early sub-saharan africa

8/8/2019 Early Sub-saharan Africa

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SUB-SAHARAN

AFRICA FROM

PRE-HISTORY

TO 1500 C.E.


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PRE-HISTORIC AFRICA Regions in Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa vs. Northern Africa (inc. Nile Valley) The Sahara is the greatest physical and cultural barrier

North settled early by Berbers, Hamites (Caucasian groups)

Sub-Saharan Africa has larger regions with many micro regions West Africa Forest, Sahel called Sudan, Central Africa, East Africa, South Africa

Each region defined by physical geography and vegetation; many micro cultures

North and East Africa saw first African civilizations The Nile River: Pharaonic Egypt; Kush-Meroe (often called Nubia)

The Ethiopian Highlands: Axum (Aksum) or Ethiopia

North Africa: Carthaginian Empire, Roman and Greek civilizations

The Sudan Sudanic region was sahel or plains stretching across Africa south of Sahara

9000 B.C.E. domestication of cattle; cultivation of sorghum, cotton

Became home to most Sub-Saharan civilizations

Small states based on tribes, clans developed

Religion: polytheism, shamanism, placation of spirits, divination

Climatic Change Prior to 5000 CE Sahara one large inland sea surrounded by plains

5000 B.C.E. development of Sahara Desert as desertification increased

Increasing desertification forced mass popular migration to water

Nile shifts to east; formation of large lakes in Central Africa that feed Nile


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REGIONS IN AFRICA


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AFRICAN CLIMATE ZONES


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AFRICAN LANGUAGE FAMILIES


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FIRST AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS

Egyptian History, c. 3100 BCE to 525 BCE

Pre-history dominated by small city-states along Nile

Old Kingdom

Menes- Narmer united Upper/Lower Egypt

Pyramid building era; pharaohs considered divine

Middle Kingdom

2nd Illness saw Semitic invasion: Hyksos

New Kingdom saw rise of empire

3rd Illness saw invasions by Kush, Assyrians, Sea Peoples

Eventually ruled by Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines

Kush in Upper Nile assimilates Egyptian culture

Ethnically were Black Africans

Adopted many of Egyptian practices: religion, architecture

Ruled Egypt as 26th Dynasty

Famous for iron, gold trade

Remained independent until Muslim conquests


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ANCIENT EGYPT


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MAP OF ANCIENT KUSH


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ANCIENT MAP OF AFRICA


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NILE SOCIETIES

Urban elites (2%) ruled over rural masses Social Classes

Pharaoh (ruler and his immediate family)

Officials (Advisors, generals, soldiers, priests)

Merchants and artisans

Peasants

Slaves

Patriarchal societies with a twist

Women were occasionally rulers

Women had rights, could own lands

Were less than males but not oppressed


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RELIGIONS OF THE NILE Polytheism

Extremely complex pantheon of gods

Deification of nature

Extremely powerful, influential priesthood with great wealth

Conflict of good, evil

Humans judged for their actions

Cult of Osiris

Strong belief in afterlife, accountability for actions

Mummification was but one aspect of this

Regenerative cycle of Osiris/Ra-Re/Horus

Ahkenaton and Monotheism

Amenhotep believed there was only one God Ended polytheism, opposed by priests; was assassinated

Nubian Beliefs

Adopted many Egyptian beliefs

Major focus on the sun and moon


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WRITING

Early Nile Writing Hieroglyphics (Pictographs) Merotic Writing in Nubia

Geez Writing in Axum

Education Scribes had influence

Often attached to court or temples

Services rented out

Scribes could advance socially

Sub-Saharan Writing Lacked alphabet, books

Lack due to termites, lack of durable medium Developed oral traditional, tribal memories

West African griots Memorized history by mneumonic devices

Kept all records for tribes, rulers

Islam brought first alphabet to Sub-Saharan Africa


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ECONOMICS OF NILE

Economic Specialization and Trade Bronze Age arose around 17th century B.C.E.

Iron Age begins around 1,000 B.C.

Transportation Largely waterborne; little need for roads

Out of Nile Valley, camels and horses were common

Trade Egypt was largely self-sufficient, autarkic

Net exporter of grains, foodstuffs, luxuries, paper, medicines

Most trade was based on luxury products Papyrus, paper, medicines, herbs, finished products especially silver

Imports tended to be wood, gold, finished products

Kush-Meroe specialized in iron, gold workings

Trade Routes Up Nile to Kush-Meroe

Across Sinai to Fertile Cresent

Down Red Sea to East Africa, Southern Arabia

Across Mediterranean to Greece, Phoenicia

Little contact with interior of Africa


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THE NOK CULTURE

Discovered 1928 in Northern Nigeria

Was it a civilization or advanced culture?

Flourished 900 BCE to 200 CE on Niger-Benue River

Clearly first Sub-Saharan civilization/culture

Precursor of Bantu, West African forest peoples

Knowledge is based on archeology Iron makers and sculptors

Animals and humans made from fired clay

Figures of animals, peoples including leaders

Seem to have been pastoralists, farmers

Could smelt iron

Have found iron tools, weapons; probably also used wood

Seemed to have skipped copper, bronze ages

Indigenous or borrowed from North Africa, Nile River?


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GHANA: 1ST SUB-SAHARAN CIVILIZATION

Camels

Camels came to Egypt from Arabia, 7th century B.C.E. Romans introduced them to North Africa, patrolled desert

After 500 C.E. camels replaced horses, donkeys as transport animals

Camels' arrival quickened pace of communication across the Sahara

Islamic merchants crossed the desert to trade in West Africa

Established relations with sub-Saharan West Africa by 8th century

The kingdom of Ghana Kings maintained a large army of two hundred thousand warriors

A principal state of west Africa, not related to modern state of Ghana

Became the most important commercial site in west Africa

Controlled gold mines, exchanged it with nomads for salt

Provided gold, ivory, and slaves

Wanted horses, cloth, manufactured goods Koumbi-Saleh

Capital city

Thriving commercial center


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ARRIVAL OF ISLAM IN AFRICA Islam in Africa

North Africa Arab armies conquered region by early 8th Century; pushed up Nile

Mass conversions of local inhabitants due to tax incentives

West Africa Introduced by Trans-Saharan Trade route

Merchants were greatest contact with Islam

Local rulers, elites converted by 10th century

Gave elites control of trade, many benefits

Allowed people to observe traditional beliefs Nomadic Berbers in North Africa

Berbers and Arabs were bitter rivals

Arabs settled coastlands, cities

Berbers lived in deserts, mountains

Berbers became puritanical Muslim, Shia

Berber fanatics invaded Ghana, Morocco

Ghana weakened, fell 10th century CE Elite religion vs. common practices

Most people remained polytheists especially outside of cities, towns

Produced syncretic blend such as accommodation of African gender norms

After conversion by elites, old beliefs remained; part of inherited traditions

Religion introduced writing, literary traditions


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KINGDOM OF MALI Mandike Peoples

Ghana was established by Mandika

After fall of Ghana, Mandika established many small states Most people were not Muslims but merchants were

Sundiata After Ghana dissolved, political leadership shifted to Mali empire, a Mandika state

The lion prince Sundiata (reigned 1230-55) built the Mali empire

Ruling elites, families converted to Islam after his death

The Mali empire and trade

Controlled gold, salt; taxed almost all trade passing through west Africa Enormous caravans linked Mali to north Africa

Besides Niani, many prosperous cities on caravan routes

Mansa Musa Sundiata's grand nephew, reigned from 1312 to 1337

Made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325 Gargantuan caravan of thousand soldiers and attendants

Gold devalued 25% in Cairo during his visit

Mansa Musa and Islam Upon return to Mali, built mosques

Sent students to study with Islamic scholars in North Africa

Established Islamic schools in Mali

The decline of Mali Factions crippled the central government

Rise of province of Gao as rival to Mali

Military pressures from neighboring kingdoms, desert nomads


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SONGHAI EMPIRE Origins

Sorko fishermen of Niger became merchants

Joined Gao state (part of Malian Empire)

Mali could never collect taxes from Gao

Rise

Sonni Ali the Great build cavalry, war fleet

Disputed Mali, conquer Timbuktu

Anti-Muslim: saw them as a threat

Zenith

Askia Muhammad seized power after Sonnis death

Devout Muslim, promoted Islam; launched jihads

Visited Cairo, Mecca; promoted Songhai to Muslims

Declared Caliph of the Sudan

Built centralized state using Muslim jurists as advisors

Tradition and Trade

Maintained tribal rituals of sacred drum, sacred fire, dress

Privileged caste craftsmen; slaves important in agriculture

Traded kola nuts, gold, slaves for horses, salt, luxuries, finished goods

Fall

Civil war erupted in 16th century

Demographic Changes

Drought, desertification hurt economy

Diseases spread

Moroccan Empire invades and destroys state in order to control gold trade


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KANEM-BORNU Origins

Situated north east of Lake Chad.

In 11th century, Sefawa dynasty was established

Shift in lifestyle

From entirely nomadic to pastoralist way of life with agriculture

State became more centralized with capital at Njimi; maintained large cavalry

Islam and Trade

Kanem converted to Islam under Hu or Hawwa (1067-71). Faith was not widely embraced until the 13th century.

Muslim traders played a role in bringing Islam to Kanem

Wealth of Kanem derived from ability of rulers to control trade

Main exports were ostrich feathers, slaves and ivory; imported horses, luxuries

Exports were crucial to their power, ability to dominate neighbors

A Change Combination of overgrazing, dynastic uncertainties, attacks from neighbors

Rulers of Kanem to move to Borno, state now referred to as Kanem-Borno

New contacts with Hausa of Nigeria; capital becomes center of knowledge, trade

Army modernized by trade with Muslim, Turks: acquired firearms

Decline was long, gradual and peaceful: fell in the 19th century


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THE BANTU

The Bantu peoples Originated in the region around modern Nigeria/Cameroon Influenced by Nok iron making, herding, agriculture

Population pressure drove migrations, 2000 BCE 700 BCE

Two major movements: to south and to east and then south

Languages split into about 500 distinct but related tongues

Bantu agriculture and herding Early Bantu relied on agriculture slash-burn, shifting

Pastoralists, semi-nomadic due to agriculture, cattle

Iron metallurgy Iron appeared during the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E.

Iron made agriculture more productive

Expanded divisions of labor, specialization in Bantu societies

Population Pressures Iron technologies produced population upsurge

Large populations forced migration of Bantu


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THE BANTU MIGRATION The Bantu Migration

Population pressure led to migration, c. 2000 B.C.E. Movement to South, along Southeast and Southwest coasts

Languages differentiated into about 500 distinct but related tongues

Occupied most of sub-Saharan (except West) Africa by 1000 C.E.

Split into groups as they migrated: Eastern, Central, Southern

Bantu spread iron, herding technologies as they moved

Bananas Between 300/500 C.E., Malay seafarers reached Africa

Settled in Madagascar, visited East African coast

Brought with them pigs, taro, and banana cultivation

Bananas became well-established in Africa by 500 C.E.

Bantu learned to cultivate bananas from Malagasy Bananas caused second population spurt, migration surge

Reached South Africa in 16th century CE

Population growth 3.5 million people by 400 B.C.E.

11 million by the beginning of the millennium

17 million by 800 C.E.

22 million by 1000 C.E.


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BANTU LANGUAGES


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BANTU POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS

Stateless societies

Early Bantu societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy Societies governed through family and kinship groups

Village council, consisted of male family heads

Chief of a village was from the most prominent family heads

A group of villages constituted a district

Villages chiefs negotiated intervillage affairs

Chiefdoms Population growth strained resources, increased conflict

Some communities began to organize military forces, 1000 C.E.

Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks and imposed authority

Some chiefs conquered their neighbors

Kingdom of Kongo

Villages formed small states along the Congo River, 1000 C.E. Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 C.E.

One of the principalities conquered neighbors, built kingdom ofKongo

Maintained a centralized government with a royal currency system

Provided effective organization until the mid-17th century


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SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS Diversity of African societies in Sub-Saharan Africa

Complex societies developed into kingdoms, empires, and city-states Coexisted with small states and stateless societies

Lineages consisted of all members descended from a common ancestor

Kinship groups of stateless societies Extended families and clans as social and economic organizations

Communities claimed rights to land, no private property

Village council allocated land to clan members

Sex and gender relations Men undertook heavy labor, herding,

Women were responsible for child rearing, domestic chores, farming

Men monopolized public authority but women could be leaders

Women enjoyed high honor as the source of life

Many societies were matrilineal; aristocratic women influenced public affairs

Women merchants commonly traded at markets

Sometimes women organized all-female military units Islam did little to curtail women's opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa

Age grades Publicly recognized "age grades" or "age sets"

Assumed responsibilities and tasks appropriate to their age grades

Coming of age ceremonies and secret societies restricted by age, gender


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SLAVERY Slavery in Africa

Most slaves were captives of war, debtors, criminals Kept for local use or sold in slave markets

Often used as domestic laborers especially agricultural workers

Generally not a social stigma attached

Slaves could receive freedom, become part of family, tribe

Children born to slaves were not slaves

Slave trading Slave trade increased after the 11th century CE

Primary markets Across Sahara to North Africa and Egypt and ultimately Arabia

Out of East Africa to Arabia and Middle East

In some years, 10 to 12 thousand slaves shipped out of Africa

Males preferred, could also act as carriers of trade goods

10 million slaves transported by Islamic trade between 750/1500 Demand for slaves outstripped supply from eastern Europe

Original slaves preferred in Muslim world were Caucasian Slavs

Word slave comes from Slav

Slave raids against smaller states, stateless societies

Muslims could not be used as slaves (Quran) yet often ignored


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EARLY AFRICAN RELIGION

Creator god

Recognized by almost all African peoples Created the earth and humankind, source of world order

Lesser gods and spirits Often associated with natural features, forces in world

Participated actively in the workings of the world

Believed in ancestors' souls influencing material world

Diviners Mediated between humanity and supernatural beings

Called shamans and inappropriately witch doctors

Interpreted the cause of the people's misfortune

Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems

African religion was not theological, but practical Religion to placate the gods, ask for assistance, cures, fertility

Public celebrations inc. dancing, singing formed community

Genders honored different deities, had separate ceremonies


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EARLY EAST AFRICAN HISTORY

Early visitors to east Africa

Egyptians visited, traded with area Famous expedition of Hatshepshut to Punt

Indian, Persian visited after 500 B.C.E.

Greeks, Romans called area Azania

Malays established colonies on Madagascar

Kingdom of Axum (Aksum) Sabeans of Yemen created Axum

Arose in highlands of Ethiopia Trading state across Bab el Mandeb straits

Tribute empire on land; trade gold, frankincense, myrrh, food, ivory

Built stone structures, issued own coins

Eventually became Monophysite Christian King Ezana converted and court followed in early 4th century

Developed Geez language, writing in association with Christianity Maintained strong contacts with Egypt

Traded with Romans, Byzantines, Persians, Indians, Arabs

By 2nd century: Bantus populated much of East Africa

By 7th century: Arab merchants begin to visit

By 8th century: Muslim armies, merchants push up Nile


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ZIMBABWE

South Central Africa

Wooded and grass savannahs Rich in minerals especially copper, gold

Bantu herders, ironsmiths found it wonderful

Zimbabwe

A powerful kingdom of Central Africa arose in 13th century

From 5th centuries C.E. built wooden residences known as zimbabwe By the 9th century began to build stonezimbabwe

Magnificent stone complex known as Great Zimbabwe, the 12th century

18,000 people lived in Great Zimbabwe in the late 15th century

Kings and wealth

Organized flow of gold, ivory

Trade include slaves

Counted wealth in cattle, too

Traded with Swahili city-states


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CHRISTIANITY IN AFRICA Early Christianity in North Africa

Christianity reached Africa during 1st

century C.E. St. Mark converted Egypt, spread up Nile

Romans introduced faith to North Africa

North Africa was home to many heresies Arianism = Jesus was human

Monophysites = Jesus had one nature

Donatists = Apostate Christians could not return

Vandal German settlers were Arian Christians

Byzantine conquest returned north to Catholics Region had no influence on sub-Saharan African

Monophysite Christianity along the Nile Believed Christ had one nature, largely divine

Persecuted; declared heresy by Chalcedon

The Christian kingdoms of Nubia and Axum 1st Christian kingdom, 4th century C.E.,

Nubians of Kush also became Christian

Both adopted Monophysite form of Christianity

Ethiopian and Nubian Christianity Had little contact with Christians of other lands

Shared basic Christian theology/rituals, developed own features

Isolated, attacked by Islam


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MOVEMENT IN AFRICAN HISTORY


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ECONOMIC REGIONS OF AFRICA


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HISTORIC AFRICA IN REVIEW

early sub-saharan africa

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