eco project - labour movement (1)
TRANSCRIPT
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INTRODUCTION
I nternational Mi gration :
International migration occurs when peoples cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for
some minimum length of time. Migration occurs for many reasons. Many people leave their
home countries in order to look for economic opportunities in another country. Others migrate to
be with family members who have migrated or because of political conditions in their countries.
Education is another reason for international migration, as students pursue their studies abroad.
While there are several different potential systems for categorizing international migrants, one
system organizes them into nine groups: temporary labour migrants; irregular, illegal, or
undocumented migrants; highly skilled and business migrants; refugees; asylum seekers; forced
migration; family members; return migrants; and long-term, low-skilled migrants. These
migrants can also be divided into two large groups, permanent and temporary. Permanent
migrants intend to establish their permanent residence in a new country and possibly obtain that
countrys citizenship. Temporary migrants intend only to stay for a limited periods of time;
perhaps until the end of a particular program of study or for the duration of a their work contract
or a certain work season. Both types of migrants have a significant effect on the economies and
societies of the chosen destination country and the country of origin.
Similarly, the countries which receive these migrants are often grouped into four categories:
traditional settlement countries, European countries which encouraged labour migration after
World War II, European countries which receive a significant portion of their immigrant
populations from their former colonies, and countries which formerly were points of emigration
but have recently emerged as immigrant destinations.
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Human M igration :
Human migration (derived from Latin: migratio)is physical movement by humans from one area
to another, sometimes over long distances or in large groups. Historically this movement was
nomadic, often causing significant conflict with the indigenous population and their
displacement or cultural assimilation. Only a few nomadic people have retained this form of
lifestyle in modern times. Migration has continued under the form of both voluntary migration
within one's region, country, or beyond and involuntary migration (which includes the slave
trade, trafficking in human beings and ethnic cleansing). People who migrate into a territory are
called immigrants, while at the departure point they are called emigrants. Small populations
migrating to develop a territory considered void of settlement depending on historical setting,
circumstances and perspective are referred to as settlers or colonists, while populations displaced
by immigration and colonization are called refugees. The rest of this article will cover sense of a
"change of residence", rather than the temporary migrations of travel, tourism, pilgrimages, or
the commute.
According to International Organization for Migration, man "no universally accepted definition
for (migrant) exists. The term migrant was usually understood to cover all cases where the
decision to migrate was taken freely by the individual concerned for reasons of "personal
convenience" and without intervention of an external compelling factor; it therefore applied to
persons, and family members, moving to another country or region to better their material or
social conditions and improve the prospect for themselves or their family. The United Nations
defines migrant as an individual who has resided in a foreign country for more than one year
irrespective of the causes, voluntary or involuntary, and the means, regular or irregular, used tomigrate. Under such a definition, those travelling for shorter periods as tourists and
businesspersons would not be considered migrants. However, common usage includes certain
kinds of shorter-term migrants, such as seasonal farm-workers who travel for short periods to
work planting or harvesting farm products." Also, human migration happened when the Paleo-
Indians entered America.
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Migration statistics
According to the International Organization for Migration's World Migration Report 2010, the
number of international migrants was estimated at 214 million in 2010. If this number continues
to grow at the same pace as during the last 20 years, it could reach 405 million by 2050. While
some modern migration is a byproduct of wars (for example, emigration from Iraq and Bosnia to
the US and UK), political conflicts (for example, some emigration from Zimbabwe to the UK),
and natural disasters (for example, emigration from Montserrat to the UK following the eruption
of the island's volcano), contemporary migration is predominantly economically motivated. In
particular, there are wide disparities in the incomes that can be earned for similar work in
different countries of the world. There are also, at any given time, some jobs in some high-wage
countries for which there is a shortage of appropriately skilled or qualified citizens. Some
countries (e.g., UK and Australia) operate points systems that give some lawful immigration
visas to some non-citizens who are qualified for such shortage jobs. Non-citizens, therefore, have
an economic incentive to obtain the necessary skills and qualifications in their own countries and
then apply for, and migrate to take up, these job vacancies. International migration similarly
motivated by economic disparities and opportunities occurs within the EU, where legal barriers
to migration between member countries have been wholly or partially lifted. Countries with
higher prevailing wage levels, such as France, Germany, Italy and the UK are net recipients of
immigration from lower-wage member countries such as Greece, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland
and Romania.
Some contemporary economic migration occurs even where the migrant becomes illegally
resident in their destination country and therefore at major disadvantage in the employment
market. Illegal immigrants are, for example, known to cross in significant numbers, typically at
night, from Mexico into the US, from Mozambique into South Africa, from Bulgaria and Turkey
into Greece, from north Africa into Spain and Italy and from Bangladesh into India.
The pressures of human migrations, whether as outright conquest or by slow cultural infiltration
and resettlement, have affected the grand epochs in history and in land (for example, the decline
of the Roman Empire); under the form of colonization, migration has transformed the world
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(such as the prehistoric and historic settlements of Australia and the Americas). Population
genetics studied in traditionally settled modern populations have opened a window into the
historical patterns of migrations, a technique pioneered by Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza.
Forced migration has been a means of social control under authoritarian regimes, yet free-
initiative migration is a powerful factor in social adjustment and the growth of urban
populations.
In December 2003, The Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM) was launched
with the support of Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan and several countries,
with an independent 19-member commission, a threefold mandate and a finite lifespan ending
December 2005. Its report, based on regional consultation meetings with stakeholders and
scientific reports from leading international migration experts, was published and presented to
Kofi Annan on 5 October 2005.[3]
International migration challenges at the global level are addressed through the Global Migration
Group, established in 2006.
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Different types of migration include:
Seasonal human migration mainly related to agriculture and tourism to urban places
Rural to urban, more common in developing countries as industrialization takes effect
(urbanization)
Urban to rural, more common in developed countries due to a higher cost of urban living
(suburbanization)
International migration
Modern migrations
While the pace of migration had accelerated since the 18th century already (including the
involuntary slave trade), it would increase further in the 19th century. Manning distinguishes
three major types of migration: labor migration, refugee migrations, and urbanization. Millions
of agricultural workers left the countryside and moved to the cities causing unprecedented levels
of urbanization. This phenomenon began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread around the
world and continues to this day in many areas.
Industrialization encouraged migration wherever it appeared. The increasingly global economy
globalized the labor market. The Atlantic slave trade diminished sharply after 1820, which gave
rise to self-bound contract labor migration from Europe and Asia to plantations.
Overpopulation[citation needed], open agricultural frontiers, and rising industrial centers
attracted voluntary migrants. Moreover, migration was significantly made easier by improved
transportation techniques.
Romantic nationalism also rose in the 19th century, and, with it, ethnocentrism. The great
European industrial empires also rose. Both factors contributed to migration, as some countries
favored their own ethnicities over outsiders and other countries appeared to be considerably
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more welcoming. For example, the Russian Empire identified with Eastern Orthodoxy, and
confined Jews, who were not Eastern Orthodox, to the Pale of Settlement and imposed
restrictions. Violence was also a problem. The United States was promoted as a better location, a
"golden land" where Jews could live more openly.
Another effect of imperialism, colonialism, led to the migration of some colonizing parties from
"home countries" to "the colonies", and eventually the migration of people from "colonies" to
"home countries".
Transnational labor migration reached a peak of three million migrants per year in the early
twentieth century. Italy, Norway, Ireland and the Guangdong region of China were regions with
especially high emigration rates during these years. These large migration flows influenced the
process of nation state formation in many ways. Immigration restrictions have been developed,
as well as diaspora cultures and myths that reflect the importance of migration to the foundation
of certain nations, like the American melting pot. The transnational labor migration fell to a
lower level from 1930s to the 1960s and then rebounded.
The United States experienced considerable internal migration related to industrialization,
including its African American population. From 19101970, approximately 7 million African
Americans migrated from the rural Southern United States, where blacks faced both poor
economic opportunities and considerable political and social prejudice, to the industrial cities of
the Northeast, Midwest and West, where relatively well-paid jobs were available. This
phenomenon came to be known in the United States as its own Great Migration. With the demise
of legalized segregation in the 1960s and greatly improved economic opportunities in the South
in the subsequent decades, millions of blacks have returned to the South from other parts of the
country since 1980 in what has been called the New Great Migration.
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Labour M igration in context of Economic Impact :
Labour mobility is one of the key features of economic development and its characteristics are
closely tied with the nature of this development. Historically, development is associated with
unevenness and structural change, giving an impetus to the movement of workers from one
region to another, and from one sector to another. Even within the macro-structural features
which determine the supply of, and demand for, certain types of migrant labour, the pattern of
migration depends on a host of factors determined by labour market characteristics, together with
individual, household and community level features, and the existence of social networks, among
other things. These factors cumulatively determine the causes of migration. On the other hand,
labour migration plays a key role in influencing the pattern of development, through its impact
on a host of economic and non-economic variables, both in the origin and destination areas.
Labour migration does not recognize bordersbut borders, whether urban, state, or international
influence migration through a host of policies and regulatory measures. A key distinction
between internal and international migration is the existence of national regulatory frameworks
such as immigration controls (which leads to a distinction between regular and irregular
migration). But regulatory frameworks and restrictive policies also operate within nation states.
Early development literature conceptualized labour migration as occurring from the rural to
urban, agricultural to industrial, and informal to formal sectors. However, the workforce pattern
has changed across the world in favour of the services sector, and the informal sector is more
prominent today, both in developing and developed countries than it was twenty or thirty years
ago. In developing countries, the informal sector is no longer conceived as a temporary
destination for migrants but in most cases, as a final destination. The (changing) structural
features of world capitalism have an important bearing on both internal and international
migration.
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The theme on labour migration will explore all types of labour migrationinternal, inter-state,
cross-border and international. It will encourage crossdisciplinary studies and papers based on
both fieldwork and secondary data.
We would welcome papers which explore not only economic issues but also historical, political,
sociological and psychological factors affecting labour migration and the consequences of
migration at more disaggregate levels, viz., for various socio-economic strata and segments of
the population and for women, men, the elderly and children separately, wherever possible. The
contributors should confine themselves to the issue of worker migration, as conventionally
defined in SNA accounts, and to leave out those types of forced labour migration, which are
not conventionally included in work but are covered in international conventions on forced
labour and trafficking. The paper contributors should not be concerned with other forms of non-
labour migration (such as refugee or student migration) or with population mobility, which is
important for an understanding urban growth.
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Labour M igration, its advantages and concerns :
There is a common trend of labor migration for better employment opportunities to other
countries which is in force since long time back. There are basically two types of labor migration
which can be found in the host countries: temporary labor migrations and permanent labor
migration. Temporary labor migration means when a worker moves out from his home country
to some other place in search of work but on a temporary basis that is for a limited period of time
whereas, permanent labor migration means the relocation of a worker in a place outside his home
country with no assurance of returning back.
There are both challenges and opportunities attached with labor migration in todays world.
These challenges and opportunities have been realized by the host countries, different states and
the stakeholders. They have also become conscious of the fact that though there are possibilities
of negative impact of labor migration however the manifold economic, cultural and social
benefits of the same cannot be ruled out. For the person who ventures out of his home or for that
matter his country, in search of employment he is in a way helping his family to sustain their
livelihood which he may not be able to achieve domestically. The same way thousands of
populace who lack opportunities back home is only finding major livelihood strategy through
migration. As regards the state, migration is a potential tool for expansion and growth and has
the potential of trimming down poverty.
International migration from Asia grew noticeably in the year 1970s and 1980s. People mainly
migrated to North America, Australia and also to the oil rich countries of the Middle East. The
newly emerging industrialized countries in Asia saw an upward trend in labor migration from the
year 1990s. Emigration and Immigration were both relevant in 1990s in the Asian countries. In
this regard, countries which were experiencing immigration mostly were: Brunei, Hong Kong,
Japan, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. Malaysia and Thailand were the countries which
experienced both Immigration and Emigration. Finally the countries with most emigration were:
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Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri
Lanka and Vietnam.
Migrant workers often face various problems. Violations of rights, harassments, neglect are some
of the many issues faced by the migrant workers. Corruptions and exploitations often make it
hard for the migrant workers to settle in their place of work. Considering the fact that the migrant
workers invest their own resources to acquire new skills and therefore help in financial
development of the region, they must be taken care of and their issues must be resolved for the
benefit of the workers and the country as a whole.
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Labour Market :
The costs and benefits of labour migration has become a highly topical issue among economists
and policy-makers over recent years. Foreign workers now account for over 5 per cent of the UK
labour force. This note considers some of the economic and social costs and benefits from the
rising scale of labour migration.
An increase in the rate of net migration can have significant effects on the labour markets of
individual countries and wider macroeconomic effects on variables such as economic growth,
unemployement and inflation.
Economic factors in f luencing migration decisions :
Context:
- Global Population: 6.5 billion
- Global labourforce 3.2 billion of whom 85% live in less developed countries
- Global Migrants: estimated at 190 million, of whom 90 million are in the labour force 95
million and sixty per cent are in developed countries
- Global labour force: 40% agriculture, 20% industry, 40% services
- Developed country labour force: 3% agriculture, 25% industry, 72 % services
- Migrants in developed countries (60 million out of a total of 500 million): 10% agriculture,
40% industry, 50% services
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There are many r easons why people choose to migrate:
F inancial incentives:
Individuals may estimate the private costs and private benefits of moving from one country to
another. The incentive to migrate is strongest when the expected increase in earnings exceeds the
cost of relocation. In some countries there are significant differences in average wage levels that
more than compensate for variations in the cost of living. In a world of rising economic
inequalities, the motivation to move to search for better paid word can be extremely powerful.
Estimates of purchasing power parity can be useful in establishing the real income gains from
working in one country rather than another.
Financial incentives are also affected by the tax and welfare systems of different countries. Just
as capital can move from one country to another seeking the highest post-tax expected rate of
return, so workers may be induced to move because of variations in the generosity of the welfare
system and differences in the rates of direct income tax.
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Non-f inancial reasons:
Other reasons for migrating, such as the opportunity to study in a foreign country, learn a new
language, joining family members, or more generally improving living standards and seeking a
better quality of life. Revolutions in communication and transport have also encouraged higher
levels of cross country migration.
The economic costs and benefi ts of mi gration
The economic effects of immigration depend not on population growth or density but on the
characteristics of the immigrants themselves. While every mouth brings a pair of hands, these
hands sometimes make more than they eat and sometimes less.
On balance, immigration usually produces economic benefits for the receiving country.
Immigrants are more economically active than the native population; are paid less than natives
with similar skills; are more energetic than natives; and more willing to take undesirable jobs,
such as those with unsocial hours.
Does labour market migration create more of an economic burden f or the host countr y?
Or can it provide a valuable contribution to raising productivity, entrepreneurship and economicgrowth in the long term? There can be no definitive answer of course. What is certain is that
migration will remain an important issue for the UK and for the European Union over the
coming years. In our discussion below of the costs and benefits of migration we focus on legal
immigration rather than the concerns that arise from the illegal movement and trafficking of
workers from country to country.
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What are some of the macroeconomic benefi ts from an in f lux of workers into the economy?
An expansion of the labour supplymigration can extend the pool of available labour for
firms: for example, skilled migrants may alleviate shortages in sectors such as the NHS,
agriculture, construction, computing industries and state education - allowing the government to
meet targets for improving public services.
Migrants tend to be young adultsso a rising trend of migration can help to increase the
population of working age and also the flexibility of the labour market. Many migrants into the
UK are highly skilled people, drawn particularly to the quaternary service sector, especially in
finance, in London and South-east England.
Reduced pressure on wage inflation -an increase in labour supply from migration is likely torestrain wage growth in the short term, given the amount of labour that firms demand. This is
shown in the diagram below. A slower rate of increase in wages has the effect of easing cost-
push inflationary pressure which might then give the Bank of England more leeway to keep
interest rates low. Immigrants are usually prepared to work for lower wages than domestic
workers. This can mean lower costs of production for suppliers which can then feed through into
lower retail prices for consumers.
A fall in the NAIRU -If migration effects are strong, then it is plausible to argue that the non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment might fall. Because when labour demand is very
strong, whereas normally this could put upward pressure on wages, if labour supply can adjust
flexibly to rising demand, then there is less risk of acceleration in wage and price inflation.
However, we should be cautious about this ideafor there are always natural and institutional
barriers to the geographical mobility of labour. And the levels of migration we are seeing in the
UK are not particularly large at the current time.
Aggregate demand effects- economic migrants are likely to earn more than they spend
contributing to the growth of the local or regional economy.
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Entrepreneurship supporters of a more relaxed approach to migration claim that many of the
migrants are younger and have the potential to be entrepreneurial in their approachanother
potential supply-side gain for the economy.
Higher trend growth - taken as a whole, a positive rate of migration can add both to short-term
economic growth (via a rise in aggregate demand) and also a slightly faster trend rate of growth
(which brings economic benefits in the long run). The UK Treasury has estimated that the
economy might grow each year by an additional quarter of a percentage pointworth 2.5
billionuntil 2006. That handy annual addition to GDP should also boost government tax
revenues by about 1 billion every year. This assumes a net migration of between 160,000
180,000 per year
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The costs of migration
We cannot rely on mass immigration to solve the problems arising from ageing of the population
and alleged labour shortages. Mass immigration is not an effective solution to these problems. To
the extent that they are real, such problems can only be effectively tackled by mobilizing the
under-utilized talents and energies of the existing population. This does not mean that there is no
economic benefit at all from immigration. It will always be in our collective interest to admit
skilled and talented people. But this is happening already
Opponents of labour migration including pressure groups such as Migration Watch highlight the
potential costs of a growing inflow of new workers.
Depressing the real wages of domestic workerse.g. an inflow of new workers will lead
to an increased supply of low skilled workers and therefore drive down the equilibrium wage for
domestic low-skilled employees.
Doubts about productivity effect: Many immigrants, especially those from poorer
countries, have a low educational level and are more likely to be unemployed or economically
inactive than the domestic population.
Increased pressure on the welfare state (benefits, education, housing and health) the
taxpayer may eventually have to pay for the increased level of government spending needed to
extend the economys infrastructure
Unemployment concerns: There is a risk of higher unemployment if the skills profile of
migrants does not match the demands of the growing industries in the economy
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Increased pressure on scarce resources: The inflow of immigrants into an area may
increase the demand for housing and push up the cost of living. To compensate their workforce
many employers are likely to raise money wages
The longer term benefits and costs of increased labour migration are very hard to quantify and
estimate. Much depends on:
The types of people who choose to migrate from one country to another
The ease with which they assimilate into a new country and whether they find full-time
employment.
The extent to which a rise in labour migration stimulates an increase in capital
expenditure by firms and by government.
Whether workers who come to the UK decide to stay in the longer term (this may involve
members of their extended family joining them) or whether they regard migration as essentially a
temporary exercise (e.g. to gain qualifications, learn some English) before moving back to their
country of origin.
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Who Benefi ts F rom Migration?
People move back and forth across the globe. There are labour migrants, refugees, family
reunification, students, volunteers, adventurers, tourists and people who are simply searching for
a better quality of life. It is all a part of globalisation and it contains progress and development. It
is a way to encounter new possibilities in life. The future is no longer only the culture of origin;
instead a person has the ability to live in a different culture. People who do not get the chance to
move are the ones without a choice. The migrant has a choice. If a person is unhappy with the
situation she/he is living in, this is an opportunity of a life time. Globalisation in its glory as it
contains new opportunities and new possibilities for those who are included. Does this mean that
migration always is beneficial for the migrant?
It spins my mind every time I try to figure out the distinction between voluntary and forced
migrants. I understand that voluntary migrants have migrated due to achieving a better life. Is not
a forced migrant searching for a better life as well? As I see it the migrant has a choice but the
alternatives the migrant is facing are diverse. The definition of a better life can differ depending
on the migrant. A Swedish migrant might go to Ghana for working as a volunteer as the migrant
feels that the journey will improve this person's life and contribute to improve other peoples'
lives. Sweden is a safe place to live in and thereby the migrant was not forced to leave. However,
a sense of guilt towards inequalities might make the migrant feel forced to leave. This migrant is
still referred to as a voluntary migrant. A forced migrant, on the other hand, is someone who has
to move due to war or starvation in the country of origin. It is in this case a matter of survival or
death. Is not the forced migrant also searching for a better quality of life? If this is the case are
not the forced migrants and the voluntary migrants both benefiting from migrating? It is then
only the migrants who have achieved refugee status who are truly forced as they are facing death
if returning. Migrating is then only a matter of survival and not a matter of benefiting. The
refugee might have appreciated life in the country of origin more than the life in the country of
destination. Furthermore, problems might arise when the country of origin will not accept the
refugees to repatriate.
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Economic factors inf luencing migration decisions
Context:
- Global Population: 6.5 billion
- Global labour force 3.2 billion of whom 85% live in less developed countries
- Global Migrants: estimated at 190 million, of whom 90 million are in the labour force 95
million and sixty per cent are in developed countries
- Global labour force: 40% agriculture, 20% industry, 40% services
- Developed country labour force: 3% agriculture, 25% industry, 72 % services
- Migrants in developed countries (60 million out of a total of 500 million): 10% agriculture,
40% industry, 50% services
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Case study -M igration expands the UK workforce
The number of people in the UK of working age (16 to 59 for women, 16 to 64 for men) has
risen by 274,000 over the last year and by over 450,000 since unemployment reached a low in
September 2004. The total number of people aged 16 or above has risen by 637,000 over the
same period. Part of this increase no doubt reflects the effects of immigration flows into the UK
following the expansion of the European Union. It is estimated that net migration totalled
300,000 or so in 2004, before rising to around 470,000 in 2005. Of course, these totals are
unlikely to have shown up in full in the official data on the working age population, not least
because some of the migrants will presumably have been children. Nonetheless, they suggest that
much of the recent pick-up in the growth of the work-force has been down to the effect of
increased immigration.
The country of origin has the control of letting people out and letting former citizens repatriate.
The countries of origin can benefit from keeping people from moving as they may consider the
citizens as a necessary asset to the country. For instance, soldiers in war have been forced to stay.
On the other hand can out-migration be beneficial for the country of origin as the population
might be too high. By losing some of the population there are fewer citizens to feed and protect.
If the migrants want to repatriate, the country of origin has the power to reject their former
citizens and might do so because the state does no longer see the migrant as an asset to the
nation-state. In all, the country of origin dominates who can leave and who can get back in and
the reason to dominate rests on what is best for the nation-state and not for the migrant.
What in turn happens to the countries that the migrants go to? Are these nation-states victims of
globalisation? As xenophobia and racism is well-known world-wide the quick answer could be
that these receiving nation-states are victims and that the immigrants have worsened the living
situation in the receiving nation-states. But one should not jump into conclusions. The receiving
nation-states are controlling immigration for a reason. There is a point to why some nation-states
accept immigrants and some do not. The same nation-states have changed the rates of
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immigrants depending on which period in time it has been. Immigrants are an asset to the
receiving nation-states. But if the immigrants are portrayed as being a burden, the receiving
nation-states will get credit for accepting them which is safe to claim as being the case today.
Immigrants are an asset simply because they are let in when they are needed. The two main
reasons have been uneven demographic development and the need of labour. The receiving
nation-states have been in a crisis and immigrants have helped to stabilise the situation.
Immigrants can even be an economical benefit to the receiving nation-states as many immigrants
enter the nation-states as grown-ups meaning that they are most presumably already educated or
skilled workers. Therefore the receiving nation-states do not have to pay for their education or
training. On top of that, the immigrant can contribute with new knowledge from the country of
origin. The immigrant's worst enemy, negative prejudices, is starting to blur up. I am referring to
the prejudiced paradox that immigrants either are lazy and do not work or take all the native jobs.
Portray immigrants as a burden to the receiving nation-states because only then will the receiving
nation-states be glorified for accepting immigrants.
As the different states are controlling the migrants it is not farfetched to claim that the states are
the most beneficial actors influenced by migration. If the migrants were those who were meant to
be benefited then migration would have no reason to be controlled by the state.
The lack of decent employment opportunities has led many to seek employment abroad. Some of
the countries of Central and Eastern Europe are among those most affected by both internal and
external migration . The ILO estimates, for example, that 40 per cent of the Albanian workforce
is working abroad, and that a quarter of the economically active population of the Republic ofMoldova is working outside the country. As foreign workers are often employed in precarious
work situations and are among the first to be laid off, this has aggravated the unemployment
situation in the region following the crisis.
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The ILO Decent Work Technical Support Team and Country Office for Central and Eastern
Europe provides assistance in forging national policies and resources to better manage labour
migration so that it contributes positively to the growth and development of both home and host
societies, as well as to the well-being of migrants themselves in the Central and Eastern
European region. The ILO emphasizes the need to protect migrants labour rights in host
countries. The team also helps to build the capacity of labour market institutions, including the
social partners, on the design, monitor and evaluation of active labour market policies targeting
migrant workers.
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Types of migration
Migrationis the crossing of the boundary of a political or administrative unit for a certain
minimum period of time. It includes the movement of refugees, displaced persons, uprooted
people as well as economic migrants.
Types:
I nternal migration
I nternational migration
Facts
Today 192 million people live outside their place of birth - it is about 3% of the world's
population;
1 of every 35 persons in the world is a migrant;
Current annual growth rate of international migrants is about 2,9%;
Japan and all countries of Europe are expected to face declining population growth over
the next 50 years.
Population of Italy in 2050 will decline from 57 to 41 million of people
Population of Japan in 2080 will decline from 127 to 105 million
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Forms of M igration
Forced migration includes refugees, asylum seekers and people forced to move due to
external factors
Family members - people sharing family ties joining people who have already entered an
immigration country
Return migrants - people who return to their countries of origin after a period in another
country
Types of M igration :
Legal migrants
Illegal migrants
Irregular migrants
Refugees
Labour migration
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Types of LabourM igration :
Temporary labour migrants (also known as guest workers or overseas contract workers):People who migrate for a limited period of time in order to take up employment and send money
home.
Highly skilled and business migrants: People with qualifications as managers, executives,
professionals, technicians or similar, who move within the internal labour markets of trans-
national corporations and international organizations, or who seek employment through
international labour markets for scarce skills. Many countries welcome such migrants and have
special 'skilled and business migration' programs to encourage them to come.
The impact of labour migration varies from country to country. Economic migration can
have different effects resulting from the volume, composition, and characteristics of the
migratory flows as well as the context in which the flows take place.
For countries of origin, in addition to the possibility of providing some relief from
unemployment and absorbing an increase in the labour force, it can provide a form of
developmental support, especially through remittances, transfer of know-how, and creation of
business and trade networks
For receiving countries facing labour shortages, immigration can alleviate labour scarcity,
facilitate occupational mobility, and add to the human capital stock of the receiving countries
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The country of origin has the control of letting people out and letting former citizens repatriate.
The countries of origin can benefit from keeping people from moving as they may consider the
citizens as a necessary asset to the country. For instance, soldiers in war have been forced to stay.
On the other hand can out-migration be beneficial for the country of origin as the population
might be too high. By losing some of the population there are fewer citizens to feed and protect.
If the migrants want to repatriate, the country of origin has the power to reject their former
citizens and might do so because the state does no longer see the migrant as an asset to the
nation-state. In all, the country of origin dominates who can leave and who can get back in and
the reason to dominate rests on what is best for the nation-state and not for the migrant.
What in turn happens to the countries that the migrants go to? Are these nation-states victims of
globalisation? As xenophobia and racism is well-known world-wide the quick answer could be
that these receiving nation-states are victims and that the immigrants have worsened the living
situation in the receiving nation-states. But one should not jump into conclusions. The receiving
nation-states are controlling immigration for a reason. There is a point to why some nation-states
accept immigrants and some do not. The same nation-states have changed the rates of
immigrants depending on which period in time it has been. Immigrants are an asset to the
receiving nation-states. But if the immigrants are portrayed as being a burden, the receiving
nation-states will get credit for accepting them which is safe to claim as being the case today.
Immigrants are an asset simply because they are let in when they are needed. The two main
reasons have been uneven demographic development and the need of labour. The receiving
nation-states have been in a crisis and immigrants have helped to stabilise the situation.
Immigrants can even be an economical benefit to the receiving nation-states as many immigrants
enter the nation-states as grown-ups meaning that they are most presumably already educated or
skilled workers. Therefore the receiving nation-states do not have to pay for their education or
training. On top of that, the immigrant can contribute with new knowledge from the country of
origin. The immigrant's worst enemy, negative prejudices, is starting to blur up. I am referring tothe prejudiced paradox that immigrants either are lazy and do not work or take all the native jobs.
Portray immigrants as a burden to the receiving nation-states because only then will the receiving
nation-states be glorified for accepting immigrants.
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As the different states are controlling the migrants it is not farfetched to claim that the states are
the most beneficial actors influenced by migration. If the migrants were those who were meant to
be benefited then migration would have no reason to be controlled by the state.
Legal Migrants- migrants that legally enter into the country, have a valid immigrant visa
and proper documentation
Illegal migranta person who, owing to illegal entry or the expiry of his or her visa,
lacks legal status in a transit or host country. The term applies to migrants who infringe a
countrys admission rules and any other person not authorized to remain in the host country
Irregular Migration
The people who enter or remain in a country of which they are not a citizen in breach of
national laws.
The IMO estimates that irregular immigrants account for one-third to one-half of new entrants
into developed countries, marking an increase of 20 per cent over the past ten years
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Some Negative Consequences
Irregular migration can undermine public confidence in the integrity and effectiveness of a
states migration and asylum policies
Irregular migration can also endanger the lives of the migrants concerned. A large but
unknown number of people die each year trying to cross land and sea borders without being
detected by the authorities. Human traffickers ruthlessly exploit migrants.
More generally, people who enter or remain in a country without authorization can be at risk
of exploitation by employers and landlords.
Migrants with irregular status are often unwilling to seek redress from authorities because they
fear arrest and deportation. As a result, they do not always make use of public services to which
they are entitled, for example emergency health care.
Refugees
According to the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee
is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country
of their nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail him/herself of
the protection of that country.
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Facts
The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants gives the world total as 12,019,700
refugees.
Moreover, there are over 34,000,000 displaced by war, including internally displaced
persons.
As of December 31, 2005, the largest source countries of refugees are Palestine,
Afghanistan, Iraq, Myanmar, and Sudan.
An international migrant worker is defined by the 1990 United Nations (UN)
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members
of their Families as a person who is to be engaged, is engaged or has been engaged in
remunerated activity in a State of which he or she is not a national.
Do the Poor Reall y Benefit f rom Labor M igration?
Strong opinions abound on the issue of migration both in sending and receiving countries. Butbeyond the political discourse, labor migration is now central to the debate on international
development and poverty reduction. Does the migration of workers have a positive development
impact? What the evidence shows is that differences in productivity and wages across the world
are so large that worker migration offers huge rewards to those who move into higher-paying
locations. The development problem, however, is that migrant working programs in high-income
countries tend to benefit skilled workers, while the poor and unskilled are left with virtually no
point of entry into international labor markets.
How can this change? How can migrant programs increase access to labor markets by the poor
and, therefore, have a larger impact on poverty reduction? This is precisely the question that
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World Bank Senior Economist ManjulaLuthria explores inthe most recent edition of Economic
Premise, Labor Mobility for the Poor: Is it Really Possible?
She argues that the prospect of a temporary movement of persons (TMP) scheme, where the poor
have limited and circumscribed access to developed world labor markets, could be part of the
solution. But for that, a solid design, management and capacity building are needed.
It is indeed possible to design TMP schemes that are win-win for sending and receiving
countries, Luthria says. A well-designed scheme can offer a real chance for the poor to
participate in the benefits of greater globalization of international labor markets.
I really recommend you take a look at this Economic Premise on whats happening
internationally on temporary movement of persons schemes, and how they can be improved to
accelerate poverty reduction.
Key Points :
International instruments such as the UN and International Labour Organization (ILO)
Conventions use different definitions.
The concept and definition of labour migration often reflects current national policy
perspectives and varies between countries and over time
The United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers
and Members of their Families simply refers to remunerated activity in a foreign country without
specifying the source of remuneration
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Labour M igration wil l continue :
Differences in employment opportunities and living standards between countries
Increased education and broader access to information on living conditions and
employment opportunities abroad
Established inter-country networks based on family, culture, and history