early medieval archealogy

EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY PROJECTInvestigating the character of early medieval archaeological excavations, 1970-2002

Aidan O'Sullivan and Lorcan Harney Report for The Heritage CouncilJanuary 2008(Revised Edition)

AN C HOMHAIRLE O IDHREACHTA

T HE H ERITAGE C OUNC IL

UCD School of Archaeology

Early Medieval Archaeology Project: Investigating the character of early medieval archaeological excavations, 19702002

by Aidan OSullivan and Lorcan Harney, UCD School of Archaeology January 2008Funded by The Heritage Council Archaeological Research Grants 2007 and UCD Seed Funding 2007 Scheme

Edited from Original Report for The Heritage Council

EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY PROJECT

Contents

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................VIII LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................XI PREFACE TO REEDITED EMAP REPORT................................................................ XII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..........................................................................................XIII

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................. 1INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................1 THE EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY PROJECT (EMAP).....................................1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EMAP 1..................................................................2 SCOPE OF EMAP 1 .......................................................................................2 STRUCTURE OF EMAP 1 REPORT.....................................................................3 SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR EMAP1 ..........................................................3Excavations Bulletin .................................................................................................. 3 Issues with the Excavations Bulletin ........................................................................... 4 Other Published Information ...................................................................................... 4

OTHER USEFUL SOURCES ...............................................................................5 THE LEGACY OF EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATION .................................................5 LEGISLATION AND PROTECTED SITES AND MONUMENTS ......................................6 THE CHARACTER OF EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATIONS ..........................................6

Consequences........................................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 2. DESIGNING THE EMAP DATABASE ................................. 9INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................9 THE SITE FORM IN THE EMAP 1 DATABASE .....................................................9The Character of Potential Early Medieval Sites ......................................................... 9 EMAP Site Definition................................................................................................ 10 Early medieval sites in Rural Contexts.................................................................. 10 Early medieval sites in rural towns and villages.................................................... 11 Early medieval sites in HibernoNorse Towns ....................................................... 12 Site Classification: EMAP Class Field ......................................................................... 12 Site Categorisation: Category Field........................................................................... 12 Site Categorisation: Environs of Category Field ......................................................... 13 Locational Information ............................................................................................ 13 SMR Monument Numbers and Classes ...................................................................... 14 Synopsis ............................................................................................................... 14 Other Publications ................................................................................................. 15 Highly Significant ................................................................................................... 15 Significant ............................................................................................................. 15 General .................................................................................................................. 16 Uncertain................................................................................................................ 16 No Significance ....................................................................................................... 16 License Field Information......................................................................................... 16 Tick Boxes .............................................................................................................. 17 Activities................................................................................................................. 18 Monuments, Structures and Artefacts ....................................................................... 18 EMAP Stage 1 Data Collection .................................................................................. 18

SIGNIFICANCE CRITERIA ...........................................................................15

LICENSE FORM .........................................................................................16

ASSESSING THE EXCAVATED MATERIAL ..........................................................18

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS ...........................19EMAP Stage 1 Data Management ............................................................................. 19 EMAP Stage 1 Data Issues....................................................................................... 20 Potential Solutions .................................................................................................. 21 Locational and Licensespecific details ...................................................................... 22 Archaeological Bibliography ..................................................................................... 22

CHAPTER 3. THE CHARACTER OF EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATIONS IN IRELAND, 19702002........................................................................ 23INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................23 EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATIONS 19702002 .................................................23

THE RATE OF EXCAVATIONS UNDERTAKEN ANNUALLY BY ARCHAEOLOGICAL ORGANISATIONS IN IRELAND .......................................................................30

Early Medieval Excavations Annually 19702002........................................................ 23 Annual Excavations per County ................................................................................ 27 The Character and Scale of Excavations in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland .............................................................................................................................. 29 The Character and Scale of Excavations in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland .............................................................................................................................. 29

EXCAVATION TYPE ......................................................................................35 SIGNIFICANCE OF SITES ..............................................................................42 SCHEMES AND INFRASTRUCTURAL PROJECTS ...................................................49 THE CHANGING CHARACTER OF EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATIONS IN IRELAND, 1970 2002 .......................................................................................................54 WHAT EARLY MEDIEVAL SITES WERE EXCAVATED 19702002? A SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS ..................................................................................................54 SITE CATEGORIES .......................................................................................54 EXCAVATED SITES, MONUMENTS AND STRUCTURES ..........................................57

University Excavations and associated Excavation Licenses........................................ 32 Statefunded Excavations and associated Excavation Licenses ................................... 33 Commercial Excavations and associated Excavation Licenses ..................................... 34 Excavation Types Annually....................................................................................... 36 Excavation Types per County ................................................................................... 40 Excavations Annually and Sites of Different Significance ............................................ 44 Significance of Sites per County ............................................................................... 47 Significance of Sites in which excavations were undertaken along Schemes/Projects ... 50 Excavations Types along Schemes/Projects .............................................................. 52

Excavated Site Categories........................................................................................ 55 Excavations environs of Site Category ...................................................................... 56

CHAPTER 4. EARLY MEDIEVAL DWELLINGS, SETTLEMENTS AND LANDSCAPES..................................................................................... 59INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................59 EARLY MEDIEVAL RURAL SETTLEMENT A.D. 4001170 .....................................59 EARLY MEDIEVAL CASHELS ...........................................................................61 EARLY MEDIEVAL RINGFORTS........................................................................62Excavated Rural Settlement Sites 19702002 ............................................................ 60 Background ............................................................................................................ 61 EMAP Results.......................................................................................................... 61 Background ............................................................................................................ 62 Definition............................................................................................................ 62 EMAP and Ringforts Excavated 19702002................................................................ 63 Archaeological Significance of Excavated ringforts (incl. Raised and Platform)............. 64 Interpreting the archaeology of early medieval ringforts ............................................ 65 Origins and chronology........................................................................................ 65

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OTHER EARLY MEDIEVAL ENCLOSURES ............................................................75 THE EXCAVATED EVIDENCE FOR THE SOCIAL STATUS OF EARLY MEDIEVAL RINGFORTS ...............................................................................................................76

Morphology and form .......................................................................................... 66 Social and economic function............................................................................... 67 Distribution and siting ......................................................................................... 67 Stouts normative models of ringfort morphology and social hierarchies.................. 68 The Cultural Biographies of ringforts .................................................................... 69 Seeds of Doubt: Noncircular enclosures................................................................... 71 An appraisal of the evidence................................................................................ 72 Chronology and Occupation ................................................................................. 73 The Cultural Biographies of NonCircular Enclosures.............................................. 73 Size.................................................................................................................... 74 Topography ........................................................................................................ 74 Material Culture and Status.................................................................................. 74 A new settlement type or not? ............................................................................. 75

EARLY MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT/CEMETERY SITES ..............................................78

Ringforts of low status social groups ........................................................................ 76 Ringforts of ordinary farmers ................................................................................... 77 Ringforts of nobility and prosperous farmers............................................................. 77 Early medieval royal sites ........................................................................................ 78 Introduction............................................................................................................ 78 Enclosure size and morphology ................................................................................ 79 The origins of the enclosed cemetery and settlement ................................................ 80 Chronology ............................................................................................................. 81 The Relationship between the Cemetery and Settlement ........................................... 81 Form and extent of settlement................................................................................. 83 The Extent of Burial Evidence .................................................................................. 83 Functions................................................................................................................ 83 Distribution............................................................................................................. 84 Definition................................................................................................................ 84 EMAP Survey and early medieval crannogs excavated 19702002 .............................. 85 Origins and Chronology ........................................................................................... 86 Distribution............................................................................................................. 87 Morphology and Construction .................................................................................. 87 Social and Economic Function .................................................................................. 87 Background ............................................................................................................ 89 EMAP survey and promontory forts excavated 19702002.......................................... 89 The social, economic and ideological role of early medieval promontory forts ............. 89 Background ............................................................................................................ 91 Distribution............................................................................................................. 91 EMAP survey and souterrains excavated 19702002 .................................................. 91 The chronology of souterrains.................................................................................. 92 Radiocarbon dating ............................................................................................. 92 Souterrains and building form: An indicator of possible date .................................. 93 Souterrains and Unenclosed Settlements .................................................................. 93 Souterrains and Ringforts ........................................................................................ 95 Souterrains and other enclosures ............................................................................. 96 Souterrains and cashels........................................................................................... 97 Souterrains and Promontory forts............................................................................. 97 Souterrains and Settlement/Cemetery Sites .............................................................. 97 Souterrains and Ecclesiastical Sites .......................................................................... 97 Associations with other sites .................................................................................... 98 Souterrains and the phasing of early medieval enclosed sites .................................... 99

EARLY MEDIEVAL CRANNOGS ........................................................................84

EARLY MEDIEVAL PROMONTORY FORTS ...........................................................89

EARLY MEDIEVAL SOUTERRAINS ....................................................................91

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EARLY MEDIEVAL UNENCLOSED SETTLEMENTS ................................................100Background .......................................................................................................... 100 Rural Unenclosed Settlement Souterrains with no associated buildings .................... 100 Rural Unenclosed Settlement Souterrains with associated Buildings ........................ 101 Rural Unenclosed Settlements unenclosed sites with early medieval buildings and objects ................................................................................................................. 102 Rural unenclosed settlements within field systems .................................................. 104 Background .......................................................................................................... 105 EMAP survey and excavations of early medieval shell middens, 19702002 ............... 106 Homes of the Poor or Specialised Craftworking Sites?.............................................. 107 Background .......................................................................................................... 107 EMAP survey and excavated caves, 19702002 ....................................................... 107 Background .......................................................................................................... 108 Discussion and areas for future research ................................................................ 109 Background .......................................................................................................... 110 EMAP and Viking raiding periods: the archaeology of the early Viking Longphort....... 112 EMAP and the archaeology of the Viking/HibernoNorse Towns................................ 113 Viking/HibernoNorse town defences ...................................................................... 113 Viking rural settlements and the archaeology of Dyflinaskiri..................................... 114 Viking Age rural miscellaneous finds 19702002 ...................................................... 115 Other potential Viking/HibernoNorse coastal settlements........................................ 116 Conclusion and Areas of Research.......................................................................... 116 Background .......................................................................................................... 118 EMAP and early medieval rural buildings................................................................. 119 Previous research.............................................................................................. 119 EMAP rural building survey ................................................................................ 119 Early medieval rural buildings form and character ............................................ 120 Early medieval rural buildings shape................................................................... 121 Viking/HibernoNorse Buildings .............................................................................. 122 Previous Surveys............................................................................................... 122 EMAP Survey and Viking/HibernoNorse Buildings ............................................... 122 The character of Viking Type Buildings ............................................................... 123 EMAP Viking Type building results ...................................................................... 123 Conclusions .......................................................................................................... 125

EARLY MEDIEVAL UNENCLOSED COASTAL OCCUPATION SITES (SHELL MIDDENS)...105

EARLY MEDIEVAL OCCUPATION AND USE OF CAVES ..........................................107 THE ENIGMA OF EARLY MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT AT THE END OF THE PERIOD? .......108 THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF VIKING SETTLEMENT, AD 8001200............................110

EARLY MEDIEVAL BUILDINGS ......................................................................118

CHAPTER 5. THE EARLY MEDIEVAL CHURCH ................................. 128INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................128Early Ecclesiastical Research .................................................................................. 128 Swans Criteria for identification of early ecclesiastical sites ..................................... 129 Issues with Swans Criteria .................................................................................... 129 Additional Ecclesiastical Criteria.............................................................................. 130 Excavated Ecclesiastical Sites 19702002 ................................................................ 131 Distribution of Excavated Ecclesiastical Sites 19702002 .......................................... 131 Significance of Excavated Ecclesiastical Sites 19702002.......................................... 132 Excavated Ecclesiastical Structures 19702002 ........................................................ 133 The Origins and Location of Ecclesiastical Sites ....................................................... 134 Previous Research and the Development of Ecclesiastical Sites ................................ 135

EMAP SURVEY AND ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY .......................................131

EARLY MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE EARLY IRISH CHURCH (59TH CENTURY A.D.) .....................................................................................................136

Enclosures ............................................................................................................ 136

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THE MONASTIC TOWN DEBATE ...................................................................138 THE EVIDENCE FOR PASTORAL CARE AND AGRICULTURAL ESTATES ...................140

Wooden Churches and Structures .......................................................................... 137 Agriculture, Craftworking and Pottery ..................................................................... 138 Conclusion............................................................................................................ 138 The debate a brief outline................................................................................... 138 How can archaeology contribute?........................................................................... 139 Background .......................................................................................................... 140 Mortared stone churches ....................................................................................... 140 Drystone churches in peninsular Kerry.................................................................... 140

EARLY MEDIEVAL CHURCH ARCHAEOLOGY FUTURE RESEARCH AREAS ................141 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................143 BACKGROUND ..........................................................................................143 BURYING THE DEAD IN EARLY MEDIEVAL IRELAND HOW WAS THE CORPSE TREATED? ...............................................................................................143 EARLY MEDIEVAL BURIAL AND THE USE OF ANNULAR BURIAL ENCLOSURES/RING TH DITCHES (57 CENTURY A.D.) ..................................................................145

CHAPTER 6. EARLY MEDIEVAL BURIALS AND CEMETERIES .......... 143

EARLY MEDIEVAL BURIALS AND STANDING STONES (57TH CENTURIES A.D.) .....149 EARLY MEDIEVAL MOUND BURIALS (57TH CENTURY A.D.) ...............................150

Introduction.......................................................................................................... 145 Early Medieval burial in Penannular Enclosures/RingDitches.................................... 145 Early Medieval Burial in Annular Enclosures/RingDitches......................................... 146 Early Medieval Burial in Ancient RingBarrows ......................................................... 147 The Origins and Chronology of the Iron Age/Early Medieval Annular Burial Enclosure 148 The abandonment of Iron Age/early medieval transition annular enclosures as we move on into the early medieval period ........................................................................... 149 The Evidence for Standing Stones and Iron Age/early medieval transition Burial ....... 149 Continuity of burial on into the early medieval period .............................................. 150 The Evidence for Transitional Mound Burials ........................................................... 150 Ad hoc burial and the concept of the burial mound ................................................ 151 Continuity of burial into the early medieval period................................................... 151

EARLY MEDIEVAL BURIAL AND PREHISTORIC MOUNDS AND CAIRNS (57TH CENTURY A.D.) .....................................................................................................152

ENCLOSURES AS FOCI OF EARLY BURIAL ........................................................153 EARLY MEDIEVAL UNENCLOSED CEMETERIES ..................................................154

The evidence for the reuse of prehistoric monuments by Iron Age/early medieval transition burials ................................................................................................... 152 Continuity into the early medieval period ................................................................ 153 The Evidence ........................................................................................................ 153 The evidence: unenclosed cemeteries .................................................................... 154 The evidence: unenclosed cemeteries located along gravel ridges/mounds ............... 155 Burial across the early medieval period................................................................... 155

UNDATED ENCLOSED CEMETERIES ...............................................................156 ISOLATED UNENCLOSED BURIALS ................................................................156 THE ANCESTRAL DEAD: INTERPRETING IRON AGE/EARLY MEDIEVAL TRANSITIONAL AND EARLY MEDIEVAL BURIAL PRACTICES .....................................................157

EARLY MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT/CEMETERIES THE ENIGMATIC ROLE OF BURIAL GROUNDS WITHIN SETTLEMENTS .................................................................159

Burials in the landscape: natural landmarks and ferta cemeteries: hilltops, gravel ridges and waterways ..................................................................................................... 157 Who was buried? The burial rite............................................................................. 157 Early medieval AngloSaxon burials and contacts .................................................... 158

Reintroduction settlement/cemeteries size and morphology ................................. 159

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EARLY MEDIEVAL ECCLESIASTICAL BURIAL GROUNDS THE EMERGING ROLE OF CHURCH GRAVEYARDS ...............................................................................162

Chronology ........................................................................................................... 160 The Relationship between the Cemetery and Settlement ......................................... 160 Early medieval settlement/cemeteries some emerging research questions ............. 161

VIKING/NORSE FURNISHED BURIAL PRACTICES .............................................165

Background .......................................................................................................... 162 The origins of Christian ecclesiastical cemeteries and their relationship with earlier ferta cemeteries............................................................................................................ 162 Early Medieval Ecclesiastical Cemeteries ................................................................. 164 EMAP survey and excavated early medieval ecclesiastical cemeteries ....................... 164 Significant Excavated Ecclesiastical Cemeteries ................................................... 164 Ecclesiastical Cemeteries and Burial Rites ........................................................... 165 Background .......................................................................................................... 165 Viking Burials in Viking/HibernoNorse Dyflin .......................................................... 166 Viking/Norse burials in Dyflinarskiri ........................................................................ 166 Viking/Norse burials in coastal and rural Ireland...................................................... 167 Viking/Norse Burial Rite ......................................................................................... 167 Viking Burial and Irish ecclesiastical Sites .............................................................. 167

THE LIVING AND DEAD IN EARLY MEDIEVAL IRELAND: SOME FUTURE RESEARCH AREAS .............................................................................................................168

The people of early medieval Ireland in life and death.......................................... 168

CHAPTER 7. EARLY MEDIEVAL AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMY ..... 170INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................170 SOURCES OF EVIDENCE ..............................................................................170 REINVENTING AGRICULTURE IN EARLY MEDIEVAL IRELAND ............................171Livestock and Dairying .......................................................................................... 171 Archaeology of crop cultivation .............................................................................. 172 Interpreting early medieval agriculture ................................................................... 172

EMAP AND THE EVIDENCE FOR THE PLOUGH IN EARLY MEDIEVAL IRELAND .........173 EMAP AND THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION OF RIDGE AND FURROWS ..........174 EARLY MEDIEVAL HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MILLS ......................................175 EARLY MEDIEVAL CORNDRYING KILNS .........................................................176

Previous Studies ................................................................................................... 174 EMAP survey and ridge and furrows ....................................................................... 174 Previous Studies ................................................................................................... 175 Background .......................................................................................................... 176 Function ............................................................................................................... 176 Kiln Types ............................................................................................................ 176 Early medieval kilns some chronological issues..................................................... 176 EMAP survey and early medieval kiln excavations.................................................... 177 Discussion of EMAP analyses of kilns ...................................................................... 179 Background .......................................................................................................... 180 Upland and Lowland Field Systems......................................................................... 181 EMAP survey and field systems and unenclosed settlements .................................... 181 EMAP survey, field systems/Enclosures and associated monuments ......................... 182 Isolated field systems/enclosures ........................................................................... 182 Previous Studies ................................................................................................... 183 EMAP survey and some potential early medieval burnt mounds................................ 184 Previous Excavations ............................................................................................. 184 EMAP survey and early medieval trackways ............................................................ 185 Research Areas ..................................................................................................... 185

EARLY MEDIEVAL FIELD SYSTEMS AND ENCLOSURES ........................................180

EARLY MEDIEVAL BURNT MOUNDS ..............................................................183 EARLY MEDIEVAL TRACKWAYS IN WETLANDS .................................................184

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EARLY MEDIEVAL COASTAL AND ESTUARINE FISHTRAPS ...................................186Background .......................................................................................................... 186 Early medieval fishtraps......................................................................................... 186 Early medieval fishtraps on Strangford Lough ......................................................... 187 Early medieval fishtraps on the Shannon estuary .................................................... 188

CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................188

CHAPTER 8. EARLY MEDIEVAL CRAFTS AND TECHNOLOGY A FOCUS ON IRONWORKING............................................................. 190INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................190 PREVIOUS STUDIES OF EARLY MEDIEVAL IRON WORKING .................................190

EMAP AND EXCAVATED EARLY MEDIEVAL IRONWORKING EVIDENCE ..................191

Background .......................................................................................................... 190 The Technological Process..................................................................................... 191 Sourcing and mining Iron Ore ............................................................................ 191 Charcoal Production .......................................................................................... 191 Smelting........................................................................................................... 191 Smithing........................................................................................................... 191 Excavated Sites..................................................................................................... 191 Excavated charcoal producing pits.......................................................................... 192 The EMAP Survey and Smelting and Smithing ......................................................... 193 Evidence for Smelting and Smithing ....................................................................... 193 Distribution of Excavated Sites............................................................................... 194 The context of early medieval ironworking.............................................................. 195 The economic and political context of early medieval ironworking ............................ 196 Isolated ironworking sites and modest settlements: The ironworking of the lower classes?................................................................................................................ 196 Iron Production and the Wellto do Farmer ............................................................. 197 Specialised iron working: ecclesiastical sites, royal sites and Viking towns ................ 198 The status of the blacksmith in early Irish society ................................................... 199

CHAPTER 9. EARLY MEDIEVAL TRADE AND EXCHANGE A FOCUS ON POTTERY ......................................................................................... 200INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................200 EMAP AND EXCAVATED POTTERY TYPES 19702002 ....................................200 NATIVE SOUTERRAIN WARE .......................................................................201Background .......................................................................................................... 201 Previous Surveys and EMAP surveys....................................................................... 201 Distribution........................................................................................................... 202 Quantities............................................................................................................. 204 EMAP Results: Imported Ceramics (A.D. 400700) from excavated sites 19702002 as reported in the excavations bulletin........................................................................ 204 Distribution........................................................................................................... 205 High Status Settlements and Imported Wares......................................................... 205 Islands and Imported Ceramics.............................................................................. 206 Other Wares and Vessels....................................................................................... 206

EARLY MEDIEVAL IMPORTED POTTERY C. 400700 A.D. ................................203

CHAPTER 10. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE CHALLENGES.............. 207BACKGROUND ..........................................................................................207 SETTLEMENT AND LANDSCAPE .....................................................................207 CHURCH ..................................................................................................208 BURIAL ...................................................................................................209 AGRICULTURE ..........................................................................................209 CRAFTS AND TRADE & EXCHANGE ................................................................210vii


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EMAP STAGE 2: CHALLENGES FOR FUTURE DATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH ........210

APPENDIX 1: EXCAVATED SITES AND ASSOCIATED LICENSES ..... 212EXCAVATED SITES AND ASSOCIATED LICENSES ..............................................212

APPENDIX 2: EARLY MEDIEVAL RINGFORTS, UNENCLOSED SETTLEMENTS AND ECCLESIASTICAL SITES .................................. 299RINGFORT LIST ........................................................................................299 UNENCLOSED HABITATION SITES ................................................................305 EARLY MEDIEVAL ECCLESIASTICAL SITES .....................................................307

APPENDIX 3: GAZETEER OF SETTLEMENT/CEMETERY SITES ........ 318 APPENDIX 4: EXCAVATED EARLY MEDIEVAL BUILDINGS ............. 326UNIDENTIFIED BUILDING TYPE...................................................................326 BUILDINGS (POST AND WATTLE) ................................................................329 BUILDINGS (SILLBEAM)...........................................................................336 BUILDINGS (SODWALLED) .......................................................................336 BUILDINGS (STONE) .................................................................................337 BUILDINGS (VIKING POST AND WATTLE) .....................................................339 BUILDING TYPE 1 (VIKING POST AND WATTLE) ............................................342 BUILDING TYPE 2 (VIKING POST AND WATTLE) ............................................344 BUILDING TYPE 3 (VIKING POST AND WATTLE) ............................................345 BUILDING TYPE 4 (VIKING SUNKEN FLOORED) .............................................345 BUILDING TYPE 5 (VIKING POST AND WATTLE) ............................................346 BUILDING TYPE 6 (VIKING SILLBEAM).......................................................347 BUILDING TYPE 7 (VIKING STONE) .............................................................347 STRUCTURE .............................................................................................347

APPENDIX 5: CEMETERY AND BURIAL SITES ................................ 351CEMETERY/BURIAL SITE (57TH CENTURY A.D.)............................................351 CEMETERY OR BURIAL SITE (EARLY MEDIEVAL AND UNDATED) ........................353 ECCLESIASTICAL CEMETERY........................................................................355

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................... 361 List of TablesTABLE 1: EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY 19702002............................................................. 24 TABLE 2: EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATED SITES PER COUNTY 19702002................................................... 26 TABLE 3: EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY PER COUNTY 19702002 ........................................ 27 TABLE 4: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY 19702002 IN COUNTIES IN THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND AND NORTHERN IRELAND.............................................................................................. 30 TABLE 5: EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY PER ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION 19702002 ................................ 31 TABLE 6: EXCAVATION LICENSES AND SITES EXCAVATED PER UNIVERSITY UNIT 19702002 ..................... 33 TABLE 7: EXCAVATION LICENSES AND SITES EXCAVATED PER GOVERNMENT BODY 19702002 ................. 33 TABLE 8: EXCAVATION LICENSES AND SITES EXCAVATED PER COMMERCIAL COMPANY 19702002............ 34 TABLE 9: ISSUED EXCAVATION LICENSE TYPES 19702002 ...................................................................... 36 TABLE 10: EXCAVATION TYPES ANNUALLY 19702002............................................................................. 37 TABLE 11: EXCAVATION TYPES PER COUNTY 19702002 ......................................................................... 40 TABLE 12: EARLY MEDIEVAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EMAP SITES 19702002 ................................................. 43 TABLE 13: EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY ON SITES OF DIFFERENT SIGNIFICANCE ............................................. 44 TABLE 14: EARLY MEDIEVAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EXCAVATED SITES ............................................................. 47 TABLE 15: EXCAVATIONS ALONG SCHEMES AND PROJECTS 19702002..................................................... 50

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TABLE 16: SIGNIFICANCE OF SITES EXCAVATED ALONG SCHEMES AND PROJECTS........................................ 51 TABLE 17: EXCAVATION TYPES ALONG SCHEMES AND PROJECTS ................................................................ 52 TABLE 18: EMAP EXCAVATED SITE CATEGORIES ...................................................................................... 55 TABLE 19: EXCAVATION NEAR SITE CATEGORIES 19702002 ................................................................... 57 TABLE 20: EXCAVATED RURAL SETTLEMENTS 19702002 ........................................................................ 60 TABLE 21: EXCAVATED CASHELS 19702002 ........................................................................................... 61 TABLE 22: EXCAVATED RINGFORTS PER COUNTY 19702002................................................................... 64 TABLE 23: ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EXCAVATED RINGFORTS ........................................... 65 TABLE 25: EXCAVATED CRANNOGS 19702002........................................................................................ 86 TABLE 26 EXCAVATED SOUTERRAIN SITES AND COUNTIES 19702002 ..................................................... 92 TABLE 27: EXCAVATED UNENCLOSED SOUTERRAINS 19702002 .............................................................. 95 TABLE 28: EXCAVATED RINGFORTS CONTAINING SOUTERRAINS 19702002 ............................................. 95 TABLE 29: OTHER EXCAVATED ENCLOSURES CONTAINING SOUTERRAINS 19702002................................. 96 TABLE 30: EXCAVATED CASHELS CONTAINING SOUTERRAINS 19702002 ................................................. 97 TABLE 32: EXCAVATED SETTLEMENT/CEMETERY SITES CONTAINING SOUTERRAINS .................................... 97 TABLE 33: EXCAVATED ECCLESIASTICAL SITES CONTAINING SOUTERRAINS 19702002 ............................ 98 TABLE 34: EXCAVATED SOUTERRAINS (19702002) AND SITE CATEGORIES ............................................. 98 TABLE 35: EXCAVATED VIKING SITES 19702002.................................................................................. 111 TABLE 36: EXCAVATED VIKING TOWN DEFENCES 19702002................................................................. 113 TABLE 37: EXCAVATED RURAL BUILDINGS 19702002 ........................................................................... 120 TABLE 38: EXCAVATED VIKING BUILDINGS 19702002 .......................................................................... 125 TABLE 39: EXCAVATED ECCLESIASTICAL SITES 19702002 .................................................................... 131 TABLE 40: DISTRIBUTION OF EXCAVATED ECCLESIASTICAL SITES 19702002 ........................................ 131 TABLE 41: SIGNIFICANCE OF EXCAVATED EARLY MEDIEVAL ECCLESIASTICAL SITES .................................. 132 TABLE 42: EXCAVATED ECCLESIASTICAL STRUCTURES 19702002.......................................................... 133 TABLE 43: EXCAVATED RIDGE AND FURROW 19702002 ....................................................................... 174 TABLE 44: EXCAVATED CORNDRYING KILN TYPES 19702002............................................................... 177 TABLE 45: EXCAVATED POSSIBLE EARLY MEDIEVAL CORNDRYING KILNS 19702002 ............................. 178 TABLE 46: MONUMENTS WITH ASSOCIATED FIELD DIVISIONS/ENCLOSURES ............................................. 182 TABLE 47: EXCAVATED IRONWORKING EVIDENCE PER COUNTY 19702002............................................ 194 TABLE 48: EXCAVATED IRONWORKING EVIDENCE AND SITE CATEGORIES 19702002 ............................. 195 TABLE 48: LICENSES AND SITES WITH EARLY MEDIEVAL POTTERY WARE 19702002............................. 200 TABLE 49: QUANTITY OF SITES PER COUNTY CONTAINING IDENTIFIED SOUTERRAIN WARE 19702002.. 202 TABLE 50: QUANTITY OF SITES CONTAINING IMPORTED (A.D. 400700) POTTERY WARES ..................... 204

List of FiguresFIGURE 1: EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY 19702002 ........................................................... 25 FIGURE 2: EARLY MEDIEVAL EXCAVATED SITES PER COUNTY 19702002................................................. 26 FIGURE 3: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY 19702002 IN COUNTIES IN THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND AND NORTHERN IRELAND.............................................................................................. 30 FIGURE 4: EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY PER ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION 19702002 .............................. 32 FIGURE 5: ISSUED EXCAVATION LICENSE TYPES 19702002 .................................................................... 36 FIGURE 6: EXCAVATION TYPES ANNUALLY 19702002 ............................................................................. 38 FIGURE 7: EXCAVATION TYPE PERCENTAGES ANNUALLY 19702002......................................................... 39 FIGURE 8: EXCAVATION TYPES PER COUNTY 19702002 ......................................................................... 41 FIGURE 9: EXCAVATION TYPE PERCENTAGES PER COUNTY 19702002 ..................................................... 42 FIGURE 10: EARLY MEDIEVAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EMAP SITES 19702002................................................ 43 FIGURE 11: EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY ON SITES OF DIFFERENT SIGNIFICANCE ........................................... 45 FIGURE 12: PERCENTAGES OF EXCAVATIONS ANNUALLY ON SITES OF DIFFERENT SIGNIFICANCE ................ 46 FIGURE 13: EARLY MEDIEVAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EXCAVATED SITES PER COUNTY ....................................... 48 FIGURE 14: SIGNIFICANCE PERCENTAGES OF EXCAVATED SITES PER COUNTY ............................................ 49 FIGURE 15: EXCAVATIONS ALONG SCHEMES AND PROJECTS 19702002 ................................................... 50 FIGURE 16: SIGNIFICANCE OF SITES EXCAVATED ALONG SCHEMES AND PROJECTS ...................................... 51 FIGURE 17: EXCAVATION TYPES ALONG SCHEMES AND PROJECTS .............................................................. 53 FIGURE 18: EMAP EXCAVATED SITE CATEGORIES..................................................................................... 56

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Contents

FIGURE 19: EXCAVATIONS NEAR SITE CATEGORIES 19702002................................................................ 57 FIGURE 20: EXCAVATED RURAL SETTLEMENT TYPES .................................................................................. 60 FIGURE 21: EXCAVATED RINGFORTS PER COUNTY 19702002 ................................................................. 64 FIGURE 22: EXCAVATED SOUTERRAIN SITES AND COUNTIES 19702002 .................................................. 92 FIGURE 23: EXCAVATED SOUTERRAIN(S) AND EMAP SITE CATEGORIES 19702002................................. 99 FIGURE 24: EXCAVATED VIKING SITES 19702002 ................................................................................ 111 FIGURE 25: EXCAVATED VIKING TOWN DEFENCES 19702002............................................................... 114 FIGURE 27: EXCAVATED VIKING TOWN BUILDINGS 19702002.............................................................. 125 FIGURE 28: EXCAVATED EARLY MEDIEVAL ECCLESIASTICAL SITES PER COUNTY 19702002 ................... 131 FIGURE 29: SIGNIFICANCE OF EXCAVATED EARLY MEDIEVAL ECCLESIASTICAL SITES ................................ 133 FIGURE 30: EXCAVATED ECCLESIASTICAL STRUCTURES 19702002........................................................ 134 FIGURE 31: CORNDRYING KILN TYPES 19702002 ............................................................................... 178 FIGURE 32: EXCAVATED POSSIBLE EARLY MEDIEVAL CORNDRYING KILNS 19702002 ........................... 179 FIGURE 33: EXCAVATED IRONWORKING EVIDENCE PER COUNTY 19702002 .......................................... 195 FIGURE 34: EXCAVATED IRONWORKING AND SITE CATEGORIES 19702002 ........................................... 196 FIGURE 35: LICENSES AND SITES WITH EARLY MEDIEVAL POTTERY WARE 19702002 ........................... 201 FIGURE 36: QUANTITY OF SITES PER COUNTY CONTAINING IDENTIFIED SOUTERRAIN WARE 19702002 203 FIGURE 36: QUANTITY OF SITES CONTAINING IMPORTED (A.D. 400700) POTTERY WARES. .................. 205

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Acknowledgements

AcknowledgementsThe Early Medieval Archaeology Project (EMAP) has received the welcome support of the archaeologists within UCD School of Archaeology from members of the EMAP international expert panel and colleagues and friends from across the profession. Without this help, advice and encouragement, this initial stage of the project could not have been completed. We would like to acknowledge the support and advice of Robert Sands, Conor McDermott, John Neill, Helen Lewis and Stephen Davis, and the members of the EMAP group Prof Martin Carver (University of York), Dr. Nancy Edwards (University of Wales at Bangor), Dr. Stephen Driscoll (University of Glasgow), Dr David Griffiths (University of Oxford), Dr Finbar McCormick (Queens University Belfast), Dr Mick Monk (UCC), Ronan Swan (NRA), Margaret Gowen (Gowen & Co), Donald Murphy (ACS), Eamonn P Kelly (National Museum of Ireland), John Bradley (NUI Maynooth), Chris Corlett (National Monuments Service), Dr, Niall Brady (The Discovery Programme), Dr Brian Lacey (The Discovery Programme), Dr Elizabeth OBrien (independent scholar), Dr Stephen Mandal (CRDS), Dr. Finola OCarroll (CRDS) and Dr Toms Carragin (UCC). We would like to particularly thank Conor McDermott and Dr. Robert Sands for support and suggestions with all issues concerning the construction of the initial database and the remedying of countless issues about the database through the whole project and all matters relating to Irish archaeology in general. Beyond these people, we would like to thank quite a number of other archaeologists who gave us access to their unpublished reports in the writing of the EMAP report. In this regard, we would particularly like to thank the ACS archaeological researchers Jonathan Kinsella, Niall Kenny and Amy McQuillan as well as Neil Carlin (currently in School of Archaeology, UCD). Their unpublished reports and great advice through the whole project were massively helpful. We would also like to thank a range of other people including Kim Rice, Emmett OKeeffe, Patrizia La Piscopia, Tiernan McGarry (UCD), Matt Seaver (CRDS), Stephen Harrison (TCD) and Ian Doyle for their insights into various issues. The members of UCD School of Archaeologys Early Medieval and Viking Age Research Group also offered many inspiring and useful comments, including Maureen Doyle, Sharon Greene, Triona Nicholl, Rebecca Boyd, Brian Dolan, John Nicholl and Louise Nugent. Several people kindly read the report in draft form and gave detailed comments and advice, including Jonathan Kinsella, Betty OBrien and Toms Carragin. We would like to thank the assistance of the administrative staff of the School of Archaeology, UCD and in particular Angela McAteer. Finally, we would like to acknowledge UCD Research for their provision of a research grant from the UCD Seed Funding 2007 scheme and to thank the members of the Archaeological Standing Committee of the Heritage Council for their generous funding of EMAP from the Archaeological Research Grants 2007 scheme. We hope that this EMAP report makes a contribution to our understanding of early medieval Ireland and that it now enables research across all archaeological sectors museums, state services, the universities and in the professional archaeological sector.

Aidan OSullivan Lorcan Harney UCD School of Archaeology, 28th November 2007.

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Preface to Reedited EMAP Report

Preface to reedited EMAP reportThis is a reedited version of the original EMAP report OSullivan, A. and Harney, L. 2007 Early Medieval Archaeology Project: Investigating the character of early medieval archaeological excavations, 19702002 previously submitted in November 2007 to the Heritage Council and then subsequently circulated to the members of the EMAP International Expert Panel. We gratefully acknowledge the various supportive comments and encouraging advice from many Irish and UK archaeologists since the original report was completed. We have now taken the opportunity to reedit the EMAP report and to correct various spelling and grammatical errors in the original text (some of them winceinducing, e.g. Vikin?). More importantly, we have substantially rewritten Chapter 6, which describes and analyses the fascinating and increasingly complex evidence from early medieval burials and cemeteries and we gratefully acknowledge here the generous and detailed comments provided by Dr. Elizabeth OBrien on the original chapter. We have also taken this opportunity to introduce a new and hopefully useful section in that chapter describing the treatment of the corpse in early medieval burial ceremonies and rites (i.e. the use of kerbstones and lintels, earmuffs, occasional finds, etc). Obviously, all remaining mistakes and errors in this report are our own. We intend this EMAP report and all the projects research to be useful to all interested in early medieval Ireland and consequently it is now available as a PDF to download, along with other news from the EMAP research, on the projects website. Hopefully, the next stage of EMAPs research can build on this initial review and help support research and publication on this fascinating period in Irelands past.

Aidan OSullivan Lorcan Harney UCD School of Archaeology and somewhere in Australia January 31st 2008.

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Executive Summary

Executive Summary! The Early Medieval Archaeology Project (EMAP) was established in April 2007 with the support of a Heritage Council Archaeological Research Grant (2007) and UCD Seed Funding support (2007). EMAPs stage 1 database analysis has revealed that 1,397 early medieval sites were excavated (using 1,968 licenses) between 19702002. EMAP has shown that there has been immense research capacity building in the commercial sector, although the resources devoted to research and interpretation of this data in the Universities, Museum and State sectors have not seen a similar expansion. However, despite a general perception of a crisis of nonpublication in Irish archaeology, EMAP has shown that the problem may not be quite of the scale hitherto believed. EMAP suggests that of the 1,397 early sites excavated 19702002 only 74 would be considered to be Highly Significant 202 Significant 325 General Significant, 190 Uncertain while 606 site excavations were of No Archaeological Significance. Irish archaeology, through wellfunded collaborative research programmes such as EMAP (and other projects for other periods) could easily cope with the publication and dissemination of this new archaeological evidence. EMAP has demonstrated that a wide range of new early medieval settlement types have been identified, with significant insights available into the wider settlement landscape. Of the EMAP site categories investigated, a total of 224 sites were settlement enclosures 266 were settlement landscapes 65 were unenclosed and 7 were settlement/cemeteries (the Appendix on settlement/cemeteries also lists sites investigated since 2002). A total of 86 sites were in Viking/HibernoNorse towns. EMAP has demonstrated that an increasing range of evidence has been uncovered for the role of the church in the Irish landscape. Of EMAPs site categories, a total of 218 sites excavated were Church/Ecclesiastical. This can be used to trace the function of ecclesiastical sites and how they related to settlement/cemetery sites, unenclosed cemeteries, ecclesiastical cemeteries and to settlement, travel and the economy. EMAP has shown that there is significant diversity and variety in burial rites and contexts in early medieval Ireland, AD 4001200. Of EMAPs site categories, 49 were Cemetery/Burial 7 were Settlement/Cemetery and 218 were Church/Ecclesiastical. EMAP has revealed that there has been a significant amount of discoveries of archaeological evidence for agriculture in early medieval Ireland. Of EMAPs site categories, a total of 43 were Agricultural (mills, kilns, fields) while much of the other site categories had evidence for agricultural activities. This EMAP report concludes with a preliminary outline of future research challenges and opportunities.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1. Introduction

IntroductionThe Early Medieval Archaeology Project (EMAP) was established in UCD School of Archaeology through Heritage Council funding from the Archaeological Research Grants Scheme 2007 and through support from UCD Seed Funding 2006. The Early Medieval Archaeology Project (EMAP) aims to investigate one of the most significant periods of social, ideological, environmental and economic change in Ireland (c.A.D. 4001200), when the landscape of Ireland went through a series of extraordinary changes. This included population growth and social and demographic developments that saw the expansion and intensification of settlements and dwellings radical innovations in agricultural practices (i.e. new plough technology and the earliest horizontal water mill technology in medieval Europe) in crop production and in livestock management (i.e. introduction of dairying). Early medieval society changed radically too, as developments in political power and territorial organisation led to transitions from tribalbased chiefdoms and local kinbased social polities to regional dynastic lordships. A socioeconomic system that was based on reciprocity and clientship was gradually transformed into one that was based on feudal labour services to a lord. Emerging urban markets (both monastic and HibernoNorse) and expanding networks of redistribution brought an increase in international trade and exchange with Britain, Scandinavia, western Europe and beyond. In Ireland, the slow conversion from paganism to Christianity transformed peoples religious beliefs, ideologies of personhood and burial practices and saw significant developments in the landscape (e.g. in cemetery organisation and the growth of monastic centres and estates).

The Early Medieval Archaeology Project (EMAP)In recent years, an extraordinary range of entirely new, and still largely untapped, archaeological evidence has been uncovered for all these changes, thus presenting an unparalleled opportunity to create new understandings of the dynamics of historical change as experienced by the early medieval peoples of Ireland, within their wider European context. Entirely new types of sites have emerged that do not fit with traditional explanatory models (e.g. settlement/burial complexes nonringfort type enclosures industrial ironworking sites unenclosed dwellings complexes of fieldsystems and enigmaticallyisolated corndrying kilns and mills). The excavation of both rural and urban classic early medieval settlements and burial grounds has produced vast amounts of objects, plant and animal remains and human skeletons. Unfortunately, the Irish professional archaeological community understandably focused mostly on the imperatives of rescue and developmentlead excavations has been largely unable to develop research opportunities offered by these new sites and landscapes. Most recent Irish archaeological policy statements (by the UCD Foresight group the Royal Irish Academy vision for Irish archaeology seminar and the Heritage Councils research frameworks) recognise that the failure to transform data into knowledge is the singlemost problematic issue in modern Irish archaeology, almost unique in European terms. What Irish archaeology needs are good examples of collaborative research between the academy and the commercial archaeological sector, and more importantly, works of academic synthesis and publication that begin to interpret this new data. In the early medieval period, this is particularly so as the most recent works of synthesis are either out of date or have not sufficiently considered the newly discovered material (e.g. Edwards 1990, 2005 Laing 2006).

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Aims and objectives of EMAP 1The Heritage Council Archaeological Research Grants 2007 and UCD Seed Funding Scheme 2007 provided generous funding to establish a pilot project to review the potential of the early medieval archaeological material. The report of this project is provided here. The pilot phase of the EMAP project involved the employment of a researcher under the supervision of Aidan OSullivan between 1st April9th November 2007. The main aim of EMAP Stage 1 was to construct and compile an initial database that could usefully and rapidly quantify and synthesise the number, type, form, character, significance and results of excavations of early medieval (c. A.D. 4001200) sites, structures and artefacts between 19702002. The principal resource for the compilation of this database was to be the online published excavation bulletin reports (19702002) located at excavations.ie and a review of selected relevant published monographs and articles. The objective of EMAP Stage 1 was to write a detailed report, based on the characterisation and analyses of the provisional initial results, to discuss the implications, identify important research areas and devise a future research strategy for EMAP.

Scope of EMAP 1The scope of EMAP 1 was wideranging as it involved reviewing all forms of excavated early medieval settlement, ecclesiastical, industrial, agricultural and burial evidence in both rural and urban contexts excavated from 1970 through to 2002. The accession to the EU, the redevelopment of urban centres, the construction of an extensive infrastructural network of road and pipeline schemes and the urban sprawl of Irish towns and cities across the Irish landscape has had a profound effect on the legislative framework protecting the Irish landscape, has transformed the face of Irish archaeology and had led to the wellknown expansion of excavations annually. However, as is wellknown, infrastructural and residential developments, particularly since the latter phases of the Celtic Tiger years, have placed a serious strain on Irish archaeological organizations with the effect that most resources have been devoted singly towards field recording rather than research. This imbalance between excavated information and the resources available to access this data has raised a number of critical issues which are essential to understanding both a) the nature and practice of early medieval archaeological research and discovery today and b) the character of early medieval Ireland in the past. This EMAP report will initially examine a number of key issues concerning the character and practice of early medieval archaeological excavations from 19702002. They comprise: ! What is the approximate number of annual excavations between 19702002 that concern early medievalrelated material? ! What is the distribution of these excavations and excavated sites across the country? ! Who has been responsible for these excavations (e.g. University units, government and commercial sectors) and how has patterns changed over time? ! What is the balance of types of excavation between 19702002 carried out across the country (e.g. testing, rescue, research) and how has the character of these changed over time? ! How significant is the early medieval archaeological evidence recovered from these excavation types and how have patterns changed over time? ! Why have excavations been undertaken and what has been the impact of different infrastructural and development schemes and projects on the early medieval archaeological resource? The EMAP report will then analyse and discuss the character of the archaeological evidence recovered from excavations from 19702002, although use will also be made of available published or emerging archaeological evidence discovered prior to (e.g. 19301970) or after these dates (20022007). It is hoped that this information can be used by scholars to further

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understand and examine early medieval landscape and society in the past. It will also seek to identify potential research areas in early medieval archaeology. The report will review key themes such as: ! Early medieval Rural Settlement (Enclosed and Unenclosed Sites A.D. 4001170) ! Viking/HibernoNorse Settlement ! Early Medieval Buildings ! Early Medieval Ecclesiastical Sites ! Early Medieval Burial ! Early Medieval Agriculture and Landscape ! Early Medieval Ironworking ! Early Medieval Pottery Production

Structure of EMAP 1 ReportThe Sources used in this project are first mentioned and appraised to outline the range of resources consulted and the problems and quality of the data. An overview of Irish planning legislation and the transforming character of early medieval archaeological excavations from 19302002 is then outlined to highlight the factors that have affected the form and character of the Irish excavations over time. This review served to highlight the complexity of the archaeological evidence when a database had to be designed. An outline of the decisionmaking criteria employed when designing the database structure is then given to give greater clarity about how the data was collected. Issues and problems are also identified. The character and scope of early medieval excavations 19702002 is then outlined in Chapter 2. The character of the archaeological evidence recovered from excavations is then appraised and discussed based on the identified themes above. Excavated material both prior to 1970 and after 2002 are also discussed. Potential research areas concerning each theme are also outlined. The conclusions of EMAP 1 are then outlined. Finally, a number of appendices are provided.

Sources of information for EMAP1EMAPs longterm principal objective is to establish an online database containing excavated early medieval evidence that can be used by scholars and the interested public alike. Stray finds, metaldetecting discoveries, survey work and evidence from antiquarian investigations were excluded from this project and are beyond the immediate focus of the EMAP project. Ultimately it is intended that every scientifically undertaken excavation since 1930 that been accorded an excavation license or emergency license across Ireland will be examined by EMAP. Excavations Bulletin The objectives of EMAP Stage 1 were a rapid quantification and synthesis of excavated early medieval monuments, structures and artefacts across the Island. The Excavations Bulletin www.excavations.ie was singled out as the important resource to achieve this immediate aim. Excavations.ie provides succinct reports about every single excavation undertaken across the island from 19702002. EMAP Stage 1 decided to focus on excavated material from 19702002, as this was the only complete material available on the online bulletin when data was being collected in mid2007. Archaeological excavations from the period 19301970 were also excluded for this immediate EMAP Stage 1 task not because they are unimportant or relatively few in number (i.e. less than 50), but because they are relatively well published in such journals as PRIA, JRSAI, the

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Ulster Journal of Archaeology and other regiona/local publications (e.g. the Hencken excavations at Lagore, Balllinderry crannog No. 1, Ballinderry crannog No. 2 Rordins excavations at Garranes, Ballycatteen etc OKellys excavations at Church Island, etc). It is envisaged that an EMAP stage 2 will place these earlier early medieval excavations on the EMAP database. Excavation bulletin reports from excavations from 20032007 are not currently available for review (although 2003 and 2004 have been published in hard copy). It was felt that the task of collating data from the published (as opposed to online) Excavations 2003 and 2004 editions was beyond the task of the first stage of EMAP. The archives of the relevant development (e.g. the NRA), governmental, academic and Museum authorities were also not examined by EMAP and will form part of a later phase of the EMAP project (an EMAP stage 2, with funding to be sought from various sources). Issues with the Excavations Bulletin It is well known that the excavations bulletin is an extremely valuable database in itself for early medieval archaeology. The excavations bulletin reports are however also provisional by nature often written only some months after excavations and also often represent reports which are submitted when excavation is still ongoing. It is likely then in some cases that interpretations of the sites and other data may have changed subsequently. As these reports are interim by nature, radiocarbon determinations are often pending for undated archaeology such as ironworking furnaces or kilns and specialist reports may not have been received. This was a major issue for the EMAP database. It was decided to be cautious and include those undated sites that were described as uncertain in terms of their significance and dating within the EMAP database. The quality of the information itself within the bulletin reports also varies quite extraordinarily due to the fact that the findings in many of the reports are provisional and also because different archaeologists are responsible for writing them. In some cases, detailed information can be supplied about the number, type and character of monuments and structures like buildings for example while in other instances no such data is forthcoming. There can also be lack of consistency in including information such as SMR numbers or excavation license numbers within the reports. The other issue with the excavations bulletin is that there is no standardization of terminology employed in the site type or site name descriptions. It is then difficult to search for site types because they can be described in multiple ways such as ecclesiastical, ecclesiastical enclosure, ecclesiastical site and ecclesiastical remains etc. Similarly, there is no standardisation in terms of townland or place names. The excavations bulletin is then principally a database of excavation reports written by numerous different archaeologists rather than one of discrete entities of information compiled and organized through a central authority. It is however the most significant archaeological resource in Ireland whose shortcomings are only described here to highlight the issues with the dataset that the EMAP Stage 1 project was working with. The best is the enemy of the good and it is considered here that Excavations bulletins, despite their limitations, are the source that can be most rapidly assessed to consider the character of excavated early medieval archaeological evidence in Ireland. Undoubtedly future EMAP research can make better use of unpublished excavations reports, journal articles and monographs to build on this preliminary picture. Other Published Information Published material concerning excavations of early medieval evidence from 19702002 was another important resource consulted for compiling the database. The Excavations Bulletin was incorporated into the Irish Journal of Archaeology between the years 19771984. Excavations bulletin reports for those years in particular often only contained the name of the

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published article associated with the excavation. The associated published article was tracked down in these instances to discover information about the excavations at these sites.

Medieval Archaeology also contains concise yearly synopses written by various authors about important excavations undertaken in Ireland over several years. This source was also consulted when no information could be established from the excavation bulletin report about an excavated early medieval site.Particular journals that were consulted when compiling the database included the Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Journal of Irish Archaeology, Medieval Archaeology, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy and Journal Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. Published monographs were also a valuable source of information particularly for the significant archaeological excavations that have been conducted in Cork. Of particular importance were works by Rose Cleary and Maurice Hurley for urban excavations in Cork (1997 & 2003), by Hurley, Scully and McCutcheon (1997) for urban excavations in Waterford and Heather Kings (1994 & 1998) edited Clonmacnoise Studies monographs. A wide range of other sources was consulted such as, for example, Wallaces (1992) publication on Viking Buildings in Dublin when dealing with specific monuments or structures for the EMAP database. The Unpublished Archaeological Excavations Survey (Doyle et. al 2002) commissioned for the Heritage Council is undoubtedly the most comprehensive review of the unpublished and published archaeological reports from 19301997 in the Republic of Ireland. It provided additional important information about the changing character of excavations in this period while its appendixes of unpublished sites were invaluable as a source of information for locating previously unknown sites and identifying excavation license numbers. Other useful Sources The Internet proved to be a valuable resource for this project. It was often necessary to consult online maps to establish the location of townlands and excavated sites along urban streets. Both online and published national maps provided valuable information in tracking down excavations along road schemes. The NRA (NRA.ie) and Bord Gis websites were particularly valuable in this regard. Information about archaeological projects was also often made available on web pages such as the NRAs Archaeology Leaflets and Poster Series. Commercial archaeological company websites like that, for example, hosted by Margaret Gowen & Co. Ltd. also proved very useful as they contained information about excavations and projects conducted by companies. EMAP also decided that historical research of ecclesiastical sites was also required to identify the early medieval origins of these sites. It was hard to sometimes establish which ecclesiastical sites could have an early medieval origin as the excavation bulletin often described these sites under multiple ecclesiastical terms including ecclesiastical site, ecclesiastical enclosure church and graveyard, burialground and cemetery etc. with no information given or provided about their dates or origin. A number of sources particularly Gwynn & Hadcocks (1970) comprehensive study of Irish Religious Houses as well as local historical books and articles, local web pages and County Library web sites were consulted in order to try to establish the antiquity of these ecclesiastical sites. The information allowed the database to collect information about ecclesiastical sites with known early medieval historical origins medieval ecclesiastical sites whose early medieval origins could not be established and undated ecclesiastical sites.

The Legacy of Early Medieval ExcavationIt is evident that before one can begin to design a preliminary database that could be used to rapidly quantify the quantity and character of excavated early medieval archaeology 1970 2002, that consideration must first be given to the legacy and practice of early medieval excavations and the type of questions and issues that one envisages asking the database. 5



The excavated archaeological data that we deal with today is primarily a legacy of how, why and where archaeological excavations have been undertaken since the early part of the twentieth century. To understand this, we must first succinctly appraise the historiography of archaeological legislative protection and early medieval excavation. Legislation and Protected Sites and Monuments Archaeological monuments have been accorded protection by the state on the island of Ireland through a whole string of enactments dating back to the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland in 1869. It was not till the early 20th century that records or Schedules, in the case of Northern Ireland, began to be compiled of archaeological monuments in private ownership across the island. The National Monuments Act 1930 was the first enactment to truly make provision for the protection of archaeological monuments and objects in Saorstt Eireann. Not only did it create a forum for archaeological excavation but it also established the Archaeological Survey of Ireland, which set up the Sites and Monuments Record in the 1980s. A similar SMR record exists in Northern Ireland. Archaeologists in both jurisdictions have continuously updated these two inventories since then. The great majority of protected SMR sites in both jurisdictions encompass traditional easily identifiable monuments like ringforts, cashels and ecclesiastical sites that have been the focus of antiquarian and archaeological surveyors since the early twentieth century. Since then both lists have grown incrementally over time as new monument classes have been discovered and more importantly recorded over the history of the archaeological surveys See http://www.archaeology.ie/ArchaeologicalSurveyofIreland/#d.en.87. To date, the Sites and Monuments Record has established a list of over approximately 120,000 monuments while a further 800 major archaeological sites are in state care in the Republic. Approximately a further 15,000 sites are recorded in the Northern Ireland SMR. In total then, at least 135,000 monuments are listed in the records of archaeological authorities in Ireland. As discussed below, some of these protected monuments were the focus of salvage excavations in the 1970s and 1980s due to farm improvement schemes or residential developments. In more recent years, both the National Monuments Amendment Act 1994 in the Republic as well other enacted legislation such as the EU Valletta Convention 1992 have introduced new forms of archaeological investigation such as environmental impact statements (EIS), testing and monitoring which have provided further protection of archaeological landscapes and monuments across the island. The Urban Archaeological Survey of Ireland has also delineated areas of archaeological potential in the historic cores of Irish towns and cities further protecting the archaeological resource in these areas. It is evident then that both these baseline inventories of Irish monuments, compiled by surveyors with vastly different methods and interests since the early 20th century as well as transforming legislative protection of Irish archaeological sites and monuments have informed the origins, quality and quantity of excavations over different periods of time since the early 20th century. The Character of Early Medieval Excavations It is evident then that the character of early medieval excavations has been informed by archaeological legislation protecting state surveyed sites and monuments across the island. Many early excavations of early medieval monuments in the Ireland, as elsewhere, were undertaken under the auspices of research bodies, often sponsored by the state sector. The Harvard Archaeological Mission excavation in the 1930s at significant crannogs at Ballinderry crannog No. I, Co. Westmeath Ballinderry crannog No. II, Co.Offaly and Lagore crannog, Co. Meath as well as Sean P. Rordins excavations of a series of ringforts in the Cork/Limerick area in the 1940/50s were the principal highlights of this formative period.

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Up until the 1960s, in the public imagination and in the planners minds, archaeology was about the significant monuments of mythical or real kings and the monastic treasures of the Saints and Scholars. There were very few excavations of less impressive and identifiable monuments like unenclosed settlements or agricultural and industrial sites as these sites tended not to have the aura of extraordinary wealth and quality of evidence which royal sites like Lagore or Garranes had to offer to the under equipped archaeological community. Most importantly however, they were no real reason for these sites to be excavated, as no legislation existed to protect and test for archaeology beyond the bounds of identified archaeological monuments. An increasing number of rescue excavations were undertaken particularly from the 196080s across the island in advance of EUgrant inspired farm improvement initiatives and developmentled excavations in both rural and urban contexts. Archaeologists from the Northern Ireland Historic Monuments Branch including A.E.P. Collins, David Waterman, Chris Lynn and Brian Williams undertook a series of important excavations of ringforts and raised ringforts. State bodies in the Republic such as the National Museum and OPW also continued to provide the initiative and were involved in significant excavations in Viking Dublin although there were a series of important research excavations undertaken by University academics at sites like Lisleagh ringfort, Co. Cork and Knowth, Co. Meath. The effects of EEC (subsequently EU) membership had a significant impact on the island from the 1980s onwards in particular. European funding provided the financial support for a number of important largescale infrastructural projects such as the Bord Gis CorkDublin Gas Pipeline and more recent NRA roadway development schemes. Along with excavations in advance of largescale urban and rural development projects, a whole collection of previously unknown archaeological evidence has been discovered beyond the bounds of the cartographic circles protecting SMR and Scheduled monuments. The most important effects of this is the shift away from excavations focused on traditional surveyed monuments such as ringforts and ecclesiastical sites towards new forms of archaeological evidence such as isolated ironworking hearths, unenclosed settlements and settlement/cemetery sites. The emergence of a large independent commercial sector of archaeologists to cope with the increasing demands of these largescale redevelopment projects has been a parallel phenomenon in this later period. EU membership also placed the Irish archaeological resource under the protection of tighter planning legislation. During the 1990s, new forms of archaeological investigation have required excavations to be undertaken both on and significantly near protected SMR and Scheduled monuments in advance of any form of development initiative. Archaeological Surveys have also delineated the boundaries of areas of archaeological potential within the historic core of urban towns and cities while the protection of archaeological landscapes has also received some recognition. These tighter planning requirements have increased the number of excavations being undertaken on or near particular protected SMR monuments. To conclude then, both tighter legislation as well as a simultaneous massive increase in developmentled excavation has transformed the character of Irish archaeological excavations in recent years. Consequences ! In the formative years of Irish archaeology, excavations were few in number and focused on significant early medieval monuments/sites. Excavations in the early years were largely undertaken as part of research projects with the intention of maximizing the generation of knowledge of early medieval landscape and society. From the mid twentieth century onwards, increasing number of excavations were also undertaken as part of rescue/salvage operations of important recorded monuments and also tended to generate significant archaeological knowledge.

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During the 1980s and 1990s and early twenty first century, largescale development led rescue projects and EU funded infrastructural schemes have revealed a whole new character of previously unidentified archaeological evidence as excavations have moved beyond the boundaries of protected SMR and Scheduled sites/monuments towards the investigation of entire landscapes. Simultaneously, the rights of archaeological SMR monuments, landscapes and areas of archaeological potential have been accorded extra protection t

early medieval archealogy

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