Early Christian and medieval martyrdom

Martyr (witness) vs.

Saint (holy/canonized)

Possible characteristics of martyrdom:

suffering/death  devo1on  to  a  (religious)  cause  

willingness  to  suffer/die  fame/transcendence/immortality  a:er  death  

Early Christian martyrdom

Roman Empire

Though  beheaded,  and  crucified,  and  thrown  to  wild  beasts,  and  chains,  and  fire,  and  all  other  

kinds  of  torture,  we  do  not  give  up  our  confession;  but,  the  more  such  things  happen,  

the  more  do  others  in  larger  numbers    become  faithful.    

-­‐-­‐  Jus1n  Martyr  (2nd  century)    

Primary  text:  Legenda  Aurea  (Golden  Legend)  Compiled  by  Jacobus  de  Voraigne  (1275)  

   

900  manuscripts  of  the  Golden  Legend  survive.      

From  1470  to  1530  it  was  the  most  frequently  printed  book  in  Europe;  during  this  period  it  went  through  more  edi1ons  than  the  Bible..  

 It  was  also  one  of  the  first  books  printed  in  

English  by  William  Caxton.  

Martyrology  /      Hagiography    

Standard  features  of  early  Chris1an  martyrological  narra1ve:    

   Preaching/refusal  of  sex  and/or  idolatry  

Arrest  Trial/declara1on  of  faith  Torture/tempta1on  

Vision/miracles/conversions  Death  

Conversion  of/revenge  on  the  killer    

Parallels  with  passion  narra1ves?    

(imita1o  Chris1)  

St.  Andrew  Anonymous  woodcut  

 1488    

“Hail,  O  cross,  sanc1fied  by  the  body  of  Christ  and  

adorned  with  his  limbs  as  with  precious  stones!  I  come  to  you  assured  and  

rejoicing”  (17).  

   The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Lucy  

Jacobello  del  Fiore  1410-­‐20    

 “Paschasius:  ’So  you  are  

God’?    Lucy:  ‘I  am  the  handmaid  

of  God.’”      

   Martyrdom  of  St.  Lucy  Master  of  the  Figdor  

Deposi1on    1480-­‐1500  

       

Sources  of  authority:    -­‐  theological  wri1ngs  -­‐  first  hand  witnesses  

-­‐  tes1mony  of  the  martyr  herself    

“a  primary  purpose  of  these  narra1ves  was  to  prove  that  the  person  concerned  was  truly  a  saint”  (xvi)    

 

Augus1ne  of  Hippo    354-­‐430  

theologian,  bishop      

Lived  in  present  day  Algeria    under  the  Roman  empire  

 Persecutor  of  the  Dona1sts  

 Sandro  Boicelli  

St.  Augus1ne  in  His  Study    1480  

Two  key  theological  problems:      

1)  is  the  commemora1on  of  martyrdom  idolatrous?  2)  how  do  we  know  true  martyrs  from  false  ones?  

Imita1on,  not  entertainment      

“Anyway,  do  you  want  to  know,  in  a  word,  what  the  difference  is  between  our  shows  and  spectacles  and  those  of  the  theaters?  We,  to  

the  extent  that  we  are  of  sound  and  healthy  mind,  would  love  to  imitate  the  martyrs  whose  contests  we  are  watching;  we,  I  repeat,  would  love  

to  imitate  the  martyrs  whose  contests  we  are  watching.      

Decent  spectator,  when  you  are  watching  a  show  in  the  theater,  you’re  off  your  head  if  you  have  the  audacity  to  imitate  the  performer  you  love.  Look,  here  am  I,  watching  Cyprian:  I’m  crazy  about  Cyprian.  .  .    .  I’m  watching  him,  I’m  delighted  by  him,  as  far  as  I  can  I  embrace  him  

with  the  arms  of  my  mind;  I  see  him  compe1ng,  I  rejoice  when  he  wins.”    

Non  poena,  sed  causa      

“It’s  when  we  look  at  the  cause  that  we  love  the  feast  days  of  the  martyrs.  Let  us  love  in  them,  not  their  sufferings,  but  the  causes  of  their  sufferings.  Because  if  we  just  loved  their  sufferings,  we  are  going  to  find  

many  people  who  suffered  worse  things  in  bad  causes.      

But  if  we  are  to  pay  alen1on  to  the  cause,  then  pay  alen1on  to  the  cross  of  Christ;  there  was  Christ,  there  also  were  the  bandits.  The  same  sort  of  punishment,  but  a  different  cause.  .  .  .  So  choose  the  causes  of  

the  martyrs  as  your  own,  if  you  wish  to  alain  the  martyr’s    palm  of  victory.”  

   

Modes  of  representa1on    

Ac1on  vs.  iconic  Depic1on  of  miracles/good  deeds  

 

Ques1ons  to  ask    re:  form  &  composi1on  

 Where  is  the  saint’s  body?    

How  exposed/vulnerable  is  it?  Who  else  is  in  the  picture?  

How  naturalis1c  is  the  depic1on?    

What  tone  does  the  image  set?  What  might  the  image  be  invi1ng  the  viewer  to  think/feel?  

Vittore Carpaccio, Sermon of Saint Stephen Outside the Walls of Jerusalem, c. 1514

“Thus, when Stephen’s miracles and preaching aroused the envy of the

jews, they launched the first battle, trying to defeat him by argument” (46).

Meister  Francke  15th  c.    

St.  Thomas  Altarpiece    

“Having  said  these  words,  he  bowed  his  

venerable    head  to  the  swords  of  the  wicked,  and  they  

split  his  skull  and  spilled  his  brains  over  the  pavement  of  the    church”  (61).    

   

   

 Andrea  Mantegna  Saint  Sebas1an  

1457-­‐59    

“They  shot  so  many  arrows  into  his  body  that  he  looked  like  a  

porcupine,  and  le:  him  for  dead”  (100).  

     

Erhard Schoen The Martyrdom of St. Agatha, 1514

“’Impious, cruel, brutal tyrant, are you not ashamed to cut off from a

woman that which your mother suckled you with?’” (155).

   

     

Andrea  Mantegna  Risen  Christ  Between  St.  Andrew  and  St.  

Longinus    c.  1488  

 “.  .  .  what  did  most  to  convince  him  was  that,  

age  and  infirmity  having  le:  him  almost  blind,  the  blood  that  ran  down  the  sha:  of  the  spear  touched  his  eyes  and  at  once  he  saw  clearly”  (184).  

     

   

 Lucas  Cranach  the  

Elder    Sts.  Christopher  and  

St.  George    c.  1514  

 “With  the  help  of  Christ  I  have  

conquered  Pales1ne,  but  now  I  have  le:  all  that  to  serve  the  God  

of  heaven  more  freely”  (240).  

 

   

   

   

The  Virgin  Saint  from  An1och  

Anonymous  woodcut  from  Golden  Legend  

edi1on    1481    

 “The  day  of  her  crowning  was  at  

hand.  .  .  A  young  girl  is  brought  forward  who  professes  herself  ready  to  wage  a  twofold  war,  for  her  virginity  and  her  religion”  (250).  

     

   

Jean  Fouquet  Martyrdom  of  St.  

Apollonia    Hours  of  E1enne  

Chevalier  c.1445  

 “The  execu1oners,  

cruelly  wreaking  their  wrath  upon  her,  first  

beat  out  all  her  teeth.”  (268)  

     

   

   

Hugo  van  der  Goes  Saint  Margaret  and  Saint  Mary  Magdalen  with  Maria  Por1nari  

and  her  daughter      Right  panel  from  the  Por1nari  

altarpiece  c.1473-­‐78  

   “Nothing  contrary  to  the  Chris1an  religion  could  be  

found  in  her.  She  was  hated  by  her  father  and  beloved  of  Jesus  

Christ”  (370).  

     

St.  Chris1na,  Anonymous  woodcut  from  the  German  Lives  of  the  Saints,  1488ris1na    

   

St.  Chris1na,  Anonymous  woodcut  from  edi1on  of  the  Golden  Legend  

1481        

 “.  .  .  never  losing  the  power  of  speech  [she]  

took  the  severed  tongue  and  threw  it  in  Julianus’  face,  hiing  him  in  the  eye  and  blinding  him”  (387).  

     

   

   

Lucas  Cranach  the  Elder  

Sts.  Chris1na  and  Oilia  1506          

     

Medieval martyrdom

Holy Roman Empire

       

       

Anonymous Flemish tapestry Martyrs of Maroc, c. 1530

William  of  Norwich  

Anonymous woodcut, Legend of St. Guinefort

Jan Hus, from Foxe’s Book of Martyrs

Burning of Jews during the Black Death epidemic, 1349

   

   

Margery  Kempe  b.  1373  

 Illumina1on  from  MS  Royal  15  D1