identify potential habitats and distribution of
Western horned tragopan. Information was gathered related to occurrence of
Western horned tragopan from park workers and local people in the study area.
Based on information from reconnaissance survey, Machiara and Serli Sacha were
recognized as distribution sites of Western horned tragopan in the park. Quadrate
method was used for vegetation sampling in the study area. Importance value index
was calculated using cover and frequency of plant species. In Machiara, 34 plant
1
2
species were identified in vegetation sampling while 17 plant species were recorded
at Serli Sacha. Shrubs dominated the flora of study sites followed by trees, herbs
and grasses.
Call count method was used to assess Western horned tragopan population
in study area and data was further used to calculate population density. A total of
11 calling sites at two localities were covered revealing overall population density
index of 1.26/ Km2 at Machiara and 0.79/ Km2 at Serli Sacha. Micro-histological
analysis of Western horned tragopan faecal droppings was carried out to identify
diet composition. Eighty faecal samples were collected from study area during
summer and winter seasons. Slides from faecal samples were prepared and
compared with reference slides of plants collected from study area. Chi square test
revealed that consumption of plants was significantly different between the two
seasons at Machiara (P < 0.05). In Machiara, Western tragopan utilized 11 plant
species during summer whereas in winter 12 plant species were consumed.
Likewise, at Serli Sacha site faecal samples analysis showed that 14 plant species
were consumed during summer season and 13 plant species in winter. Seasonal
differences in Western horned tragopan’s diet were associated with changing
proportions of plant species consumption.
Questionnaire survey was conducted from park staff and local respondents
to gather information related to major threats to Western tragopan population in the
study area. Major threats in Machiara site included; hunting (40%), predation
(20%), anthropogenic activities (18%), livestock pressure (14%), trade (12%), fuel
3
wood collection (6%), agriculture (6%) and disease (4%). In Serli Sacha site major
threats to Western horned tragopan population were livestock pressure (20%),
human interference (18%), trade (14%), hunting (14%), predation (12%), disease in
wild (10%), fuel wood collection (8%) and agriculture (4%). Machiara National
Park management should initiate awareness program with local people to reduce
threats affecting population of Western horned tragopan.
4
Chapter 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Pheasants belong to order Galliformes and family Phasianidae which
contains most of the species often referred to as ‘game birds’ (Delacour, 1977).
Most of gallinaceous birds of the world such as peacock and chicken are members
of Phasianidae family. Genus Tragopan consists of five species including Satyr
tragopan (Tragopan satyr), Western tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus), Blyth’s
tragopan (Tragopan blythi), Cabot’s tragopan (Tragopan caboti), Temminck’s
tragopan (Tragopan temmincki) (Ramesh et al., 1999). Tragopan spp. plays an
important role in the ecosystem. They occupy central position in food web, are bio-
indicators of human exploitation and sensitivity to habitat degradation (Awan et al.,
2015; Fuller and Garson, 2000). Four species of tragopan are found in India while
only Western horned tragopan is found in Pakistan and China (Ramesh et al., 1999;
Delacour, 1977). Tragopan melanocephalus is endemic to Western Himalaya’s
moist forest. Due to bright red neck, vibrant lappet and bizarre courtship behaviors,
Western horned tragopan is most beloved among Tragopan species (Ali et al.,
2015; Miller, 2010).
Western horned tragopan is brilliantly plumaged, ground dwelling bird that
shows high sexual dimorphism (Birdlife International, 2015). Male pheasant’s
color varies between dark gray and black with frequent white spots bordered by
black and crimson patches on the neck and back (Ali et al., 2015). Female pheasant
is smaller in size than males; body length of female is about 60 - 65 cm while male
4
5
vary in length from 65-75 cm (Ashraf et al., 2004). Female of Western tragopan
pheasant has black patches and central white streaks on feathers (Zaman, 2008).
However, there is no clear demarcation between young females and males (Zaman,
2008). Male pheasants have naked throat (lappets) and use to attract females during
breeding season (Ramesh et al., 1999). Males weigh from 1.9 Kg to 2.3 Kg, while
females from 1 Kg to 1.7 Kg (Zaman, 2008; Ali and Ripley, 1998). Male pheasant
wing length is 255 mm – 290 mm and in females it is 225 mm - 250 mm (Delacour,
1977). Fresh egg weight is 61.3 g with 63 mm×42 mm dimension (Mirza, 1977).
1.2 DISTRIBUTION
Tragopan species are widely distributed in northeastern areas of Pakistan
and India (Ali et al., 2015). Pheasants show wide range for habitat preference. Its
whole distribution range is 650 Km long and 100 Km-150 Km wide in Kohistan
(Palas valley), Kashmir (Kishtwar and Chamba), Kaghan and Neelum valley, Sutlej
River east area and Himachal Pradesh. In Pakistan, this pheasant is distributed in
small patches and fragmented populations are found in Palas valley and adjoining
areas of Kaghan and Kohistan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province) and Neelum
valley (Machiara, Pir Chinasi, Pir Hasimar and Salkhala) in Azad Jammu &
Kashmir (Whale, 1996; Awan et al., 2010; Ali et al., 2015). In KPK, this pheasant
occupies Shogran, Behari and Basri area of Kaghan valley, Sari forest rest house
area and Qadir Gali (Grimmet and Robson, 1986; Ghafoor and Nawaz, 1999).
Roberts (1991) and Malik and Shah (1980) reported that Galiyat (Muree) was
occupied by Western horned tragopan. Small population of pheasant was reported
in Hunza (Roberts, 1991) though this species has survived there with its distant
6
occurrence (Nawaz et al., 2001; Islam and Crawford, 1987; Mirza et al., 1978).
Tragopan apparently shows broad distribution range in Machiara National Park,
Salkhalla Wildlife Sanctuary in Karen forests and Kutton in Azad Jammu &
Kashmir (Roberts, 1990; Islam, 1991; Chaudhry, 1993; Qureshi et al., 1999) slopes
between Jagran and Bichala (Kaghan valley) and Kel in Neelum valley hosts this
bird (Mirza, 1971).
1.3 ECOLOGY
Western tragopan occurs at 2,743 m-3,352 m elevation in summer and
move down to about 2,150 m during winter. In winter this bird prefers to occupy
forest even when ground is covered with snow and in summer they occupy areas
where good shrub cover is available (Roberts, 1991; Ramesh et al., 1999; Nawaz et
al., 2001). Western tragopan is restricted in winter to lower margin of the forest and
in midday roosts in trees (Roberts, 1991; Ramesh et al., 1999). They normally
occupy the moist humus rich slopes, precipitous sides of mountains and ground
with less vegetation (Delacour, 1977; Mirza et al., 1978). They are found in large
flocks during winter and males give territorial calls during spring (Ramesh et al.,
1999). In Great Himalayan National Park, Western tragopan prefers to stay alone
except during breeding season. Study reported single birds 41 times and only four
times in pairs (Ramesh et al., 1999).
Western tragopan males are identified by its bright colors and calling sound
during the breeding season (Roberts, 1991). It is monogamous and incubation
period is 28 days (Ali and Ripley, 1998). The nesting season is from the end of
7
May to beginning of June depending upon locality and nest is scrape on the ground
(Beebe, 1936; Roberts, 1991). The display is of two types, first is without erection
of the throat bib or horns and other with a full frontal display and all plumage of
cock bird fluffed out, slowly raise and lower its half spread wings, shaking the head
and neck occasionally. During this period, the horns and throat lappet expand and
contract several times. It then shakes its plumage and the wattles contract rapidly as
it assumes normal feeding (Roberts, 1991; Delacour, 1977).
Western horned tragopan usually can not be found easily. The largest
number of this bird was estimated 325 pairs in field survey of Palas valley (Bean et
al., 1994; Whale, 1995; Awan et al., 2010). Nearly, all pheasant species are
exploited in their natural habitat by local communities and visiting hunters (Zaman,
2008). Many factors such as fuel wood cutting, timber collection, livestock grazing
and plants collection for medicinal use contribute to habitat destruction of Western
tragopan pheasant (Gaston et al., 1983; Gaston and Garson, 1992; Pandey, 1993).
In Neelam and Kaghan valleys, hunting of this bird for meat and decorative
plumage is being carried out (Islam, 1987; Chauhan and Sharma, 1991). Western
horned tragopan status in Pakistan is vulnerable (IUCN, 2013).
Western horned tragopan is also found in Machaira National Park in Azad
Jammu & Kashmir, but detailed information about its ecological features was
lacking. Present study was, therefore, conducted for providing baseline data on its
distribution pattern, population density, habitat use, food habits, threats in the park
and conservation measures for this bird in Machaira National Park.
8
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
1. To estimate distribution range and population of Western horned tragopan
in Machaira National Park.
2. To determine habitat status and use by Western horned tragopan in the
study area.
3. To analyze diet composition of Western horned tragopan in the study area.
4. To identify factors that affect habitat and population of this pheasant in the
study area.
1.5 STUDY AREA
1.5.1 Geographical Location
Present study was conducted in Machiara National Park which lies at 34o-
31’ N latitude and 73o-37’ E longitude, covering an area of 13,532 ha, between
2,000 m-4,700 m elevation (Qamar et al., 2008) (Figure. 1.1). Neelum valley lies
on eastern side of the National Park. Machiara National Park is found in Great
Himalayas and was established in 1996; before this it had status of wildlife
sanctuary in 1984 and game reserve in 1982 (GOAJK., 2005; Qamar, 1996).
1.5.2. Climate
Machiara National Park is categorized with deep snow covered mountain
areas. Here average annual rainfall is 1526.7 mm. Maximum rainfall occurs during
month of July with a mean of 327.6 mm (GOAJK., 2005; WWF, 2008). Machiara
National Park is characterized by harsh winters and heavy snow (WWF., 2008).
Summers are extremely pleasant and cool (GOAJK., 2005).
9
1.5.3. Topography
Machiara National Park’s area has high ridges, deep valleys and very steep
slopes. Landslides are common due to poor vegetation cover and high rainfall.
Fresh water springs and perennial streams with cold clear water are found in the
study area (GOAJK., 2005).
1.5.4. Flora
Machiara National Park’s natural vegetation includes Himalayan mixed
forest, alpine forest, moist temperate, dry temperate, dry coniferous and broadleaf
forest region (Awan et al., 2006; Qamar et al., 2008). Alpine scrub rangeland and
moist temperate forest are found in this area (Dar et al., 2012; Qamar et al., 2008).
Major vegetation includes Aesculus indica, Cedrus deodara, Juglans regia, Pinus
wallichiana and Prunus pardus (Baig, 2004; Ahmed, 1997). Barmi (Taxus
wallichiana) is a globally threatened species which is on CITES list which is found
in MNP (Baig, 2004).
1.5.5. Fauna
As many as 100 bird species (migratory and resident) and 42 mammal
species have been reported in MNP (Hassan, 2004; Baig, 2004). Machiara National
Park’s area is habitat of important wildlife species such as Musk deer (Moschus
chrysogaster), Snow leopard (Uncia uncia), Grey goral (Naemorhedus goral),
Cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichii), Western horned tragopon (Tragopan
melanocephalus), Lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) and Himalayan griffon
vulture (Gyps himalayensis) (WWF., 2008).
10
1.5.6. Domestic Livestock
Human population of 29,680 individuals was reported by Dar et al., (2009)
in three Union Councils i.e. Bheri, Machiara and Serli Sacha of MNP. Because of
severe environmental conditions, local inhabitants are forced to use grazing areas
for their livestock in the Park. Sheep, goats, cows, buffaloes, horses, donkeys and
mules are common livestock owned by local inhabitants (GOAJK., 2005). About
50% of the population depends on agro-pastoral, having 37,233 livestock heads to
accomplish their needs and to generate income (GOAJK., 2005). Buffalos and
cows are retained as dairy animals, while sheep and goats are kept for meat and
wool. Mules, donkeys and horses are used for transportation purpose (Dar et al.,
2009).
11
Figure 1.1: Map of Machiara National Park, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan
12
Chapter 2
POPULATION OF WESTERN HORNED TRAGOPAN IN
MACHIARA NATIONAL PARK
2.1 INTRODUCTION
North-western Himalayas has been categorized as habitat of Western
horned tragopan (Ramesh et al., 1999). It is found in Palas and Kaghan valleys in
KPK, Neelum valley in AJ & K, Chamba and Kishtwar, Kulu valley Himachal
Pradesh and East & west of Sutlej River (Birdlife International, 2001). In Pakistan,
central distribution of Western horned tragopan is in Palas valley and adjacent
areas of Kohistan and Kaghan valleys in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Grimmet and
Robson, 1986).
Western horned tragopan inhabits moist deciduous and coniferous
temperate forests characterized by dense shrub-layer in Great Himalayan National
Park (Ramesh et al., 1999). Western tragopan is found lavishly on the moist humus
rich slopes or on the ground with less vegetation or undisturbed plateaus (Delacour,
1977). Its presence on precipitous mountain sides with a shrub layer indicated high
natural and anthropogenic disturbances (Mirza et al., 1978). It prefers to stay in
places having no disturbance and is confined to extreme steep terrain (Nawaz et al.,
2001).
In Pakistan, during winter Tragopan moves down to around 2,150 m
elevation, however, remains within the forest even when ground is covered with
snow. In summer, they usually inhabit between 2,743 m-3,352 m elevation, mostly
12
13
where good shrub cover is available (Roberts, 1991). In Palas valley, this bird was
encountered between 1850 m–2500 m elevation with relatively higher presence
between 2200 m to 2299 m (Liley et al., 1995). Western tragopan was found in
summer within the habitat having brown oak, deodar and spruce with an elevation
range between 2500 m to 3600 m. Winter habitat consisted of northern aspect of
mid altitudinal coniferous forest at an elevation of 2000 m to 2800 m (Islam, 1983).
Western tragopan is primarily a solitary bird except during breeding season
(Ramesh et al., 1999). The male can be easily identified by its bright colors and
from its call during breeding season. The male starts calling usually at dawn in
early spring (Roberts, 1991). Western tragopan is vulnerable in Pakistan as per
IUCN Red List (2013). Present study determined population density of Western
horned tragopan in Machiara National Park.
2.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In Pakistan, seven male and nine female Tragopan pheasants were found in
an area of 46 Km2 in Manur, Nuri, Chittapar and Malakandi forests in Kaghan
valley, while a total of 145 birds were estimated from Hazara Kohistan (Shah,
1980). Mirza (1981) reported the occurrence of tragopan in Indus Kohistan. Duke
and Walton (1988a) recorded 27-30 calling male tragopans in three valleys in Indus
Kohistan (18-19 Dubair, 4-5 Pattan and 8 Keyal) (Chaudhry, 1992).
A survey indicated that about four hundred individuals were surviving in
forests of Kabkot, Khowari, Khajil and Unsar tributaries of the Palas valley (Duke,
14
1989a; b) which later on increased up to 500 individuals (Duke, 1993) and then 650
individuals (325-330 pairs) (Bean et al., 1994). Its population showed decline in
Kubkot Forest where 100 - 150 individuals were observed in 1999 (Nawaz et al.,
2000).
Neelum valley in Azad Jammu & Kashmir has been considered to be a
stronghold of Western tragopan. Mirza et al., (1978) recorded 12 calling males and
flushed two males and four females in Salkhala Game Reserve (30 Km2) and nine
calling males and flushed seven males and four females in Kuttan (25 Km2). He
sighted seven males and six females within about one seventh of the area of
Machiara (50 Km2). Estimated density in each locality was demonstrated as less
than one individual/ Km2 where thirteen individuals were encountered through 7.8
Km2 patch in MNP at Quercus forest with in total areas of 52 Km2 (Mirza et al.,
1978).
Islam (1982) estimated population of tragopan in seven areas of Neelum
valley, a most well known site for holding large population of Western tragopan. It
was encountered in three localities of Neelum valley, 14 individuals in 8.8 Km2
were recorded in Machiara National Park, 5 individuals in 3.2 Km2 at Kutton and
10 individuals in 14.5 Km2 at Salkhalla (Islam, 1982). There were estimated 100
individuals in Machiara National Park and 85 individuals in Salkhalla Game
Reserve (Roberts, 1991; Islam and Crawford, 1987).
In India, studies showed that range of tragopan had diminished considerably
15
and its population had disappeared completely from several mountain areas
(Sharma, 1993; Gaston et al., 1981). This species occurred at various sites of
Himachal Pradesh but disappeared from its outer Himalayan range such as Choor
Kufri, Dharmsala and Hatau (Chauhan and Sharma, 1991). Forty three individuals
were recorded in survey conducted in contiguous forest around Sara, Schakund,
Punchungula and Specka (Javed et al., 1999).
2.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.3.1 Methodology
Western tragopan population density was estimated through call count
census (Gaston, 1980). Reconnaissance survey was conducted in the study area to
identify potential habitat of Western horned tragopan. Information about its
occurrence was gathered from park employees and local people based on which
study sites were selected in the potential habitat of tragopan. Study sites were
selected based on accessibility to the area and where bird can be heard over as wide
an area as possible. The localities along with eight study sites, their altitude and
coordinates and distribution of 11 calling sites are given in Table 2.1 and Fig. 2.1.
Direction and approximate range of each call was noted to avoid overlapping.
Direction was recorded by using compass. Dawn calls were counted during
breeding season from March to June when calling is frequent. The position of a
census point was marked on the map of the area so that it could be easily located
for subsequent census. Weather conditions and topographical features such as
slope, aspect, and altitude were also recorded to control the variability arising out
of these factors.
16
2.4 RESULTS
A total of 11 calling sites at two localities were covered, revealing overall
population density of 1.26/ Km2 at Machiara and 0.79/ Km2 at Serli Sacha (Table
2.1). The difference in population within Machiara and Serli Sacha was not
statistically significant (t=1.13, P=0.30, df = 6).
Machiara locality had five study sites and seven calling sites, where average
number of calls of adult male tragopan was eight. Hence, estimated population of
adult at this locality was 16 birds (Table 2.3). Serli Sacha had three study sites and
four calling sites, where three calls were heard. Hence, estimated population was 6
adult birds, making total population of 22 adult birds at both localities (Table 2.3).
Habitat of tragopan in the study area was characterized by steep slopes,
rocky and difficult terrain covered by thick vegetation. During winter season, birds
were encountered at southern aspects which receive long hours of sunlight. During
summer season, birds were observed in dense cover of Abies pingdrow, Pinus
wallichiana and Quercus dilatata.
Raveri and Mali were the hotspot for Western horned tragopan, indicating
higher population density of 2.38 and 1.59 birds/ Km2, respectively, showing
healthy population in Machiara locality. Higher population density of Western
tragopan in this locality was probably because of more suitable habitat containing
dense vegetation. Dominant plant species in these areas were Abies pindrow, Ajuga
bracteosa, Aesculus indica, Cedrus deodara, Geranium wallichianum, Indigofera
17
heterantha, Pinus wallichiana, Quercus incana and Taxus wallichiana. Relatively
low disturbance caused by humans and their livestock in Machiara locality as
compared to Serli Sacha could be another factor of higher population density in this
locality. This can be explained based on the fact that in Serli Sacha local people
own more livestock and grazing is severe in and around Tragopan’s habitat.
Estimate of call counts were expressed as
ER = n/ P
Where n = Number of calling sites/stations (from where the birds were
calling) and P = Unit effort, i.e. sampling plots (Ramesh et al., 1999).
2.5 DISCUSSION
The highest population density of Western horned tragopan (2.38 birds/
Km2 was found in Machiara locality. In an earlier study, Mirza et al. (1978) sighted
seven males and six females within about one seventh of the area of Machiara (50
Km2). The results further elaborate that habitat for Western tragopan was covered
with thick vegetation. Likewise, Mirza et al. (1978) found thick vegetation and
steep slopes as preferred habitat of tragopan. Ali et al. (2015) findings depicted 12
calling males and flushed two males and four females in Salkhala Game Reserve
(30 Km2) and nine calling males and flushed seven males and four females in
Kuttan (25 Km2). Estimated population density in these localities was less than one
individual per Km2. The result of census applied the MNP indicated that 13
individuals encountered through 7.8 Km2 patch of Quercus forest (Mirza et al.,
1978). The present study revealed higher population density (1.26) in comparison
18
with Mirza et al. (1978) which is probably due to better protection measures after
declaring it a National Park.
Estimated population density at Machiara (1.26 birds/ Km2) and Serli Sacha
(0.79 birds/ Km2) was close to the findings of Gaston et al. (1983) who estimated
0.8-1.6 birds/ Km2 in Machiara and 1.3 birds/ Km2 in Salkhalla game Reserve.
Population density of the current study was also similar to Islam (1982) who
estimated population of Western tragopan in seven sites in Neelum valley. Islam
(1982) observed 14 individuals in 8.8 Km2 in Machiara National Park (1.59
birds/Km2) five individuals in 3.2 Km2 at Kutton and 10 individuals in 14.5 Km2 at
Salkhalla. Shah (1980) reported the sighting of 16 birds (7 males, 9 females) in an
area of 46 Km2 in Manur, Nuri, Chittapar and Malakandi forests in Kaghan valley.
Duke (1989b) findings showed estimated population density of four
tributaries of mid-Palas as 22.6 birds/ Km2. The largest population of tragopan in
world is found in Palas valley which contains the most important moist temperate
forest of Western Himalayas (Zaman, 2008).
19
Table 2.1 Characteristics of study sites, number of calling sites and population
density in Machiara National Park
Locality Study site Altitude
(m)
Coordinates No. of
calling
sites
Population
density(calling
sites/ area
surveyed(Km)2
1-Machiara Raveri 2819 N34 ˚34.707' E 73 ˚33.664' 2 1.26
Mali 3169 N34o32.066' E73o38.483' 2
Kuthiali 3072 N34o32. 075' E73o36. 999' 1
Moryan 2522 N34o 31.872' E73o 36.493' 1
Charyal 2812 N 34 º31.673' E073 º38.880' 1
2-Serli
Sacha
Chita
Kushkar
2993 N34o31.617' E73o39.657' 2 0.79
Sehr 3134 N34o 31.793' E73o38.653' 1
Daper 3295 N34o31.329' E73o39.337' 1
20
Figure 2.1: Map of the study area showing study sites of Western horned tragopan
21
Table 2.2 Population density estimation of Western horned tragopan in Machiara
National Park during 2012-2013
Locality Study site No. of
calling
sites
Average No. of
calls at vantage
points (V)
Estimated
Number of
Adults
Area
selected Estimated population
density
Machiara Raveri 2 3 6 2.512 2.38
Mali 2 2 4 2.512 1.59
Kuthiali 1 1 2 2.512 0.79
Moryan 1 1 2 2.512 0.79
Charyal 1 1 2
Sub-total
16
2.512 0.79
Serli
Sacha
Chita
Kushkar
2 1 2 2.512 0.79
Sehr 1 1 2 2.512 0.79
Daper 1 1 2 2.512 0.79
Sub-total
6
Total
22
22
Chapter 3
DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT USE OF WESTERN HORNED
TRAGOPAN IN MACHIARA NATIONAL PARK
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Habitat characterization is an essential component in ecological
investigation of a particular organism. Such ecological knowledge on the
preference of relative habitat of a species is worthwhile for conservation and
management of that species. The ecological studies related to habitat preference by
pheasants are a few and existing data hoarded by hunters lack scientific
explanation.
Habitat selection by Himalayan pheasants is greatly affected by prevailing
climate and seasons. Heavy snow and harsh climate in winter force these birds to
move to lower elevation areas. Consequently, inter and intra specific competition
for resources has to be faced because of coexistence with other species (Ramesh et
al., 1999).
Out of five Tragopan species in the world, four are found in India, one in
Pakistan and China each (Delacour, 1977). Western horned tragopan also found in
Pakistan is rarest of all living pheasants. This threatened species is endemic to
North-western Himalayas with a narrow range from Hazara in North Pakistan
through Jammu & Kashmir to Garhwal in India (Ramesh et al., 1999). Its entire
distribution range is 50 Km-100 Km wide and 700 Km long. Its populations are
22
22
23
distributed in five regions including Palas and Kaghan valleys (Kohistan), Neelum
valley (AJ&K) in Pakistan; Chamba and Kishtwar (Himachal Pradesh and
Kashmir), East of Sutlej River up to eastern limit in Garhwal, a Beas catchment in
the Kulu valley of Himachal Pradesh in India (Birdlife International, 2001).
In Pakistan, Palas and Kaghan valleys (Kohistan) and Neelum valley
(AJ&K) are principle existence areas of Western horned tragopan (Grimmet and
Robson, 1986). This pheasant occupies Kaghan valley at Behari and Basri
(Newlands, 1974), Shogran, Nila forest, Nuri reserve forests, especially Mashbil,
Mirshahi valley and Qadir Gali, Malakandi, Manure (Malik and Shah, 1980), Sari
forest rest house area (Grimmet and Robson, 1986) and Galis are occupied by
Western horned tragopan (Roberts, 1991). This species was found historically in
the west through Hazara Kohistan and Indus Kohistan to Swat and north to Gilgit
(Mirza, 1980; Grimmet and Robson, 1986). A small population of this bird was
reported from Hunza (Roberts, 1991) although the species survived there with the
distant existence (Nawaz et al., 2001).
Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan contains wide range of Western
tragopan in Machiara National Park (Roberts, 1991) through Salkhalla and Kutton
Wildlife Sanctuary to Karen forests (Islam and Crawford, 1987; Mirza et al., 1978).
It was restricted between Jehlum and Kunhar River (Roberts, 1991). Tragopan was
found to occupy Pir Hasimar, Pir Chinasi, Kazinag Game Reserve of Jhelum valley
and Leepa (Chaudhry, 1993; Islam, 1991), Phala and Haji Pir Game Reserve
(Qureshi et al., 1999; Chaudhary, 1993). Other locations with tragopan’s
population are Kamal ban (Chaudhary, 1993), Pir Hari Mor, Reshnar Bor, Moji
24
Rukh (Islam, 1991), Chejwa, Jura forest, Dawarian, Fel, Kel and Sharda in Neelum
valley and sloppy ranges between Bichala and Jagran (Kaghan valley) (Mirza,
1971).
In Pakistan, during the winter Western horned tragopan move down to
about 2,150 m elevation but keep within forest even during snow fall. In summer,
they occur at 2,743 m-3,352 m elevation within shrub cover (Roberts, 1991). In
Great Himalayan National Park, Western tragopan inhabits open moist deciduous
and coniferous temperate areas with dense understory and shrub-layer (Ramesh et
al., 1999). The species has separate wintering and breeding grounds. It breeds at
2400 m-3600 m elevation in summer and in winter moves at 1300 m elevation (Ali
and Ripley, 1998).
Western tragopan is generally found in moist humus rich slopes (Delacour,
1977). It also occurs on precipitous mountain sides with a dense shrub layer (Mirza
et al., 1978). Further information about habitat choice of this bird revealed its
preference to extreme steep terrain (Nawaz et al., 2001). This bird is restricted
generally to lower margin of forest in winter (Roberts, 1991) and in mid day roosts
in trees (Ramesh et al., 1999). The present study provided a detailed account of
habitat use of Western horned tragopan across winter and summer seasons in
Machiara National Park.
3.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In Pakistan, Western horned tragopan usually occupies mixed coniferous
forest in Azad Jammu & Kashmir. Brown oak (Quercus semecarpifolia), blue pine
25
(Pinus wallichiana) in coniferous forest while Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara)
and Quercus semecarpifolia in Indus Kohistan are dominant vegetation of Western
tragopan’s habitat. Inhabited areas of Western tragopan also have thick ground
cover of Skimmea laureola, Vibernum spp. and Barberis spp. (Roberts, 1991).
A large population of Western tragopan in the Palas valley inhabits
woodlands and thick shrub cover with high percentage of herbs or ground flora
associated with shaded areas (Baker et al., 1996) having mosaic, broad leaved trees
and mixed conifer (Bean et al., 1994). In breeding season, birds occupy Birch,
Sliver Fir and Spruce followed by ground cover of Indigofera, Skimmia and ferns
(Nawaz et al., 2001). During non-breeding period, it occupies forest dominated by
Quercus floribunda or Quercus baloot of mixed conifer forest with open scrubby
habitat (Whale, 1997; Bean et al., 1994). Gullies are best shelter either snow
covered grassy (Whale, 1997) or with sunlit (Liley et al., 1995).
In Palas valley, this bird was found between 1850 m-2500 m elevation,
However, the highest encounter rate was between 2200 m-2299 m elevation (Liley
et al., 1995). According to Islam (1983), Western tragopan is found in summer with
characteristic habitat of deodar, spruce and brown oak between 2500 m and 3600 m
elevation. The characteristic winter habitat possessed northern aspect at 2000 m to
2800 m elevation with mid altitudinal dense coniferous/mixed forest in Pakistan.
Western horned tragopan occupies steep slopes of transition zone within
dense forest of moist and dry temperate climatic zone of Pakistan (Islam and
Crawford, 1987) followed by coniferous, deciduous and mixed coniferous-
26
deciduous forest having blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), fir (Abies pindrow) and yew
(Taxus wallichiana) with walnut (Juglan regia), cherry (Prunus pardus), horse
chest nut (Aesculus induca), birch (Betula utilis) and maple (Acer caesium) of
deciduous forest while Skimmia laureola, Vibernum nervosum and Pteridium spp.
were thick understory in Machiara National Park and Salkhala Game Reserve. At
Machiara, 54% of sightings were in oak plant association while 30% in coniferous
plant associations. At Salkhala, 63% of birds were found in maple plant
association. At both sites, Western tragopan selected shrub, short coniferous and
deciduous vegetation while avoided taller plants. Maintenance of dense shorter life-
forms vegetation was presented as an important consideration in conservation of
this endangered pheasant (Islam and Crawford, 1987; Islam, 1983).
In India, Western tragopan frequently inhabit well developed under story of
ringal bamboo (Drepanostachyum falcatum)with forest covering of Abies pindrow,
Picea smithiana and Quercus semecarpifoila (Ali and Ripley, 1998). Among trees,
this bird generally occupied thick forest of spruce, Kharsu oak, yew, fir and
rhododendron patches with cover of Rosa, ringal bamboo (Drepanostachyum
falcatum), Barberis, Vibernum and shrubs at Dali (Narang, 1993). A habitat
analysis of the species visualized 50% residency in Quercus semecarpifolia stands
(Javed et al., 1999).
3.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.3.1 Methodology
Seasonal distribution of Western horned tragopan at two localities i.e.
Machiara and Serli Sacha was determined during summer (May-October) and
27
winter (November-April) through call hearing and indirect signs (feathers, faecal
droppings, foot prints). To quantify habitat utilization of the Tragopan, six existing
tracks (four in Machiara and two in Serli Sacha) were used as it was bit difficult to
place transects randomly in whole area due to topographic features of MNP (Table
3.1). Ten calling sites (seven in Machiara and three in Serli Sacha) were identified
for collecting data in addition to observations of signs of Western tragopan
(feathers, feacal droppings, foot prints) along selected tracks situated along
mountain paths (Table 3.2). Each calling site covered the area that could be
inspected visually. Each track and calling site was visited at least once a month.
Feathers, faecal droppings and foot prints of tragopan were searched along the
tracks (Table 3.2) (Appendix 4). Date, time and habitat characteristics were
recorded where signs were found.
Habitat of Western horned tragopan was assessed by systematic sampling.
Characteristics six tracks are presented in Table 3.1. Thirty sampling points were
placed at intervals of 100 m along each track (Vinod and Sathyakumar, 1999). At
each sampling point, cover and frequency of plant species falling in the quadrates
(for trees 10 m × 10 m; for shrubs 4 m × 4 m for shrubs; for grasses 1 m × 1 m)
were measured. In each track 30 quadrates were taken (total 210) (Schemnitz,
1980).
Finally, seasonal Importance Value (IV) of plant species was calculated by
summing relative density, relative frequency and relative cover of each plant
species documented during surveys (Kent and Coker, 1992).
28
Relative Density (RD) = Total No of individual of a species × 100
Total No of individual of all species
Relative frequency (RF) = Frequency value of one species × 100
Total frequency of all species
Relative cover = Canopy cover of a species × 100
Total canopy cover of all species
3.2.1 Statistical Analysis
T- test was applied to determine significance of difference in vegetation.
3.4 RESULTS
3.4.1 Seasonal Distribution and Habitat Use of Western Horned Tragopan
Western horned tragopan was found distributed at two localities of MNP i.e.
Machiara and Serli Sacha. A total of 51 plant species was recorded in Western
horned tragopan habitat in MNP; 34 in Machiara and 17 in Serli Sacha (Table 3.3,
Table 3.4). At both sites, shrubs dominated the flora (38.23% in Machiara, 41.17%
in Serli Sacha), followed by herbs (29.41% in Machiara, 23.52% in Serli Sacha),
trees (20.58% in Machiara, 23.52% in Serli Sacha) and grasses (11.76% in
Machiara and Serli Sacha) (Fig.3.1). Winter habitat of tragopan at Machiara site
consisted of eight tree species, eleven shrub species, eight herb species and four
grass species (Fig. 3.2). Dominant trees were Pinus wallichiana (IV =108.85),
Indigofera heterantha (IV =99.27) was dominat shrub while Persicaria nepalensis
(IV= 97.80) was dominant herb. Dominant grass species was Poa annua (IV
=127.65). Winter habitat of tragopan at Serli Sacha contained four species of trees,
29
eight shrubs, five herbs and two species of grasses. Dominant tree was Abies
pindrow (IV =108.42), Prunus padus (IV =96.01) was dominant shrub, Geranium
wallichianum (IV =85.16) was dominant herb and dominant grass species was Poa
annua (IV =168.71) (Fig. 3.2). Summer habitat of tragopan at Machiara consisted
of nine trees, seven shrubs, nine herbs and two grass species. Dominant tree was
Abies pindrow (IV = 101.75), dominant shrub species was Indigofera heterantha
(IV = 69.35), dominant herb species was Persicaria nepalensis (IV = 83.4), and
dominant grass species was Poa annua (IV = 243.72). During this season, habitat
of tragopan at Serli Sacha consisted of four tree species, seven shrub species, five
herb species and two grass species. Dominant tree species was Pinus wallichiana
(IV =101.52), dominant shrub species was Prunus padus (IV =98.73), dominant
herb species was Geranium wallichianum (IV =98.93), and dominant grass species
was Poa annua (IV =171.83) (Fig. 3.3).
Comparison of vegetation in summer season among both study sites
revealed a non-significance difference among density of trees (t=- 0.35; P=0.101 >
0.05), shrubs (t=-0.00; P=0.5 > 0.05), herbs (t=-1.533; P=0.076 > 0.05) and grasses
(t=-0.00; P=0.5 > 0.05). Similarly in winter season there was non-significance
difference among shrubs (t=-0.73; P=0.23 > 0.05), herbs (t=-1.44; P=0.088 > 0.05)
and grasses (t=-1.92; P=0.06 > 0.05), while significance difference among trees (t=
2.11; P=0.0301 < 0.05).
3.5 DISCUSSION
Western horned tragopan occupied almost similar elevation range at
30
Machiara and Serli Sacha i.e. between 2500 m–3600 m elevation in summer and
2000 m–2800 m elevation in winter. Fecal samples of tragopan were frequently
observed on steep slopes and gullies. It could be speculated that tragopan
avoidsshelter at snow covered ground with low sunlight (Liley et al., 1995) or
grassy ground (Whale, 1997). In MNP, tragopan occupied mixed conifer forests
with thick shrub cover.
Results of present study are in agreement with previous studies on
distribution of Western horned tragopan such as in Great Himalayan National
Park where Tragopan was not recorded above tree line and they used mixed conifer
forests with sufficient under growth (Ramesh et al., 1999). A large population of
tragopan in Palas valley utilized woodlands, thick shrub cover with high percentage
of herbs associated with gullies and shaded areas (Baker et al., 1996) having
variety of mixed conifer and broad leaved trees (Bean et al., 1994).
Western tragopan exhibited altitudinal migration favoring low altitude
forests in winter. During spring and autumn, it dispersed in wide range of habitats
occupying mostly the mid elevation and low elevation habitats (Ramesh et al.,
1999). Present study showed similar results where Western horned tragopan
migrated from high altitude to lower altitude forests in winter at 2000 m to 2800 m
elevation. In MNP, Western horned tragopan was most commonly observed at
higher elevations used more frequently in summer as compared to winter season at
both study sites. Majority of tragopan population was found between 2900 m and
3500 m elevation during summer, suggesting their preferred elevation range in
31
MNP. This elevation range varies from Palas valley and other areas of its
distribution range in Pakistan because in summer people and their livestock move
on higher elevations, hence, to avoid this pressure, Western tragopan moves to
further higher elevations in MNP. In Palas valley this bird was encountered
between 1850 m and 2500 m but the highest encounter rate was found between
2200 m to 2299 m elevation (Liley et al., 1995).
In another study, during winter tragopan move down to about 2,150 m but
keep within the forest even when the ground is covered with snow. In summer they
occur mainly between 2,743 m and 3,352 m elevation, particularly where good
shrub and bush cover is available (Roberts, 1991).
Islam (1983), reported the tragopan in summer season with general
characteristic habitat of spruce, deodar and brown oak ranging from 2500 m–3600
m elevation while in winter with characteristic habitat of mid altitudinal dense
coniferous or mixed forest at elevation of 2000 m–2800 m in Pakistan. The results
of present study showed that Western horned tragopan did not use lower elevations
in MNP in summer but elevation range in summer is 2600 m to 3600 m.
Present study showed that Western tragopan used moist temperate forest in
MNP. So, adequate protection and management of this habitat is required.
Concentrations of tragopan at lower altitude forests in winter indicate the need for
protection of this species in these areas from hunting and other factors (Ramesh et
al., 1999). Western horned tragopan mostly occupied steep forested slopes in MNP.
Islam and Crawford (1987) earlier reported that tragopan generally occupied steep
32
Table 3.1 Details of tracks walked for direct or indirect evidence of Western horned
tragopan occurrence in Machiara National Park
Tracks Tracks location Coordinates Length
(km)
Elevation
(m)
Aspect
MT-1 Taryan,
Chukolni,
Kalus Mali,
Cheryal
34˚ 30.426-34˚
32.079N
073˚31.702-
073˚38.251E
5 2050 –
2286
Northwest
MT-2 Arbomlan,
Mali
34˚30.562-
34˚30.752N
073˚33.351-073˚
37.871E
4 2190 –
2455
Southeast
MT-3 Kalro, Kuthiali 34˚31.131-
34˚31.182N
073˚24.481-
073˚43.526E
3 2465 –
2580
South
MT-4 Raveri,
Moryan
34˚31.197-34˚
32.076N
073˚ 31.181-073˚
38.842E
4 2671–
2900
South
MT-5 Lower Revri,
Upper Revri,
Domail
34˚31.436-34˚
32.549N
073˚37.271-
073˚37.408E
4 2680 –
2865
South
ST-1 Bujni Wali
Gali, Seher
34˚ 30.244-34˚
30.466N
073˚ 39.229-073˚
40.493E
4 2456 –
2945
Northeast
ST-2 Panjor Gali,
Jabra, Dapper
34,28.763-
34,30.841N
073˚ 39.116-073˚
41.281E
5 2025 –
2195
East
Key: MT: Machiara track ST: Serli Sacha track
33
Table 3.2 Visual sightings and indirect evidences of Western horned tragopan
occurrence in Machiara National Park
Locality Study site Evidence of
Faecal
droppings
Evidence of
Feathers Evidence of
Foot prints Physically
sighted
1-Machiara Raveri 4 3 2 2
Mali 3 2 1
Kuthiali 3 2 2 1
Moryan 3 2 Nil
Charyal 2 2 Nil
2-Serli
Sacha
Chita
Kushkar
2 2 Nil
Sehr 3 2 Nil
Dapper 2 Nil Nil
34
Table 3.3 Habitat Analysis of Tragopan in Machiara site, Machiara National Park
Plant spp.
(Local name)
Scientific name
D/10m2 RD RF RC Imp.
Value
Index
Trees
Kail Pinus wallichiana 0.49 49.75 40.80 48.50 139.05
Fir/Rewar Abies pindrow 0.27 27.40 30.16 25.90 83.46
Ban khor Aesculus indica 0.11 11.15 11.78 11.64 34.57
Akhrote Juglans regia 0.03 3.24 5.88 4.50 13.62
Reen Quercus incana 0.03 2.84 2.50 1.93 7.27
Deodar Cedrus deodara 0.01 0.82 3.59 2.80 7.21
Tarkana Acer caesium 0.02 2.28 2.70 2.13 7.11
Bermi Taxus wallichiana
zucc.
0.01 1.52 1.91 1.75 5.18
Shrubs
Kainthi Indigofera
heterantha
0.25 25.90 20.10 21.05 67.05
Guch Viburnum
nervosum
0.20 20.40 17.27 15.37 53.04
Rech guch Viburnum
cotinifolium
0.11 11.48 11.59 10.45 33.52
Chamkath Desmodium
elegans
0.09 9.84 13.30 10.10 33.24
Bisa Salix alba 0.10 10.44 10.05 11.40 31.89
Kerli Sorbaria
tomentosa
0.09 9.15 7.80 7.50 24.45
Peomar Plectranthes
rugosis
0.07 7.70 6.87 7.09 21.66
Perth Prunus padus 0.04 4.30 3.85 5.80 13.95
Kala sumbal Berberis vulgaris 0.02 2.75 3.86 5.83 12.44
Baiker Justicia adhatoda 0.01 1.74 2.06 1.70 5.5
Chamba Jasminum humile
Linn
0.01 1.30 1.36 0.98 3.64
Sumbal Berberis lyceum 0.003 0.39 0.65 1.50 2.54
Khutt Lonicera
quinquelocularis
0.01 0.50 0.60 0.47 1.57
Herbs
Masloon Persicaria
nepalensis
0.23 23.90 25.79 21.30 70.99
Raton jog Geranium
wallichianum
0.22 22.79 26.59 19.85 69.23
Ratti buti Ajuga bracteosa 0.15 15.85 10.76 17.10 43.71
Kala choh Artemisia
mauiensis
0.09 9.15 8.50 7.89 25.54
35
Chityal Rheum austral 0.06 6.33 9.30 7.25 22.88
Hola Rumex nepalensis 0.05 5.40 5.20 9.15 19.75
Safaid choh Artemisia
absinthium
0.05 5.25 3.61 5.70 14.56
Batbhyva Bergenia ciliate 0.03 3.70 3.67 4.01 11.38
Mohri Aconitum
chasmanthum
0.04 4.35 2.90 4.00 11.25
Gadhi kan Verbascum
Thapsus
0.03 3.25 3.10 3.81 10.16
Grasses
Booji Poa annua 0.50 50.10 57.37 55.80 163.27
Gogoo Cymbopogan
martini
0.23 23.05 22.07 21.90 67.02
Kunji Dryopteris
stewartii
0.15 15.75 10.90 11.47 38.12
Rech kunji Dryopteris dilatata 0.11 11.10 9.65 10.30 31.05
Table 3.4 Habitat Analysis of Tragopan in Serli Sacha site, Machiara National Park
Plant spp.
(Local
name)
Scientific name D/10m2 RD RF RC Imp.
Value
Index
Trees
Kail Pinus
wallichiana
0.62 62.30 46.65 60.88 169.83
Fir/Rewar Abies pindrow 0.30 30.25 41.40 30.72 102.37
Deodar Cedrus
deodara
0.05 5.33 10.41 5.95 21.69
Bermi Taxus
wallichiana
zucc.
0.01 1.40 1.51 1.65
4.56
Shrubs
Perth Prunus padus 0.35 35.10 31.25 35.67 102.02
Guch Viburnum
nervosum
0.20 20.33 21.75 20.80 62.88
Besa Salix alba 0.17 17.21 15.50 17.75 50.46
Kala
sumbal
Berberis
vulgaris
0.09 9.15 10.35 9.77 29.27
Rech guch Viburnum
cotinifolium
0.05 5.43 7.75 5.90 19.08
Peomar Plectranthes
rugosis
0.05 5.35 7.71 5.95 19.01
Kainthi Indigofera
heterantha
0.07 7.40 5.61 3.89 16.90
36
Herbs
Raton jog Geranium
wallichianum
0.27 27.20 29.61 32.97 89.84
Masloon Persicaria
nepalensis
0.29 29.45 25.16
27.79
82.40
Batbhyva Bergenia
ciliate
0.25 25.26 21.80 20.71 67.77
Chityal Rheum austral 0.17 17.35 22.59 17.81 57.75
Grasses
Booji Poa annua 0.55 55.10 50.57 55.23 160.90
Kunji Dryopteris
stewartii
0.44 44.28 48.55
44.52
137.35
Figure 3.1: Plant species recorded in the habitat of Western tragopan in Machiara
National Park
37
Figure 3.2: Plant species recorded in winter habitat of Western tragopan in
Machiara National Park
38
Figure 3.3: Plant species recorded in summer habitat of tragopan in Machiara
National Park
39
forested slope of transition zone within dense forest of moist and dry temperate
climatic zone of Pakistan.
Western tragopan selected shorter life-forms (shrub, short deciduous, short
coniferous) and avoided taller vegetation at both study areas. Maintenance of
relatively dense woody vegetation of shorter life-forms is an important
consideration in the conservation of this endangered pheasant (Islam, 1983; Islam
and Crawford, 1987).
Western horned tragopan preferred steep slopes and undisturbed siteswith
dense shrub layer. Similar results have been reported by earlier studies that Western
tragopan was generally found on undisturbed plateaus or ground with less well
vegetation or, its apparent existence on the precipitous mountain sides having dense
shrub layer indicated as the function of high disturbance and hunting rates (Mirza et
al., 1978). Another study revealed that it preferred to stay in those places where
there was no disturbance but confined to extreme steep terrain (Nawaz et al., 2001).
This bird is generally restricted to lower margin of the forest in winter (Roberts,
1991).
Tragopan used south-facing slopes both in summer and winter, however,
there are some differences in tragopan’s preference for aspect. This observation is
similar to previous studies that reported their preference for south facing slopes
irrespective of seasons, however, marginal differences were seen in the use of
various aspect categories (Ramesh et al., 1999). Present study suggests that food
availability and snow accumulation in winter were the primary drivers for Western
tragopan using south-facing aspects.
40
Chapter 4
DIET COMPOSITION OF WESTERN HORNED TRAGOPAN IN
MACHIARA NATIONAL PARK
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Pheasants are among the best known species in different ecosystems and are
generally considered as indicators of quality of environment (Fuller and Garson,
2000; Garson, 2007). The understanding of this important role is facilitated by
information on their food habits. Food supply plays vital role in determining the
dispersion pattern, breeding biology and social system of species through natural
selection (Simmons, 1970). Studies related to food habits provide immediate and
practical knowledge required for management of a species (Giles, 1984;
Korschgen, 1980).
Galliformes are terrestrial birds found in a variety of habitats and are
ground feeders. These birds search for food by scratching the ground with their feet
for fallen fruits, nuts, seeds, roots and invertebrates. A few studies have been
reported in literature regarding food habit analysis of family phasianidae in wild
(Khaling, 1999; Moreby, 1993; Kaul, 1989 a; b).
There is variation in food habits among pheasants and food items eaten by
different groups of pheasants also vary by season (Mcgowan, 1996). Pheasant get
nutrients from different plant species. Adoption of an extensive diet is nutritionally-
adaptive strategy (Korschgen, 1964). Generally, all types of food are included in
40
41
diet of pheasant indicating their omnivorous nature depending on availability of the
food resources and habitats (Hill, 1985; Rimlinger et al., 2000).
Diet of Western horned tragopan has been reported to include newly sprouted
leaves, flowers, seeds, berries, roots, acorns and insects (Ramesh et al., 1999). Roberts
(1991) reported berries of Skimmia laureola and Viburnum nervosum, acorns of Quercus
semecarpifolia, leaves and buds of various plants as major food of Western horned
tragopan in Machiara.
Most of the birds predominantly depend on fruits to fulfill their nutrition. Birds
play a prominent role in dissemination of plant seeds. Birds feeding on fruits, by
consuming the pulpy fruits distribute the seeds of food plant species (Balasubramanian and
Maheswaran, 2003). Seed dispersal is also associated with birds as a mechanism of
endozoochory where undigested seeds are defecated at different sites. Western horned
tragopan also comes in endozoochory category.
Direct observation of prey items, identification of prey remains and pellet
analysis are the principal methods to study diets of birds (Marti, 1988). Direct
observation, although better, is not often adopted due to time and logistical
constraints. The validity of using prey remains and collection of pellets as a means
of determining diet has been assessed by several authors (Real, 1996, Manosa,
1994, Mersmann et al., 1992, Simmons et al., 1991, Collopy, 1983). On the other
hand, with a view to conservation measures, collection of gut contents for analysis
must be avoided. Therefore, pellet analysis method was adopted in the present
study.
Analysis of crop contents is available for pheasants because samples of bird crops
42
can be collected from hunters and food items remain in their natural forms. There have
been some reports of crop content analyses of birds (Ogasawara, 1968), but study sites
were very restricted and sample size was also small. Some researchers experimentally
analyzed the food preference of pheasants by providing them various food items in a cage
(Tochigi Prefectural Citizens’ Park Management Office, 1978). These types of studies are
suited where pre-existing knowledge of food preference is available for particular species;
in case of Western horned tragopan, this pre-existing knowledge is lacking.
After faecal analysis, identification of animal prey remains is difficult in avian
species. It was suggested that the identification of insects to the family level is sufficient in
case of birds as a limited number of invertebrate families will occur in the diet (Moreby,
1993). The principle of faecal analysis method is passage of undigested diet materials that
resist the physiological process of digestion, through the gastro intestinal tract and its
comparison with reference plants and animal parts. Sometimes the intact seeds may pass
out through gastro intestinal tract in most of the avian species.
The present study was carried out in Machiara National Park to determine food of
Western horned tragopan and compare seasonal difference in their diet.
4.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Western horned tragopan is omnivorous in its eating habit. These birds feed mostly
on the ground, being active in foraging in the early morning and late afternoon. Hume and
Marshall (1981) described the diet of Western tragopan as leaves of shrubs and trees, and
in small proportion the roots, grubs, flowers, acorns, seeds, berries and insects (Xiangtao
and Xiaoyi, 1989). Bhandary et al., (1986) in Pipar (Central Nepal) found the moss and
grass leaves as a main autumn diet of the Western horned tragopan.
43
Roberts (1991) found distinctive differences among the faecal droppings of
Western tragopan in March and late May in Machiara. Droppings were distinctive being
always blackish and of a liquid consistency in March with sharp contrast to more normal
fibrous tubular extrusions in May. The same semi-liquid black caecal dropping of tragopan
were also located in Duber valley, Indus Kohistan (Roberts, 1991). Diet of Western horned
tragopan comprised mainly of buds and young leaves of different plants but also partially
berries of Skimmia laureola and Viburnum nervosum along acorns of Quercus
semecarpifolia in Machaira (Roberts, 1991).
Twenty three different food items were identified in droppings of Satyr
tragopan in the Eastern Himalayas. The plant material was found to be the major
portion of food (Khaling, 1998). Arundinaria maling (bamboo species) was
identified as a dominant plant species in their diet. Arundinella nepalensis was
another bamboo species same study. Other than these were Ariseama flavum,
Cotoneaster acuminata, Pilia spp. and Rubus biflorus.
Kawaji and Yokoyama (2009) analyzed food components of Syrmaticus
soemmerringii (copper pheasant) through crop analysis method Japan. Most of the
food items were vegetable matter along leaves followed by seeds and fruits, stems,
flowers and roots. Fifty-two plant species were identified from the leaves. Fifteen
kinds of ferns including Cyrtomium fortune and Polystichum tripteron were also
found. Among the fruits and seeds, Phryma leptostachya was most frequently
found, followed by Zanthoxylum ailanthoides.
44
Feeding behavior of Ring-necked pheasant revealed that 83% of food
comprised of plant material (Zhengje, 1989). Jianqiang and Yue (1989) studied
Brown-eared pheasant feeding ecology and reported 62 plants and animal species
as its diet components (Lelliot and Yonzon, 1980).
Dutton and Bolen (2000) determined food consumed by Phasianus
colchicus (ring necked pheasant) in North core banks in North Carolina. Myrica
cerifera fruits, Hydrocotyle bonariensis vegetative parts, Strophostyles helvola and
Cakile edentula seeds were found to be major food components in diet of birds by
gizzard analysis (Baohua et al., 2010).
4.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.3.1 Sample Size
A total of 80 faecal droppings were collected from Machiara National Park.
Among these, 50 were collected from Machiara (summer=30; winter=20) while 30
from Serli Sacha (summer=17; winter=13) based on their abundance and
availability at two sites. Each faecal dropping was treated as one sample.
4.3.2 Sampling Procedure
Green (1984) and Hill (1985) described the use of faecal analysis in the
study of game bird feeding ecology. It is a good method for determining the
principle foods throughout the year (Moreby, 1993). Faecal analysis is an
acceptable method for dietary studies in birds (Bhandary et al., 1985) and is
considered best method for determining diet of Galliformes (Dalke, 1937). Hence,
45
droppings can be used satisfactorily as a source of food-habits information for
pheasants.
Fecal dropping collection was made through random search along the
selected forest trails in the study area. As described by Hussain (2002) and
Sathyakumar and Kaul (2007), Lophophorus impejanus (Himalayan monal),
Tragopan satyra (Satyr tragopan), Lophura leucomelana (Kaleej) and Pucrasia
macrolopha (Koklass) occupy different altitudinal ranges, so doubt of mixing of
droppings was ruled out. To avoid collection of the same materials during
successive sampling, spots from where faecal droppings were once collected were
cleared. Faecal dropping were collected during summer and winter season of 2012
and 2013. Thirty sampling plots were selected along two tracks in Serli Sacha
while thirty sampling plots were selected along four tracks in Machiara. Sampling
plots were designated in a systematic random manner. Starting from random points,
plots of 100 m were designed parallel to track. Droppings were air dried, labeled,
sealed in plastic zipper bags and stored in airtight containers. In a 10 m radius
circular plot from where droppings were found, major ground vegetation species
were collected for reference slides.
4.3.3 Reference Plants Collection
Thirty six potential plant species samples were collected from Western
horned tragopan’s habitat for reference slides. Collection of plant samples was
based on visual analysis and confirmation through park watchers and herders. The
reference species included seven grasses, 10 herbs, 13 shrubs and eight trees. Plant
samples were dried, ground and processed for microhistological analysis following
Sparks and Malechek (1968).
46
4.3.4 Preparation of Plant Sample Slides
Reference slide of each plant sample was prepared. Each sample was easily
identified because of unique epidermal features. For preparation of slides, plant
samples were preserved in 10% formalin. Epidermis of each plant species was then
stripped off. It was then passed through 30%, 50%, 70%, 90% and 100% grades of
ethanol for dehydration (Holechek et al., 1982). Samples were then cleared in xylol
and mounted in Canada balsam to make permanent slides. A total of 38 reference
slides were prepared in this manner.
4.3.5 Preparation of Fecal Sample Slides
For preparing samples, collected droppings were combined season wise.
The samples were crushed gently by hand. Samples were ground and sieved to
homogenize fragment size. Samples were cleared in 10% NaOH solution. With 3-4
changes of NaOH solution, they were boiled for 3-4 minutes (Khaling, 1998). The
left over solution was drained off and the settled material was poured into a petri
plate. Ten sub samples were extracted using a dropper from this sample on 10 glass
slides. The sub samples were air dried and mounted in glycerol (Bhandary et al.,
1986). These slides were observed interchangeably in 50X and 100X magnification
(Holechek and Valdez, 1985). The frequency of plant fragments was noted in the
microscopic field view. Fragments which fell with the view were identified using
reference slides. Although, the frequency of occurrence of fragments in the slide
tends to underestimate common species and overestimate rare, it is still the most
commonly used technique (Storr, 1961; Stewart, 1967). Each slide was then
47
divided into 20 frequencies to enumerate proportions of different food items in
droppings. No attempt was made for identification of invertebrate part in faecal
analysis.
4.3.6 Analysis
The occurrence of each food item was expressed as ‘Food Importance index
(FII)’ (Bhandary et al., 1986). FII was calculated through frequency and
composition of food items in the samples (Hussain and Sultana, 2013):
Food Importance Index =Frequency (%) + Composition (%)
2
The frequency of each food item was calculated following Hussain and
Sultana (2013):
𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 (%) =𝐎𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐟𝐨𝐨𝐝 𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐨𝐨𝐝 𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐬 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Percent composition was calculated following Hussain and Sultana (2013):
Composition (%) =Ocurance of particular food item in sample
Total occurance of food items× 100
Based on composition, each food item was categorized into three groups (Khaling,
1998):
1) Major food components forming >10% of total composition
2) Minor food components forming <10%, but >3%
3) Trace food components forming <3% of total composition
4.3.7 Statistical Analysis
48
One-way ANOVA and Chi-Square test was performed on food items for
two seasons, at two sites for differences in Tragopan’s diet.
4.4 RESULTS
4.4.1 Diet Composition
4.4.1.1 Machiara
During summer, 11 plant species were identified in Tragopan diet along
with lower plants (mosses), invertebrates and grit with a small proportion of
unidentified food items. Frequency of food comprised mainly of plants (78.5%)
followed by grit (15.00%), invertebrates (2.34%) and unidentified (4.13%) (Fig.
4.1). Major plant species identified were Berberis vulgaris, Ajuga bracteosa and
Pinus wallichiana which contributed about 55.6% of total food composition.
Artemisia spp. and Persicaria nepalensis contributed as minor food items with
9.89% contribution to diet composition. Trace elements of food included
Cymbopogon martini, Arundinella nepalensis, Skimmia laureola, Cotoneaster
acuminate, Pilia spp. and Moss with percentage contribution of 13.03%. Grit was
indicated as a major component (15.00%) while invertebrates were 2.34% of
identified diet.
During winter season, food comprised mainly of plants (83.05%) followed
by grit (12.04%), invertebrates (2.33%) and unidentified (2.56%). Out of 14
identified components, 12 were plant tissues. Cymbopogon martini was found to be
major food component (14.94%). Pinus wallichiana, Geranium wallichiana,
Daphne papyracae, Cotoneaster acuminate, Poa annua, Valeriana wallichii,
Skimmia laureola, Arisaema flavum, Artemisia spp., Pilia spp. and moss were
minor components of diet contributing 83% of the total composition. There was no
49
trace plant food item identified for winter season. Grit contributed 12.04%,
invertebrates 2.34% and unidentified material 2.57% of food components. Food
importance index (FII) of Western horned tragopan diet in two study sites during
the summer season was non-significant (mean FII at Machiara (�̅� = 4.49), at Serli
Sacha (�̅� = 5.37, t = 0.436, P=0.66 > 0.05). Similarly, this difference was non-
significant during winter season (�̅�Machiara = 6.13, 𝒙 ̅Serli Sacha = 6.03, t = 0.056,
P=0.44> 0.05).
4.4.1.2 Serli Sacha
During summer season, food of Western horned tragopan comprised mainly
of plants (78.04%) followed by grit (16.47%), invertebrates (1.35%) and
unidentified (4.12%). A total of 14 food items were identified out of which 12 were
plant tissues (Fig. 4.2). Berberis vulgaris, Ajuga bracteosa, Pinus wallichiana and
Geranium wallichiana were major food components (57.91%).
Minor food components were analyzed as Valeriana wallichii and moss
(7.36%). Cymbopogon martini, Persicaria nepalensis, Poa annua, Arundinella
nepalensis, Skimmia laureola and Arisaema flavum were identified as trace food
50
Figure 4.1: Diet composition of Western horned tragopan during summer and
winter season in Machiara
51
items with combined percent contribution of 12.78%. Invertebrates contributed
1.35% of diet, 16.48% was indicated as grit while 4.13% was unidentified food
material.
Similarly, during winter season, food comprised mainly of plants (81.87%)
followed by grit (13.76%), invertebrates (1.76%) and unidentified (2.59%). A total
of 13 food items were identified out of which thirteen were plant tissues.
Cymbopogon martini and Poa annua were major food component (25.1%). Minor
food components were analyzed as Pinus wallichiana, Persicaria nepalensis,
Artemisia spp., Arundi nellanepalensis, Cotoneaster acuminate, Pilia spp.,
Valeriana wallichii and moss.
All minor components contributed 55.01% among total diet items. Berberis
vulgaris was among trace food items with a 1.75% contribution, 1.76% food
components were represented by invertebrates while grit contributed 13.76%.
Unidentified material contributed 2.59% of diet (Fig. 4.9, 4.10; Table 4.1).
4.4.2 Seasonal Variation in Diet
4.4.2.1 Machiara
Seasonal differences in Western horned tragopan’s diet were associated
with changing proportions of consumed plant species. During summer, grasses and
herbs increased to high dietary levels of 26.03% and 22.00%, respectively in
Western tragopan’s diet. However, comparing the plant species individually
indicated that Berberis vulgaris (FII=21.98) and Ajuga bracteosa (FII=15.15)
among highly consumed species during summer by Western horned tragopan (Fig.
4.3, Table 4.2).
52
Figure 4.2: Diet composition of Western horned tragopan during summer and
winter season in Serli Sacha
53
Table 4.1 Composition of major, minor and trace food items in droppings of
Western horned tragopan
Machiara Serli Sacha
Summer Winter Summer Winter
Major 28.57 13.33 33.33 21.42
Minor 21.42 73.33 20.00 64.28
Trace 50.00 13.33 46.66 14.28
54
In winter season, herbs were most heavily consumed (36.08%) followed by
grasses (27.51%). One species of grass i.e. Cymbopogon martini (FII=17.40) and
herb Geranium wallichianum (FII=9.82) were heavily consumed species during
winter season. Two plant species Artemisia spp. and Pinus wallichiana were found
common in winter and summer season in their diet (Fig. 4.4). Chi square test
showed that consumption of plants was significantly different between two seasons
at Machiara (P< 0.05).
4.4.2.2 Serli Sacha
During summer, herbs and shrubs had higher proportion in Western horned
tragopan diet. Berberis vulgaris (FII=17.87), Ajuga bracteosa (FII=16.75) and
Geranium wallichianum (FII=12.54) were heavily consumed during summer
season. While during winter, trees were most frequently consumed, followed by
herbs Artemisia spp. (FII=5.18), Cymbopogon martini (FII=11.99), Cotoneaster
acuminate (FII=9.86) and Arundi nellanepalensis (FII=0.73).
4.5 DISCUSSION
Food supply plays vital role in determining dispersion pattern, breeding
biology and social system of a species (Simmons, 1970). Therefore, studies related
to food habits provide immediate and practical knowledge required for managing of
a species (Giles, 1984; Korschgen, 1984).
Terrestrial birds in various habitats, feed on the ground. These birds use to
search for invertebrates, fallen nuts, fruits, seeds and roots by feet scratching
(Khaling, 1999; Moreby, 1993; Kaul, 1989 a; b). Pheasants are amongst the best
55
Figure 4.3: Proportion of diet components in the diet of Western horned tragopan
during summer and winter in Machiara
Figure 4.4: Contribution of different plant life-forms in diet of Western tragopan at
Machiara
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Herbs Shrubs Trees Grasses
Con
trib
uti
on
(%
)
Plant Life-form
Summer
Winter
56
Figure 4.5: Food importance index of diet components found in diet of Western
horned tragopan during summer and winter in Machiara
Figure 4.6: Food importance index of diet components found in diet of Western
horned tragopan during summer and winter at Serli Sacha
57
Table 4.2 Food Importance Index (FII) of diet components in fecal samples of Western horned tragopan during summer and winter
seasons in Machiara National Park
Machiara Serli Sacha
Food items Summer Winter Summer Winter
FII Category FII Category FII Category FII Category
Berberis vulgaris (S) 21.98±0.31 Major --- --- 17.87±0.25 Major 2.01±0.1 Trace
Ajuga bracteosa (H) 15.15±0.28 Major --- --- 16.75±0.38 Major --- ---
Geranium wallichianum (H) --- --- 9.82±0.21 Minor 12.54±0.18 Major --- ---
Cymbopogon martini (G) 2.1±0.24 Trace 17.40±0.20 Major 1.54±0.19 Trace 11.99±0.32 Major
Pinus wallichiana (T) 10.29±0.18 Major 9.89±0.31 Minor 11.89±0.41 Major 9.73±0.18 Minor
Persicaria nepalensis (H) 3.89±.24 Minor --- --- 2.80±0.17 Trace 8.56±0.30 Minor
Artemisia spp. (H) 4.55±0.17 Minor 4.98±0.19 Minor --- --- 5.18±0.12 Minor
Poa annua (G) --- --- 8.37±0.20 Minor 2.99±0.29 Trace 16.80±0.15 Major
Arundi nellanepalensis
(G)
1.98±0.30 Trace --- --- 2.10±0.31 Trace 9.73±0.22 Minor
Cotoneaster acuminata
(S)
1.20±27 Trace 8.40±0.7 Minor --- --- 9.86±0.20 Minor
Daphne papyracea (S) --- --- 8.75±0.34 Minor --- --- --- ---
Pilea sp. (H)
1.65±0.27 Trace 4.81±0.19 Minor --- --- 6.08±0.18 Minor
58
Figure 4.7: Food item categories in Machiara during summer and winter season
Figure 4.8: Food item categories in Serli Sacha during summer and winter season
59
known species with great variation in diet composition depending on groups and
season (Garson, 2007; Fuller and Garson, 2000; Mcgowan, 1996).
The study indicated omnivorous nature of Western horned tragopan. Plants
and invertebrates were identified as most frequent food items in its droppings. This
finding is in consonance with earlier studies where newly sprouted leaves, flowers,
seeds, berries, roots, acorns and insects were analyzed in diet of Western horned
tragopan (Ramesh et al., 1999). Machiara also indicated berries of Skimmia laureola
and Viburnum nervosum, acorns of Quercus semecarpifolia, leaves and buds of
plants as major diet components of Western horned tragopan.
Fifty percent of the food components represented category of trace food items
(<3% contribution in diet) in summer at Machiara while 73.33% of dietary components
represented ‘minor’ category (<10% - >3%) in winter. Similarly, 46.66% of diet
components were belonging to trace category (<3%) in summer and 64.28% to minor
category (<10% - >3%) in winter. This data indicated adoption of this species for different
food items rather than a selective feeder on certain food components as proposed by
Korschgen (1964).
At Machiara, during summer, food comprised mainly of plants (78.5%)
followed by grit (15.00%), invertebrates (2.34%) and unidentified (4.13%). The
major food components were Berberis vulgaris, Ajuga bracteosa and Pinus
wallichiana, contributing ~55.6% of total composition during summer season.
During winter season, food comprised plants (83.05%) followed by grit (12.04%),
invertebrates (2.33%) and unidentified (2.56%). Cymbopogon martini was found to
60
be a major food component (14.94%) along Pinus wallichiana, Geranium
wallichiana, Daphne papyracae, Cotoneaster acuminate, Poa annua, Valeriana
wallichii, Skimmia laureola, Arisaema flavum, Artemisia spp., Pilia spp. and moss
as minor components of diet.
At Serli Sacha, during the summer season, food of Western tragopan
comprised mainly of plants (78.04%) followed by grit (16.47%), invertebrates
(1.35%) and unidentified (4.12%). Berberis vulgaris, Ajuga bracteosa, Pinus
wallichiana and Geranium wallichiana were major food component (57.91%).
Similarly, during winter season, food comprised mainly of plants (81.87%)
followed by grit (13.76%), invertebrates (1.76%) and unidentified (2.59%).
Cymbopogon martini and Poa annua were major food components (25.1%).
Comparing food importance index (FII) between two study sites during the summer
season, mean FII observed at Machiara was not significant (�̅� = 4.49) than at Serli
Sacha (𝒙 = 5.37, t = 0.436, P=0.66 > 0.05). Similarly, this difference was not
significant during winter season (�̅�Machiara = 6.13, 𝒙 ̅; Serli Sacha = 6.03, t =
0.056, P =0.44> 0.05).
Greater contribution of plants than insects and other invertebrates in food of
pheasants has been reported by earlier researchers. Hussain and Sultana (2013)
while working on Lophophorus impejanus, Tragopan satyra, Pucrasia macrolopha
and Lophura leucomelana indicated main contribution of plant matter in their diet
than insects.
61
Twenty three food items were identified by Khaling (1999) from droppings
of Satyr tragopan in Eastern Himalayas, India. Plant material contributed a major
portion of diet fragments. Arundinaria maling was dominant plant species in the
diet of Satyr tragopan. For high survival rates of pheasant chicks, a protein rich diet
is necessary. This protein component of diet is obtained from insects (Hill, 1985).
Therefore a small proportion of diet is represented by insect/invertebrate category.
62
Chapter 5
FACTORS AFFECTING WESTERN HORNED TRAGOPAN
HABITAT AND POPULATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Pheasants have always been a source of attraction for humans because these
are a rich source of protein and easy to hunt. They are also renowned for their
beautiful feathers. Pheasants, therefore, have economic benefits and aesthetic
importance to human population (IUCN, 1998; Shafiq and Saqib, 2011). In
Pakistan, population of Western horned tragopan is threatened by several
anthropogenic factors in addition to natural disasters throughout its range. As a
consequence, Western tragopan has been globally listed as vulnerable pheasant
species (Ali et al., 2015). Numerous threats in natural habitat are generally faced by
Pheasant species including human interference and disturbance, habitat loss and
degradation, predation, poaching, hybridization in released stock and diseases.
These threats are getting more serious with the passage of time and need to develop
a comprehensive management strategy to initiate population monitoring,
conservation and public awareness programs for pheasants in their habitat (IUCN,
1998; Shafiq and Saqib, 2011).
Distribution of Western tragopan is fragmented in Pakistan having its small
populations in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Jammu & Kashmir (Awan, 2010).
Since its patchy populations are declining throughout its range, this species is
enlisted as vulnerable (Birdlife International, 2015). Population decline of Western
62
63
Tragopan in Pakistan is attributed to habitat loss due to forest degradation, hunting
and trapping (Ashraf et al., 2004).
The rich vegetation and associated biodiversity of Machiara National Park
is characteristic of temperate Himalayan mixed-forest/alpine-scrub-rangeland
ecosystem and provides habitat to globally threatened Western horned tragopan.
Dependence on non-timber forest products (NTFP) and unsustainable private and
public utilization of sources is threatening the biodiversity of this park.
Consequently, habitat of key wildlife species here is being affected resulting in
decline of their populations considerably. In addition, advancement of technology
and increased availability of automatic weapons as well as high economic returns
of pet trade are other reasons for hunting and poaching and, therefore, decreasing
the population of wildlife species (Butt, 2006).
Fast increasing human population and consequent over-exploitation of
natural resources leading to rapidly declining levels of biodiversity have further
complicated this problem. The resource use and other human activities are
observed to play a significant role in the survival of pheasants in Great Himalayan
National Park (Ramesh et al., 1999).
Habitat degradation and fragmentation through commercial timber
extraction, browsing of understory shrubs by livestock, tree lopping for fodder and
fuel wood collection are the main threats to Western horned tragopan population
(Gaston et al., 1983). Disturbance by grazers and particularly collectors of edible
64
fungi and medicinal plants may seriously interfere with nesting of animals (Gaston
and Garson, 1992). Hunting and trapping for its meat and decorative plumage are
additional threats for its distribution and survival (Islam, 1987).
Pheasants are mainly poached and hunted for their bright colored feathers to
ornament the households. They are also trapped and shoot for food purpose as their
meat is good source of protein. Though poaching is not at large scale, however, in
practice mainly aiming at meat. In Great Himalayan National Park (GHNP), forced
by heavy snowfall, their altitudinal movement down to human habitation plays
major role in the hunting of these species. The licensed firearm obtained for crop
protection and traditional knowledge in trapping birds enable the people in these
activities (Ramesh et al., 1999). Grazing in Great Himalayan National Park has
relatively less impact on the pheasants, possibly because most of the grazing
activities are done in alpine meadows, which is not a preferred habitat of pheasants
(Saberwal, 2001).
Keeping in view these factors, it is required to have a well-planned
management strategy, which assures appropriate protection of pheasants and at the
same time does not abate the interest of the people who are reliant on the park
resources. Machiara National Park with its characteristic vegetation is a habitat for
globally threatened Western horned tragopan. However, its population is constantly
declining because of various anthropogenic factors. The present study provides
comprehensive set of factors contributing to decline of Western tragopan in
Machiara National Park.
65
5.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The patchy distribution of pheasants in Pakistan is constantly declining
dueto numerous natural and anthropogenic factors. Factors including increase in
human population, habitat disturbance, poaching and encroachment mainly
contribute to their decline (Zaman, 2008). About one third of the total species of
pheasants are listed in danger of extinction (IUCN, 2006). In the light of global
extinction crisis and continuing increase in the number of globally threatened
species, prioritizing conservation actions and funding are perhaps more important
than ever (Thomas et al., 2004; Brooks et al., 2006).
The level of forest loss and humiliation in India during 1972-1982, showed
closed forest decline by more than 100,000 km2 which had effected most the
Western Himalayan states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, losing
more than 30% of their closed forest in that decade. This forest fragmentation has
greatly declined the amount of habitat available for pheasants such as Western
tragopan (McGowan and Garson, 1995).
In Great Himalayan National Park an estimated 60% of the inhabitants are
involved in mushroom collection. Pheasants being shy birds and having little
ability to tolerate human intervention therefore dissert the nests. This human
interference in natural population is playing significant role in reducing the
breeding success of pheasants (Kumar and Singh, 1999).
People movement inside the park during breeding season of the pheasants
66
was found to be detrimental for the breeding pheasants in Great Himalayan
National Park. There were confirmations that people visit the park for collection of
edible mushroom and lichen and are often directly involved in removing eggs from
the nests and destroying the nests. Secondary information collected based on
interviews with known local people confirmed this observation (Ramesh et al.,
1999).
The Western tragopan has a stronghold in Kohistan/Indus Kohistan but
populations are declining in surrounding valleys (Duke, 1990, Bean et al., 1994;
Zaman, 2008). Disturbance and habitat fragmentation are apparent threats to the
Western tragopan. Poaching has been observed throughout the Hazara Division in
KPK, but without further detailed studies it is difficult to make any fruitage
estimate (Zaman, 2008).
Birdlife International, World Pheasant Association, and KPK Wildlife
Department worked jointly in district Kohistan for the conservation of this
endangered pheasant. Surveys were conducted generally by call counts in summer
and flushing method in winter (Nawaz et al., 2000). Usually a trained dog was used
to flush birds along a transect (Duke, 1990). Based on the results of the surveys,
Palas valley is the strong hold for the Western tragopan in Pakistan (Duke, 1990,
Bean et al., 1994; Zaman, 2008; Awan, 2009).
An estimated 88% of the population of AJ&K is rural. A considerable
number of human population is directly dependent on forests for their livelihood.
Together with the common local practice of maximizing livestock numbers,
67
overgrazing of alpine pastures and the surrounding forests lead to widespread
destruction of forest regeneration. This dependency on forest products for life
sustainability affects wildlife habitat among which Western horned tragopan is a
key species (Awan and Buner, 2014; Cochard and Dar, 2014).
5.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study to collect information about factors affecting Western horned
tragopan’s population and its habitat in Machiara National Park was based on
questionnaire survey (Appendix 3). Primary data sources were field observations,
formal and informal interviews with Wildlife staff, local people, hunters and focus
group discussions. Questionnaires were given to the literate people to fill the
information and illiterate people were interviewed. In total, 100 questionnaires
were filled from respondents belonging to different segments of society in and
around Machiara National Park.
Questionnaire consisted of two parts; first part was designed to collect
information about age structure and occupation of respondents living within and
around Machiara National Park. During the survey, respondents were divided into
six age groups (15-25, 25-35, 35-45, 45-55, 55-65, 65-75 years), having different
occupations.
Second part of questionnaire was about population trend, major threats,
hunting methods and potential predators of Western tragopan in the study area
(Appendix 3). Data was statistically analyzed using IBM SPSS 21 software to test
the null hypothesis that all threats e.g., predation, agricultural practices, hunting,
68
habitat degradation, livestock pressure, fuel wood collection, land clearing and
human population expansion contributed equally in Western tragopan population
reduction and habitat degradation. Conservation measures were suggested on the
basis of results obtained.
Chi square test was used, in which null hypothesis was that population of
Western tragopan is affected equally by different threats in the Machiara National
Park, while alternative hypothesis was that population of Western tragopan is not
equally affected by different threats.
5.4 RESULTS
5.4.1 Age Classes of Respondents
In Machiara, 24% respondents belonged to age group of 15-25 years, 12%
of 25-35, 14% of 35-45, 18 % of 45-55, 14% of 55-65 and 18 % of 65-75 years. In
Serli Sacha, 20 % respondents belonged to age group of 15-25 years, 16% of 25-35,
14% of 35-45, 10 % of 45-55, 22% of 55-65 and 18 % of 65-75 years (Fig. 5.1).
5.4.2 Occupation of Respondents
In general, respondents were engaged in agriculture, livestock rearing, hotel
business, government jobs, shop keeping and a few were students. In Machiara
locality, 16% respondents were associated with agriculture, 18% shopkeepers, 12%
livestock owners, 8% hunters, 16% Government employees (8 % were employed in
Fisheries and Wildlife Department), 12% hotel owners and 10% were students. In
Serli Sacha, 12% were associated with agriculture, 14% shopkeepers, 22%
livestock owners, 6% hunters, 16% Government employees (8 % in Fisheries and
69
Wildlife Department), 10% hotel owners and 12% were students (Fig. 5.2).
5.4.3 Population Trend of Western Horned Tragopan
In Machiara study site 42% respondents were of the view that population of
Western horned tragopan is increasing as a result of conservation measures by
wildlife department, 32% said that population is declining and 16% said that
population is stable in park areas due to controlled hunting while 10% showed no
concern or were not aware about Western horned tragopan population trend. In
Serli Sacha, 34% respondents said that population is increasing, according to 40%
population is decreasing, 18 % people said that population is stable in the park due
to control on hunting and 8% people were unaware (Fig. 5.3).
5.4.4 Major Threats to Western horned tragopan Population and its Habitat
Major threats to population of Western horned tragopan in both Machiara
and Serli Sacha as identified by respondents were; habitat destruction, agricultural
practices, poaching, trade, predation, and livestock grazing pressure. Threats in
Machiara included; 20% by hunting and poaching, 20% by predation, 18% by
human interference to nesting sites, 14 % by livestock pressure, 12% by trade, 6%
by fuel wood collection, 6% by agriculture and 4% by disease in wild (Fig. 5.4).
Similarly, these threats in Serli Sacha were; 20 % by livestock pressure, 18% by
human interference to natural nesting places, 14% by trade, 14% by hunting and
poaching, 12% by predation, 10% by disease in wild, 08% by fuel wood collection
and 04% by agriculture. Chi square test was applied on the data to find out whether
all threats viz. hunting and poaching, predation, habitat destruction, livestock
pressure, trade, fuel wood collection, agricultural practices, disease in wild and
70
population expansion factor contributed equally or not in both Machiara and Serli
Sacha.
Level of significance was 0.05 % with 8 degrees of freedom. The Chi-
square actually adds up all the differences between actual values of a parameter and
the expected values for that if there is no difference. A greater difference between
the two produces a larger value for Chi-square. The larger the value of Chi-square,
the greater the probability of significant difference. In the present study, actual
values recorded in Machiara for various categories of threats included; habitat
destruction (8), agricultural practices (3), hunting and poaching (9), trade (7),
predation (9), disease in wild (2), livestock pressure (7), fuel wood collection (4),
population expansion (1).
Similarly, actual values of threat in Serli Sacha were; habitat destruction
(9), agricultural practices (2), hunting and poaching (7), trade (6), predation (6),
disease in wild (5), livestock pressure (10), fuel wood collection (3) and population
expansion (2) (Table 5.1). Value of Chi-square for different threats in Machiara and
Serli Sacha indicated that all threats are significantly different from each other and
did not contribute equally. Pearson Chi square value (ᵡ2=0.910) is greater than 0.05,
so, we accept our null hypothesis that threats and location are independent of each
other and there is no significant difference between threats with respect to area.
Different threats affect differently on Western horned tragopan population in the
study area (Table 5.2).
71
Figure 5.1: Age classes of respondents based on questionnaire survey in Machiara
National Park
Figure 5.2: Occupation of respondents to questionnaire survey in Machiara
National Park
72
Figure 5.3: Population trend of Western horned tragopan in Machiara National Park
73
5.4.5 Hunting Methods
Different hunting methods used for Western horned tragopan in the study
area as reported by the respondents included; trapping by setting traps in potential
feeding sites, shooting, hunting with trained dogs and use of nets. In Machiara site,
major hunting methods being used as reported by respondents were: 32% trapping,
30% netting, 24% shooting and 14% with help of trained dogs. Similarly in Serli
Sacha, hunting methods as told by respondents were: 28% trapping, 32% netting,
28% shooting and 12% with help of trained dogs (Fig.5.5).
5.4.6 Trade Life Stages
Trade of Western horned tragopan is common in both sites i.e., Machiara
and Serli Sacha particularly during and after breeding season of the species. In
Machiara, trade of the species mostly occurred during sub-adult and adult phases.
As per people’s opinion, trade occurs 16% at egg stage, 20% at chick stage, 34% at
sub adult and 30% at adult stage. In Serli Sacha, trade was common at egg stage by
12%, 28% by chick stage, 32% by sub- adult and 28% by adult stage (Fig. 5.6).
5.4.7 Predators of Western Horned Tragopan
Predators of Western horned tragopan reported by respondents during study
period included; Yellow-throated Marten (Martes flavigula), Himalayan Black
Bear (Ursus thibetanus), Asiatic Jackal, (Canis aureus), Common Leopard
(Panthera pardus), Himalayan Weasel (Mustela sibirica), Jungle Cat (Felis chaus),
Grey Wolf (Canis lupus), Masked Palm Civet (Paguma larvata), Golden Eagle
(Aquila chrysaetos) and Snake (Echis carinatus) (Fig. 5.7).
74
After discussion with local people and wildlife staff, it came out that
different predators affect Western horned tragopan population during different
seasons of the year. Snakes prey upon them during breeding season as they feed on
their eggs while predation by Jackal and Jungle cat was common after breeding
season. In Machiara, peoples opinion about predation was: 12% by Yellow-
throated Marten, 8% by Himalayan Black Bear, 12% by Jackal, 10% by Common
Leopard, 6% by Golden Eagle, 14% by Himalayan Weasel, 8% by Jungle Cat, 10%
by Snake, 8% by Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) and 12% by Masked Palm Civet.
In Serli Sacha, predation by different predators was: 8% by Yellow-throated
Marten, 14% by Himalayan Black Bear, 8% by Jackal, 10% by Common Leopard,
4% by Himalayan Weasel, 12% by Jungle Cat, 10% by Snake, 8% by Grey Wolf
and 10% by Masked Palm Civet (Paguma larvata) (Fig. 5.7).
5.5 DISCUSSION
Questionnaire based study in Machiara National Park revealed threats to Western
tragopan including poaching, predation, habitat destruction, livestock pressure,
trade, fuel wood collection, agricultural practices and other anthropogenic
activities. In Machiara site, top listed threat was poaching along with predation,
each contributing 18% among total threat weightage while in Serli Sacha the
highest threatening factor was livestock pressure contributing 20% to total threats.
The results are in accordance with the previous studies which reported patchy
distribution of bird in Machiara (Awan, 2010) and its decline due to habitat loss by
forest degradation, hunting and trapping (Ashraf et al., 2004).
75
Figure 5.4: Threats faced by Western horned tragopan in study area of Machiara
and Serli Sacha
76
Table 5.1 Threats to Western horned tragopan population in Machiara National
Park
Location Machiara Serli Sacha
Sr. # Threat categories Reported (N) %age Reported (N) %age
1 Habitat destruction 8 16 9 18
2 Agriculture 3 6 2 4
3 Hunting and
poaching pressure 9 18 7 14
4 Trade 7 14 6 12
5 Predation 9 18 6 12
6 Disease in wild 2 4 5 10
7 Livestock pressure 7 14 10 20
8 Fuel wood
collection 4 8 3 6
9 Population
expansion 1 2 2 4
Total 50 100 50 100
Table 5.2 Test statistics showing results of Chi-Square in Machiara and Serli Sacha
N Pearson Chi-Square Df Asymp.Sig.
Threats 100 3.361 8 0.91
77
Nearly all pheasant species are exploited to some degree in their native
ranges (Simiyu, 1998). In Machiara, eggs and meat of Western tragopan are taken
as protein rich food. People prefer to hunt pheasants probably because they are
large and mainly terrestrial birds so easy to shoot or trap. Aside from the material
benefits to be derived from pheasants, they have been engaged into human cultural
festivals over the decades. Several species feature importantly in the social
customs, art, religion, and folklore of different ethnic groups in the world (Fuller
and Garson, 2000). In Machiara, people are also attracted to Western horned
tragopan because of their beautiful, shining, colored feathers which they use to
decorate households. During the current study, some people were found hunting the
birds just for the sake of their interest in hunting. Due to small protection and
management staff and difficult terrain in the park, this illegal hunting mostly goes
unchecked, leading to decrease in Western tragopan population in Machiara. In
North America about 9.5 million birds are harvested by game hunters (Aebischer,
1997) while in UK, more than 20 million pheasants are reared for 'sport' annually
(Druce, 2015). Aesthetic and economic importance of Western horned tragopan
makes it important bird species to be exploited. With the advancement of
technology and increased availability of automatic weapons as well as high
economic returns from the pet trade are reasons for hunting and poaching, leading
to decrease in population of wildlife species (Butt, 2006).
Over-exploitation of Western tragopan is also reported earlier by Shafiq
and Saqib (2011) in Kaghan Valley of Pakistan. Hunting reports of Western horned
tragopan in various regions of Kashmir e.g., Pir-Chinasi area, Neelum valley and
Salkhala Game Reserve is also reported by Awan et al. (2015).
78
Figure 5.5: Hunting methods used for Western horned tragopan in Machiara
National Park
Figure 5.6: Trade life stages of Western horned tragopan in Machiara National Park
79
Figure 5.7: Predators of Western horned tragopan in Machiara National Park
0
5
10
15
20
Occ
ura
nce
(%
)
Predators of Western horned tragopan
Machiara
Serli Sacha
80
Hunting affects the target animal that is killed and impact other animals as
well, particularly dependent young ones. The young of shot females are left to fend
for themselves. Orphaned young birds suffer and die from predation, dehydration
or starvation. Maternal deprivation also results in changes in physiology and
behavior of individuals. For minimizing the impact on dependent youngs, hunting
during breeding seasons must be avoided.
The second largest threat to Western horned tragopan in Machiara is
predation of birds by wild species. Various predators of Western trgopan recorded
in the region are, Himalayan Black bear, Jackal, Leopard, Golden eagle, Wild cat,
Wolf and Palm civet. Ramesh et al. (1999) also pointed out predation of this bird by
dogs as a major threat to survival of species. The highest risk factor to Western
horned tragopan in Serli Sacha is livestock grazing pressure (20%) followed by
habitat degradation (18%). The livestock pressure is probably because of high
proportion of human population in this area that is directly dependent on animal
rearing. In a study, it was estimated that about 88% of the population of Azad
Jammu and Kashmir is rural. A considerable number of human population is
directly dependent on forests for their livelihood (Shafiqe, 2008; Awan and Buner,
2014). Around 55,000 farmers live around Machiara National Park who use park
areas for grazing their livestock (Cochard and Dar, 2014). This grazing pressure
results in degradation of natural vegetation that contributes to habitat loss, leading
to reduction of bird population as this pheasant species are dependent on heavily
wooded habitat and roosts in trees during the night (Fuller and Garson, 2000;
Shafiq and Saqib, 2011).
81
Chapter 6
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Western horned tragopan is a shy and most beautiful among all Tragopan
species because of its brilliant red neck, colorful throat lappet, and bizarre courtship
behaviors. It is endemic to Western Himalayas, usually roost on trees and feed in
early morning. Western horned tragopan is a medium-sized, ground dwelling bird
and show high sexual dimorphism (Birdlife International, 2015). In Pakistan,
Western Tragopan is distributed in Palas valley, Kaghan valley (KPK) and Neelam
valley in AJ&K. Machiara National Park hosts good population of tragopan which
lies in the Great Himalayan chain that branches off from Nanga Parbat (Qamar,
1996). It falls into Western Himalayan Eco-region which is one of the global 200
eco-regions where two distinct forest types can be recognized: evergreen
broadleaved forest and deciduous broad-leaved forest (WWF, 2008). This pheasant
inhabits comparatively open moist deciduous and coniferous temperate forest areas
having dense under story and shrub-layer (Ramesh et al., 1999). In winter this bird
prefers to occupy forest even when the ground is covered with snow and in summer
they occupy area where good shrub and bush cover is available (Roberts, 1991;
Ramesh et al., 1999). This bird usually occurs between 2,743 m and 3,352 m
elevation (Ramesh et al., 1999). The habitat of Western tragopon in Pakistan has
been characterized by steep slopes, rocky and difficult terrain covered by thick
vegetation (Ali et al., 2015). During the winter season, birds were encountered at
southern aspects which receive long hours of sunlight. During the summer season,
birds were observed in dense cover of Quercus delitata, Abies pingdrow and Pinus
wallichiana (Roberts, 1991).
81
82
Present study was conducted with the objectives to assess distribution
range, population density, diet composition and major threats to Western horned
tragopan in Machiara National Park. Based on reconnaissance survey, two study
siteswere selected; Serli Sacha and Machiara where Western horned tragopan was
currently found. Eleven calling sites were identified in both localities; seven in
Machiara and four in Serli Sacha. Results of the study revealed that in Machiara
study site, population density of Western tragopan population was 1.26 birds /
Km2while population density in Serli Sacha was 0.79 birds / Km2. A similar finding
about Western tragopan were reported in two earlier studies in other sites of
Neelum valley where 14 individuals in 8.8 Km2 were recorded in Machiara
National Park, population density is 1.59 birds / Km2 and 5 individuals in 3.2 Km2
at Kutton, population density 1.56 birds / Km2 (Islam, 1982; Nawaz et al.,2001).
The result of census in the MNP indicated that 13 individuals were encountered
through 7.8 Km2 patch of Quercus forest. Population density is 1.66 birds/ Km2
(Mirza et al., 1978). Present study revealed higher population density MNP as
compared to Mirza et al., (1978) and Gaston et al. (1983), which is probably due to
better protection of this area after declaring it a National Park. In Machiara locality,
population density of Western tragopan was estimated from 0.8-1.6 birds/ Km2 and
1.3 birds/ Km2 in Salkhalla (Gaston et al., 1983).
Habitat characterization is an essential component in the ecological study of
any organism (Odum, 1975).The present study provided detailed account on habitat
use of Western horned tragopan across seasons. Western horned tragopan
occupied elevation range at both sites i.e. Machiara and Serli Sacha i.e. between
2500 m and 3600 m elevation in summer and 2000 m to 2800 m in winter. Present
83
study’s results revealed that direct signs of tragopan (feacal droppings, feathers and
foot prints) were observed while walking on selected study tracks situated along
existing mountain paths. Western tragopan is normally found more abundantly on
moist humus rich slopes (Delacour, 1977), with its further sighting on undisturbed
plateaus or ground with less vegetation (Mirza et al., 1978; Islam and Crawford,
1987).
A total of 34 plant species were recorded in Western tragopan habitat at
MNP; 34 in Machiara and 17 in Serli Sacha.The most dominant plant species of at
these sites included; Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Quercus incana, Aesculus
indica, Taxus wallichiana zucc., Cedrus deodara, Indigofera heterantha, Geranium
wallichianum and Ajuga bracteosa. Faecal samples were observed frequently at
steep slopes and gullies. Consequently, it could be speculated that tragopan
avoids the areas with human and livestock disturbance. Similar findings were of
Ramesh at al. (1999), who found that in Great Himalayan National Park,
tragopan was not recorded above tree line and they used the mixed conifer forests
with sufficient under growth, and in spring they mostly occupied sub-alpine Oak
Forest. Likewise, Islam (1983) reported that tragopan’s summer season habitat
ranged from 2500 m–3600 m elevation and winter habitat at the elevation of 2000
m–2800 m with mid altitudinal dense coniferous or mixed forest in Pakistan. It
preferred to stay in those places where there was no disturbance but confined to
extreme steep terrain (Nawaz et al., 2001). This bird is generally restricted to lower
margin of the forest in winter (Roberts, 1991). South facing slopes were preferred
by Western tragopan both in summer and winter, though there are some differences
in tragopan’s preference for aspect. Earlier Ramesh et al. (1999) reported that
84
Western tragopan preferred south facing slopes irrespective of seasons; however
marginal differences were seen in the use of various aspect categories. Present
study suggested that food availability and snow accumulation in winter were
probably the primary drivers for tragopan using south-facing aspects.
Galliformes are terrestrial birds, found in a variety of habitats and feeding
on the ground. These birds search for food by scratching the ground with their feet
for fallen fruits, nuts, seeds, roots and invertebrates. Direct observation of prey
items, identification of prey remains and pellet analysis are the principal methods to
study diets of birds (Marti, 1988). Green (1984) and Hill (1985) described the use
of faecal analysis in the study of game bird feeding ecology. Faecal analysis is an
acceptable method for dietary studies in birds (Bhandary et al., 1985). Diet of
Western horned tragopan was determined through analysis of droppings during
summer and winter season. Summer season diet in Machiara site identified 11 plant
species along with lower plants (mosses), invertebrates, grit and a small proportion
of unidentified food items. Food of Western tragopan comprised 79% plants, 15%
grit, 2.34% invertebrates and l 4.13% unidentified material. During winter season,
83.05% of Western tragopan food consisted of plant material, followed by grit
(12.04%), invertebrates (2.33%) and unidentified (2.56%). Out of 14 identified
components, 12 were plant tissues and Cymbopogon martini was a major food
component (14.94%). Consumed plant material by Western tragopan showed
significant difference among two seasons at Machiara study site. Western tragopan
fecal dropping analysis in Serli Sacha site showed food mostly comprised of plant
material (78.04%) followed by grit (16.47%), invertebrates (1.35%) and
unidentified matter (4.12%). A total of 14 food items were identified out of which
85
12 were plant tissues. Similar results have been reported earlier by Khaling (1999)
where 23 food items were identified from the droppings of Satyr tragopan in
Eastern Himalayas, India where in winter Western tragopan consumed 81.87%
plant material followed by grit (13.76%), invertebrates (1.76%) and unidentified
matter (2.59%). A total of 13 food items were identified out of which 11 were plant
tissues. In Serli Sacha, Western tragopan consumed trees in winter while in
summer it consumed higher quantity of shrubs and herbs. Results of present study
are similar to Mcgowan (1996) findings which revealed that pheasant consumed
kinds of food which vary between groups and also seasons. There is considerable
variation in diet composition among pheasants (Garson, 2007).
Pheasants have always been a source of attraction for humans because
theseare a rich source of protein and easy to hunt. Distribution of Western tragopan
is fragmented in Pakistan its population has shown considerable decline due to
habitat damage and it is threatened by several anthropogenic factors throughout its
range (Shafiq and Saqib, 2011). Pheasants are poached and hunted for their bright
colored feathers to ornament the households (Fuller and Garson, 2000; Zaman,
2008). Resultantly, Western tragopan is enlisted as ‘vulnerable’ because of decline
in its patchy populations (Birdlife International, 2015).
Questionnaire survey was conducted in Machiara National Park involving
local peoples to assess the factors affecting its population in the study area. Major
threats in Machiara included; 20% by hunting and poaching, 20% by predation,
18% by human interference to nesting sites, 14 % by livestock pressure,12% by
trade, 6% by fuel wood collection, 6% by agriculture expansion and 4% by disease.
86
Similarly, these threats in Serli Sacha were; 20 % by livestock pressure, 18% by
human interference to natural nesting places, 14% by trade, 14% by hunting and
poaching, 12% by predation, 10% by disease in wild, 08% by fuel wood collection
and 04% by agriculture activities. Present study’s findings are similar to Shafiq and
Saqib (2011), in which they reported over-exploitation of Western tragopan in
Kaghan Valley of Pakistan. The highest risk factor to Western horned tragopan in
Serli Sacha was livestock grazing pressure (20%) followed by habitat degradation
(18%). The livestock pressure is probably because of high proportion of human
population in this area that is directly dependent on animal rearing. Awan and
Buner (2014) reported considerable decline in Western tragopan population
because of directly dependence of local community on forests for their livelihood.
The reasons for the population decline are attributed to the habitat loss due to forest
degradation, hunting and trapping (Ashraf et al., 2004).
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SUMMARY
Western horned tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus) belongs to Order
Galliformes and Family Phasianidae. It is a medium size, brightly plumaged
pheasant in which sexes are highly dimorphic and distributed in northeastern areas
of Pakistan, India and China. In Pakistan, Western horned tragopan is found in
Palas and Kaghan valleys of Khyber Pakhtun Khwa province, and Neelum valley in
Azad Jammu & Kashmir, showing broad distribution in wildlife reserves.
According to IUCN, Western horned tragopan listed as vulnerable species
throughout its restricted range.
Present study on Western tragopan was carried out in Machiara National
Park (MNP) with the objectives to find out distribution range, population density,
diet compositionand factors affecting its habitat and population in the study area.
In MNP, Western tragopan is mainly threatened from anthropogenic activities,
poaching and livestock over-grazing resulting in small and fragmented populations
of this bird. To identify potential habitat of Western tragopan in MNP, a
reconnaissance survey of the park was conducted taking field observations as
well as contacting local people and park employee. From collected information,
it came out that Western horned tragopan was distributed in two sites / forest
compartments of MNP i.e. Machiara and Serli Sacha. For further data
collection, these two compartments were focused.
Western tragopan population distribution range was studied in selected
study sites through direct observation of bird and fecal pellets analysis. Call count
87
88
census method was used to find preferred habitat of Western pheasant in study site.
Western pheasant population density was estimated through Call Count Census.
Calling sites were selected based on the accessibility where bird can be heard over
as wide an area as possible.The direction and approximate range of each call was
noted to avoid overlapping. Direction was recorded by using compass. Dawn calls
were counted during March to June when calling was maximal. A total of 11
calling sites at two localities were covered, revealing overall population density of
1.26/ Km2 at Machiara and 0.79/ Km2 at Serli Sacha.
A total of 10 vantage points: 7 in Machiara and 3 in Serli Sacha were
selected for data collection on Western horned tragopan. To quantify habitat
utilization of tragopan, seven tracks (five in Machiara and two in Serli Sacha) were
used. Quadrate method was used for vegetation analysis of Tragopan habitat and
sampling was done along each selected tracks at 100 m interval. Plant species
falling in each quadrate, frequency and cover of each species was noted. In each
track 30 quadrates were taken (total 210). Size of quadrates was 10 m × 10 m for
trees, 4 m × 4 m for shrubs and 1 m × 1 m for herbs. Seasonal Importance Value
(IV) of plant species was calculated by summing the relative density, relative
frequency and relative cover of each plant species documented during surveys. A
total of 51 plant species was recorded at MNP; 34 in Machiara and 17 in Serli
Sacha. Shrubs were dominant (38.23% in Machiara, 41.17% in Serli Sacha), in
Tragopan habitat followed by herbs (29.41% in Machiara, 23.52% in Serli Sacha),
trees (20.58% in Machiara, 23.52% in Serli Sacha) and grasses (11.76% in
Machiara and Serli Sacha). In winter habitat, dominant tree species in Machiara
were Pinus wallichiana (IV =108.85), dominant shrub Indigofera heterantha (IV
89
=99.27), dominant herb Persicaria nepalensis (IV= 97.80) and dominant grass
species was Poa annua (IV =127.65). In Serli Sacha, during winter season
dominant tree species was Abies pindrow (IV =108.42), dominant shrub species
was Prunus padus (IV =96.01), dominant herb species was Geranium
wallichianum (IV =85.16), and dominant grass species was Poa annua (IV
=168.71). During summer season, dominant tree species in Machiara was Abies
pindrow (IV = 101.75) and Persicaria nepalensis (IV = 83.4), and dominant grass
species was Poa annua (IV = 243.72). In Serli Sacha in summer habitat of
Tragopan dominant tree species was Pinus wallichiana (IV =101.52) and dominant
grass species was Poa annua (IV =171.83).
Diet composition of the bird was determined through micro-histological
analysis of its fecal samples. Eighty fecal droppings of tragopan for both seasons of
the year were collected from study area of MNP. Samples of 36 potential plant
species of Western horned tragopan’s habitat were collected for reference slides
during spring and summer seasons. In Machiara, summer season fecal pellets
analysis showed that food mainly comprised of plants (78.5%) followed by grit
(15.00%), invertebrates (2.34%) and unidentified material (4.13%). During winter
season, food comprised plant material (83.05%) followed by grit (12.04%),
invertebrates (2.33%) and unidentified (2.56%). Out of fourteen identified food
components, 12 were plant tissues. Cymbopogon martini was found to be a major
food component (14.94%) of Western tragopan. In Serli Sacha, summer season
fecal pellet analysis revealed that major food of Western horned tragopan
comprised of plant material (78.04%) followed by grit (16.47%), invertebrates
(1.35%) and unidentified (4.12%). Similarly, during winter season, food comprised
90
mainly of plants (81.87%) followed by grit (13.76%), invertebrates (1.76%) and
unidentified (2.59%).
Questionnaire survey was conducted to identify threats to Western tragopan
in MNP. In total, 100 questionnaires were filled from respondents belonging to
different social groups in and around Machiara National Park. During the survey,
respondents were divided into six age groups (15-25, 25-35, 35-45, 45-55, 55-65,
65-75 years), having different occupations such as agriculture, livestock rearing,
hotel business, government jobs, shop keeping and a few were students. In
Machiara, major threats included poaching (20%), predation (20%), human
interference to nesting sites (18%), livestock pressure (14%) and 12% due to trade.
Fuel wood collection, agriculture activities and disease contributed 6% each.
Likewise, in Serli Sacha site threats were i.e. livestock pressure contributes 20%,
human interference to natural nesting places responsible for 18% damage. Trade
activities and hunting contributes 14%, 12% by predation, 10% by disease in wild,
08% by fuel wood collection and 04% by agriculture.
SUGGESTED CONSERVATION MEASURES
Anthropogenic activities such as poaching, vegetation removal and livestock
grazing need to be effectively controlled in MNP, especially in Western horned
tragopan habitat.
Park management should declare Western tragopan occupied habitat as grazing
free zone and an urgent need to raise awareness among local community about
conservation of park resources.
Plant species preferred for food by Western horned tragopan such as Berberis
vulgaris, Ajuga bracteosa, Geranium wallichianum, Cymbopogon martini,
91
Persicaria nepalensis, Poa annua, Cotoneaster acuminate and Daphne papyracea
should be conserved and enhanced in its habitat.
Population monitoring studies of Western tragopan need to be initiated in the area
to comprehend population trend. Further studies on its seasonal movement and
related aspects are are suggested.
Additional potential habitat currently unoccupied by Western tragopan in the park
should be explored and ptotected for expanding its distribution and population in
the park.
92
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Appendix -1
Vegetation Survey Performa
Date: _______
Study site / location: _______________________________________________
Transect number: _________________________________________________
Quadrant number: _________________________________________________
Geographical coordinates: ___________________________________________
Altitude: ________________________________________________________
Aspect: _________________________________________________________
Slope: ___________________________________________________________
Plant species
Frequency Cover (%)
114
Appendix -2
Data Sheet for Call Count of Western horned tragopan
Vantage point number: Observer:
Starting Time: Finishing Time:
Weather: Topographical features
S. No. Vantage point No.
No. of tragopan calling in each vantage point
Total
115
Appendix-3
Interview Performa for Western horned tragopan
Form No.____
Location:______ Date:________
1. Have you seen Western horned tragopan in your area? A) Yes B) No
If yes, how often?
2. Have you noticed any decline or increase in its population?
If declined, what in your opinion are the factors?
3. What changes have you noticed in your area in previous years?
4. Do you know what major threats to Western tragopan in this area are?
i. Habitat destruction
ii. Hunting pressure
iii. Agricultural practices
5. What are different hunting practices in your area?
6. Do hunters trades is chicks in breeding season?
7. Do you know about its predators in your area?
8. Can you provide the name of specific area where they are seen regularly?
9. Do you have any idea how they can be conserved?
116
Appendix -4
Indirect Signs and Habitat of Western horned tragopan
Fecal droppings of Western horned tragopan in Machiara National Park
Feather of male Western horned tragopan in Machiara National Park
117
Habitat of Western horned tragopan in Machiara National Park