early childhood development jeffrey trawick-smith sixth edition © 2014, 2010, 2006, 2003, 2000...

Early Childhood Development

Jeffrey Trawick-Smith

Sixth Edition

© 2014, 2010, 2006, 2003, 2000Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

A Multicultural Perspective

Trawick-SmithEarly Childhood Development: A Multicultural Perspective, 6e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language and Literacy in the Primary Years

Chapter 16

16-3Trawick-SmithEarly Childhood Development: A Multicultural Perspective, 6e © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

KEY QUESTIONS

How do phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics advance in the primary years for first- and second-language learners?

What are some atypical patterns of development for each of these components of language?


KEY QUESTIONS

What is metalinguistic awareness, and how does it affect first- and second-language acquisition?

What are some social rules for using language in school, and how can these clash with language rules of families from historically underrepresented groups?


KEY QUESTIONS

What are the major approaches to bilingual education, and what are the strategies and stages by which children acquire a second language in school?

What are the major stages of writing and reading in the primary years, and how are these influenced by culture and teaching methods?


KEY QUESTIONS

What are the major stages of biliteracy development?

What classroom adaptations enhance the language and literacy of children with special needs?


How do phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics advance in the primary years for first- and second-language learners?

What are some atypical patterns of development for each of these components of language?


PHONOLOGY First language:

Articulation of most phonemes (individual speech sounds) have already been acquired by age 5.

Last remaining phonemes are acquired by age 8:

l, r, s, sh, and ch

Second language:

Simultaneous second language learners learn both languages fluently

Successive second-language learners will substitute similar sounds for ones they don’t know


ATYPICAL PHONOLOGY Three possible problems can occur that may need remediation:

1) Articulation problems- difficulty pronouncing specific phonemes

More severe if child is unable to imitate the sounds when spoken by an adult

2) Disfluency (stuttering) – considered a problem if it interferes with a child’s ability to communicate

atypical stuttering = single-sound + struggle behaviors

3) Poor voice quality (highly nasal or hoarse)

Most common cause is vocal abuse


SEMANTICS Learning of new word meanings continues into the primary years but slows. Major development is refining, expanding, and coordinating word meanings.

Children develop semantic networks: complex organizational maps in one’s mental dictionary that show connections among words.

Second-language learners start to differentiate between words from the two languages, learn under which circumstances to speak each language (e.g. home and school)Language shock- the sudden realization that one’s language is not understood by others– can occur


ATYPICAL SEMANTICSMay be the result of general language or cognitive disabilities, such as a general cognitive delay, or learning disability.Children may have specific trouble with:

opposites synonyms creating a list of related words in word-association task word retrieval trouble learning morphemes such as articles (a, an,

the) or tense endings (-ed, -ing).

Requires referral and classroom support


SYNTAXChildren are able to construct longer, more elaborate sentences.Have mastered declaratives and questions that contain negatives and clauses.

Continue to have trouble with passive constructions

Second-language learners may use rules for one language when speaking the other. However, children ultimately acquire the syntax of both languages.

Atypical syntax = Children with general cognitive or language delays may have difficulties interpreting complex sentence structure (e.g. embedded clauses). Speech-language pathologists can identify appropriate interventions.


PRAGMATICS

Many of the basic social rules of language are acquired during the primary years:

politeness to adults make requests instead of demands being pleasant when interacting with authority taking turns when speaking referential communication – adjusting language

to listener’s point of view school rules


PRAGMATICSIn school, children from historically underrepresented groups often have to learn the pragmatics of the dominant culture.

May differ dramatically in terms of turn-taking and the interactions with peers and adults that are considered appropriate.

Some children, such as those with Autism Spectrum Disorder, may have difficulty picking up on pragmatics– may need to be taught social rules explicitly, rather than implicitly learning them by observing and interacting with others.


What is metalinguistic awareness, and how does it affect first- and second-language acquisition?


METALINGUISTIC AWARENESSDefinition: The ability to think about language itself

By age 7, children can: comment on sentence structure comment on how speech sounds are formed comment on various definitions of words comment on grammatical correctness define words by relating them to others they know understand puns

Metalinguistic awareness is important for second-language learning: helps children to differentiate between languages.

Learning a second language enhances metalinguistic awareness.


CRITICAL CONCEPT #1

Most language rules have already been learned by primary years. Minor refinements occur in the structural aspects of speech.

Children acquire metalinguistic awareness during this period which assists children in language learning.


PRACTICAL APPLICATIONContinue to make oral language experiences a major goal. Help students refine their speech and vocabulary.

Discuss words that rhyme, have dual meanings, distinct sounds and syllables in all oral language.

Play games around grammar.

Guide children to think and talk about their language.


What are some social rules for using language in school, and how can these clash with language rules of families from historically underrepresented groups?


SCHOOL RULES

A number of general rules are common in US schools.

Children are expected to: speak Standard English without using slang engage in turn-taking and hand-raising answer questions concisely without deviating from the point ask clear, straightforward questions when requesting information stick to a single topic when talking

These rules are at odds with the pragmatics of some cultural groups.


CULTURE and SCHOOL RULES Schools around the world differ in emphasis on formal

language, turn-taking, and in relationship between students and teachers.

In the United States, certain children may find school rules at odds with their home experiences.

Example: at home, many African American children: speak using African American Vernacular English are used to the freedom of verbalizing spontaneously engage in topic chaining, in which the topic of conversation flows freely

from one subject to the next.

Compare these features of social interaction at home to the school rules in the previous slide!


CULTURE and SCHOOL RULES Many children from historically underrepresented groups are at a

disadvantage if the pragmatics in their home life are different than those of the dominant culture.

Help children to understand school pragmatics in a way that doesn’t suggest they are better than home pragmatics. Encourage register switching- the ability to consciously change one’s language style based on the context

Provide opportunities for spontaneous verbalization, topic-chaining, and informal communication during the day.


CRITICAL CONCEPT #2

Children acquire a sophisticated understanding of the social uses of language, including formal conventions for talking in school. They learn there are certain ways to ask for help, to answer questions, and to get information they need.


PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Focus on language pragmatics.

Provide opportunities to speak in diverse contexts requiring varying social rules.

Encourage informal conversation on playground and dramatic play center.

Provide large-group talking opportunities and cooperative learning projects that require use of specific rules.


CRITICAL CONCEPT #3

Different cultures have different social rules for language. Cultural styles may clash with school rules that may be challenging to learn.



Provide primary-age children with opportunities to learn the social rules of school while refining their own native discourse patterns.

Introduce children to register switching through discussing different ways of talking in different circumstances.


What are the major approaches to bilingual education, and what are the strategies and stages by which children acquire a second language in school?


BILINGUAL EDUCATIONDefinition: a variety of strategies used in schools to

assist children who speak languages different from that of the dominant culture

Can be Additive: second language is learned but first language is maintained and refined or

Subtractive: children learn language of dominant culture but do not maintain native language

Additive approach more culturally sensitive; allows families to continue to communicate effectively.


BILINGUAL EDUCATIONClassroom approaches to bilingual education:

Immersion = only dominant language used in classroom. Idea is that children will be motivated to learn quickly. Immersion without any support results in children not learning dominant language well, doing poorly in classwork, dropping out sooner

Maintenance / developmental model = instruction is in native language dominant language learned as a 2nd language. Usually results in higher academic achievement but slower 2nd language learning

Two-way bilingual education model = both languages used equally with all children learning both; ideal for achievement because all children are on equal footing and all of the opportunity to become bilingual


BILINGUAL EDUCATIONThe challenge of transition for second language learnersresults in creative social strategies:

pretending to understand peers’ speech emulating a friend of dominant culture

Stages of acquiring 2nd language: preproduction (silent understanding) transition to production (brief verbalizations) early production (longer utterances) expansion of production (full sentences) introduction to written forms (reading/writing)


CRITICAL CONCEPT #4

Bilingual primary children grow quickly in their 2nd language, first applying their own structures and rules, then separating the two rule systems to speak more fluently. Special support is necessary for this process to occur.

A well-planned bilingual system can promote 2nd language in learning for all children.



Encourage bilingual children to speak both languages to make language-learning additive.

Understand, accept, and appreciate early linguistic errors in bilingual speakers.

Advocate for two-way bilingual programs in which all children learn two languages.


What are the major stages of writing and reading in the primary years, and how are these influenced by culture and teaching methods?


LITERACY DEVELOPMENT Process is similar to oral language learning:

Children first: understand (read)

then communicate (write)

However, reading and writing develop, to some extent simultaneously: advances in reading contribute to writing abilities and vice versa.


STAGES OF LEARNING TO READ

1) Picture-governed reading: Story not formed look at and talk about pictures Story formed tell story from pictures Written language-like tell memorized story;‘map’ story

over the print

2) Print-governed reading Curiosity about print prompts print watched / refusal to

read and aspectual stage –reluctant to read out loud, but begin to construct meaning from print

Print watched / holistic –begin to apply multiple strategies to construct meaning

Independent reading –coordinate strategies to read effectively and independently


PROMOTING READING Isolating and teaching skills through drill and practice is

less effective than learning within context of reading literature

Phonics instruction within the context IS helpful.

Engage in daily reading to children from graded books Encourage independent reading Encourage guided reading to small groups Model and demonstrate decoding skills Guide children in building a sight vocabulary Engage in conversations about books


STAGES OF LEARNING TO WRITE Prephonemic = Use of random letters to stand

for stories Phonemic = Children write with only consonants

that match sounds used Transitional = Writing becomes conventional with

invented spelling Conventional = Children write primarily using

conventional spelling, with occasional errors

Children usually reach the final stage by 2nd or 3rd grade.


PROMOTING WRITING

1) Encourage independent writing with invented spelling

2) Create a writing center

3) Provide individual journals

4) Plan time for class to write together

5) Integrate writing into all curriculum areas


CULTURE and LITERACY

Literacy looks different across cultures. More or less emphasis may be placed on reading and writing. Rather, individuals in some cultures:

Emphasize oral story-telling rather than reading storybooks

Focus more on expository books that provide pictures and information, or on factual reading material like catalogs, church bulletins, and newspaper.


CRITICAL CONCEPT #5

Primary age children grow quickly in literacy skills. They learn to read and write conventionally, progressing step-by-step through stages.



Provide print-rich environments with many opportunities for meaningful writing – stories, journals, written observations of scientific experiments, and letters.

Provide high-quality children’s books and culturally relevant reading materials like signs, posters, sign-up lists, attendance charts.


What are the major stages of biliteracy development?


BILITERACY

Children learning two languages in the primary years must also learn to read and write in both languages.

Bilingual children usually acquire literacy skills at about the same rate as monolingual children in their native language.

Takes a little longer to learn the oral and graphic rules of a second language.


STAGES OF BILITERACY

Acquire verbal skills and early print awareness in native language.

Acquire oral proficiency in second language.

Begin learning to read and write in second languageAt this stage, children often apply rules of native language

when reading in the second language.

Make distinction between rules of native and second language and achieve conventional reading and writing in both languages.


CRITICAL CONCEPT #6

Children who are bilingual must learn to read and write in two different languages.

By acquiring literacy in their native language first, they will more easily learn to read and write in a second language in later years.



Encourage bilingual children to read and write in their native language first, perhaps using a bilingual volunteer.

Make a collection of culturally sensitive books available.

Teach second-language literacy only AFTER children have become literate in their native language.


What classroom adaptations enhance the language and literacy of children with special needs?


SPECIAL NEEDS and LITERACY Informally assess language and literacy in the classroom.

Watch for signs of atypical phonology, syntax and semantics.

If needed, refer children to a speech-language pathologist, special educator, or other professional.

Classroom adaptations:1) Students with learning disabilities often benefit from one-

on-one intervention with tutors in the classroom.

2) Teachers can include intervention as part of daily classroom activities by touching on several language and literacy skills in each lesson, and highlighting particular areas with which some students have difficulty


CRITICAL CONCEPT #7

Some primary age children have language problems that require intervention. Articulation errors, disfluency, poor word memory or retrieval, and faulty syntax are possible signs.



Identify characteristics that signal speech and language delays. Differentiate delays that are typical from those requiring special services.

Work closely with speech and language pathologists to incorporate special speech and language games and activities into the regular classroom activities.

early childhood development jeffrey trawick-smith sixth edition © 2014, 2010, 2006, 2003, 2000...

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