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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309345266 Ecological solutions to reef degradation: Optimizing coral reef restoration in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic Article in PeerJ · October 2016 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2597 CITATIONS 8 READS 180 2 authors: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Rescue A Reef Citizen Science Program View project South Florida MARES project View project Diego Lirman University of Miami 109 PUBLICATIONS 2,526 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE S. Schopmeyer University of Miami 29 PUBLICATIONS 621 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Diego Lirman on 25 October 2016. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

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  • Seediscussions,stats,andauthorprofilesforthispublicationat:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309345266

    Ecologicalsolutionstoreefdegradation:OptimizingcoralreefrestorationintheCaribbeanandWesternAtlantic

    ArticleinPeerJOctober2016

    DOI:10.7717/peerj.2597

    CITATIONS

    8

    READS

    180

    2authors:

    Someoftheauthorsofthispublicationarealsoworkingontheserelatedprojects:

    RescueAReefCitizenScienceProgramViewproject

    SouthFloridaMARESprojectViewproject

    DiegoLirman

    UniversityofMiami

    109PUBLICATIONS2,526CITATIONS

    SEEPROFILE

    S.Schopmeyer

    UniversityofMiami

    29PUBLICATIONS621CITATIONS

    SEEPROFILE

    AllcontentfollowingthispagewasuploadedbyDiegoLirmanon25October2016.

    Theuserhasrequestedenhancementofthedownloadedfile.

    https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309345266_Ecological_solutions_to_reef_degradation_Optimizing_coral_reef_restoration_in_the_Caribbean_and_Western_Atlantic?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/309345266_Ecological_solutions_to_reef_degradation_Optimizing_coral_reef_restoration_in_the_Caribbean_and_Western_Atlantic?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_3&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/project/Rescue-A-Reef-Citizen-Science-Program?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_9&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/project/South-Florida-MARES-project?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_9&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_1&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Diego_Lirman?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_4&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Diego_Lirman?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_5&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/institution/University_of_Miami?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_6&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Diego_Lirman?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/S_Schopmeyer?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_4&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/S_Schopmeyer?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_5&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/institution/University_of_Miami?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_6&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/S_Schopmeyer?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdfhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Diego_Lirman?enrichId=rgreq-b3b7a491f1619589419158f780d4e304-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMwOTM0NTI2NjtBUzo0MjA5OTQ5ODEzNTE0MjVAMTQ3NzM4NDQzNDEzOQ%3D%3D&el=1_x_10&_esc=publicationCoverPdf

  • Ecological solutions to reef degradation:optimizing coral reef restoration in theCaribbean and Western Atlantic

    Diego Lirman* and Stephanie Schopmeyer*

    Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States

    * These authors contributed equally to this work.

    ABSTRACTReef restoration activities have proliferated in response to the need to mitigate coral

    declines and recover lost reef structure, function, and ecosystem services. Here, we

    describe the recent shift from costly and complex engineering solutions to recover

    degraded reef structure to more economical and efficient ecological approaches that

    focus on recovering the living components of reef communities. We review the

    adoption and expansion of the coral gardening framework in the Caribbean and

    Western Atlantic where practitioners now grow and outplant 10,000s of corals onto

    degraded reefs each year. We detail the steps for establishing a gardening program as

    well as long-term goals and direct and indirect benefits of this approach in our

    region. With a strong scientific basis, coral gardening activities now contribute

    significantly to reef and species recovery, provide important scientific, education,

    and outreach opportunities, and offer alternate livelihoods to local stakeholders.

    While challenges still remain, the transition from engineering to ecological

    solutions for reef degradation has opened the field of coral reef restoration to a wider

    audience poised to contribute to reef conservation and recovery in regions where

    coral losses and recruitment bottlenecks hinder natural recovery.

    Subjects Conservation Biology, Ecology, Environmental Sciences, Marine BiologyKeywords Coral gardening, Coral propagation, Coral reef restoration,Acropora, Threatened corals,Florida, Caribbean, Western Atlantic, Coral nurseries, Ecological services

    INTRODUCTIONThe worldwide decline of coral reefs over the past several decades has been particularly

    devastating in the Caribbean where reefs have sustained massive losses, especially of

    reef-builders such as Acropora cervicornis, A. palmata, and Orbicella spp. (Gardner et al.,

    2003; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). These declines were driven and continue to be affected

    by disease and other stressors including the loss of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum,

    storm damage, and temperature anomalies (Aronson & Precht, 2001). The loss of

    reef-building taxa has contributed to decreases in reef structure and function, reef

    growth, fisheries habitat, coastal buffering, and biodiversity (Bruckner, 2002; Alvarez-Filip

    et al., 2009). The decline of key taxa has prompted conservation measures aimed at

    protecting remaining populations and accelerating recovery trajectories. These efforts

    in the Caribbean and Western Atlantic include: 1) the listing of taxa such as Acropora,

    Dendrogyra, and Orbicella as threatened under the US Endangered Species Act

    How to cite this article Lirman and Schopmeyer (2016), Ecological solutions to reef degradation: optimizing coral reef restoration in theCaribbean and Western Atlantic. PeerJ 4:e2597; DOI 10.7717/peerj.2597

    Submitted 15 August 2016Accepted 16 September 2016Published 20 October 2016

    Corresponding authorDiego Lirman,

    [email protected]

    Academic editorRobert Toonen

    Additional Information andDeclarations can be found onpage 14

    DOI 10.7717/peerj.2597

    Copyright2016 Lirman and Schopmeyer

    Distributed underCreative Commons CC-BY 4.0

    http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2597mailto:[email protected]://peerj.com/academic-boards/editors/https://peerj.com/academic-boards/editors/http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2597http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/https://peerj.com/

  • (National Marine Fisheries Service, 2006; National Marine Fisheries Service, 2014) and of

    O. annularis and O. faveolata as endangered and A. cervicornis and A. palmata as

    critically endangered in IUCNs Red List of Threatened Species (2016); 2) the

    development of regional coral propagation and restoration programs (Young, Schopmeyer &

    Lirman, 2012); and 3) the drafting of species recovery plans for elkhorn (A. palmata) and

    staghorn (A. cervicornis) corals (National Marine Fisheries Service, 2015).

    ENGINEERING REEF RESTORATIONThe field of coral reef restoration has grown considerably over past decades. Initially,

    restoration concentrated heavily on the design and execution of complex engineering

    projects aimed at quickly recovering or re-building the three-dimensional structure of

    damaged reefs impacted by physical disturbances, mainly ship groundings (reviewed in

    Precht, 2006). The main goal of these projects was to stabilize the reef framework and

    rehabilitate the lost structure that would take centuries to re-form without human

    intervention (Zimmer, 2006). The subsequent, ecological recovery of the damaged

    communities relied on a build it and they will come philosophy based on potential

    natural recruitment onto the newly deployed substrate (Kaufman, 2006). During some

    projects, soft and stony corals, either collected from the colonies surviving at the

    grounding site or harvested elsewhere, were added to the cement and l


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