Editors

William C. Cockerham is Distinguished Professor and Chair of Sociology at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. His publications include Medical Sociology on the Move: New Directions in Theory (2013), Social Causes of Health and Disease , 2nd edition (2013), Medical Sociology , 12th edition (2012), and The New Blackwell Companion to Medical Sociology (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010).

Robert Dingwall is a consulting sociologist and part-time professor at Nottingham Trent University. He has published widely on research in medicine, law, and science and technology, and is a former editor of Sociology of Health and Illness .

Stella R. Quah is Adjunct Professor of Sociology at the Duke-National University of Singapore Graduate Medical School. She is author and editor of several books, including Crisis Preparedness: Asia and the Global Governance of Epidemics (2007), Families in Asia: Home and Kin (2009), and International Encyclopedia of Public Health (co-edited with Harald Kristian Heggenhougen, 2008).

MANAGING EDITOR

J. Michael Ryan received his PhD in sociology from the University of Maryland-College Park. He is co-editor (with George Ritzer) of The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology (2011), The Encyclopedia of Consumption and Consumer Studies (with Daniel Cook) (forthcoming), and The Encyclopedia of Social Theory (with Bryan Turner et al.) (forthcoming), all published by Wiley-Blackwell. He currently works as a research methodologist at the National Center for Health Statistics.

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Graham Scambler is Professor of Medical Sociology at University College London and editor of Social Theory and Health, UK (theory).

Adeline Seow is Associate Professor of Public Health at the National University of Singapore (public health).

Advisory Editors

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Associate Editors

Tim Brown is Lecturer in Human Geography at Queen Mary University of London, UK (medical geography).

William C. Cockerham is Distinguished Professor of Sociology at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA (theory).

Shelia R. Cotten is Professor of Telecommunication, Information Studies, and Media at Michigan State University, USA (stress).

Patricia Drentea is Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA (health, family, and gender).

Brian P. Hinote is Associate Professor of Sociology at Middle Tennessee State University, USA (health psychology, social class).

Jessica Mesman is Lecturer in Science and Technology at Maastricht University, The Netherlands (medical anthropology).

Krysia N. Mossakowski is Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA (mental health).

Stella R. Quah is Consultant and Adjunct Professor of Medical Sociology at the Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore (health and illness behavior).

Fred C. J. Stevens is Associate Professor of Sociology and Medical Education at Maastricht University, The Netherlands (health professions and occupations, medical education)

Carine Vassy is Senior Lecturer at Université Paris 13, France (health organizations, health policy, and health systems).

Jason Adam Wasserman is Assistant Professor of Biomedical Sciences at Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, USA (health and race, homelessness).

Mee Lian Wong is Associate Professor at the School of Public Health, National University of Singapore (public health).

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Contributors

Kathleen Abrahamson Purdue University, USA

Tracey L. Adams University of Western Ontario, Canada

Naomi Adelson York University, Canada

Peter Aggleton University of New South Wales, Australia

Bengt Ahgren Nordic School of Public Health, Sweden

Andy Alaszewski University of Kent, UK

Priscilla Alderson University of London, UK

Elena Ambrosino Maastricht University, Th e Netherlands

James G. Anderson Pu rdue University, USA

Peter Anderson Newcastle University, UK and Maastricht University, Th e Netherlands

William A. Anderson University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Gavin J. Andrews McMaster University, Canada

Masahira Anesaki Nihon University School of Medicine (retired), Japan

Carol S. Aneshensel University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Frederick A. Armah Western University, Canada

Natalie Armstrong University of Leicester, UK

Amit Arora University Hospital of North Staff ordshire, UK

Kristine Artello Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

Peter J. Aspinall University of Kent, UK

William R. Avison Th e University of Western Ontario, Canada

Hans A. Baer University of Melbourne, Australia

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contribu tors xi

Brigitte Bagnol University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

Elizabeth H. Baker University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Lisa Baker University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Robert Baker Union College, Schenectady, USA

Elyas Bakhtiari Boston University, USA

Peri J. Ballantyne Trent University, Canada

Sarah Ballard University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

R. Ballweg University of Washington, USA

Andrew S. Balmer University of Manchester, UK

Clare Bambra Durham University, UK

Mridula Bandyopadhyay La Trobe University, Australia

John Banja Emory University, USA

Rachel Barken McMaster University, Canada

Ross Barnett University of Canterbury, NZ

Donald A. Barr Stanford University, USA

Hugh Barr Centre for Advancement of Interprofessional Education, UK

Lori Brand Bateman University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Laia Bécares University of Manchester, UK

Linda Liska Belgrave University of Miami, USA

Kathryn M. Bell Capital University, USA

Akeia A. F. Benard Wheelock College, USA

Gillian Bendelow University of Sussex, UK

Ronald W. Berkowsky University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Boel Berner Linköping University, Sweden

Lucy R. Betts Nottingham Trent University, UK

Chloe E. Bird RAND Corporation, USA

Susan Bodnar-Deren Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

Olga V. Boiko University of Exeter Medical School, UK

Christian Bonah Université de Strasbourg, France

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xii contribu tors

Natalie Bonfi ne Northeast Ohio Medical University, USA

Ivy Lynn Bourgeault University of Ottawa, Canada

Elizabeth Heger Boyle University of Minnesota, USA

L. Jerome Brandon Georgia State University, USA

Joslyn Brenton North Carolina State University, USA

Hélène Bretin Université Paris 13, France

Nicky Britten University of Exeter, UK

Annie Britton University College London, UK

Hilke Brockmann Jacobs University Bremen, Germany

Beckett A. Broh Columbus Academy, USA

Marva Brooks Eastern Michigan University, USA

Alex Broom University of Queensland, Australia

Caragh Brosnan University of Newcastle, Australia

Peter J. Brown Emory University, USA

Phil Brown Northeastern University, USA

Robyn Lewis Brown DePaul University, USA

Ryan Brown RAND Corporation, USA

Tim Brown Queen Mary University of London, UK

Alastair M. Buchan University of Oxford, UK

Henna Budhwani University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Grace Budrys DePaul University, USA

Viola Burau University of Aarhus, Denmark

Giovani Burgos McGill University, Canada

Frederick M. Burkle Jr. Harvard School of Public Health, USA

Mike Bury Royal Holloway, University of London, UK

Helen Busby University of Leicester, UK

Joan Busfi eld University of Essex, UK

Th ea Cacchioni University of Victoria, Canada

Michael Calnan University of Kent, UK

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contribu tors xiii

Nancy D. Campbell Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Marita Campos-Melady University of New Mexico, USA

Jennifer L. Caputo Indiana University, USA

Carol A. Caronna Towson University, USA

Richard M. Carpiano University of British Columbia, Canada

Deborah Carr Rutgers University, USA

J. A. Carter University of Cincinnati, USA

Stacy M. Carter University of Sydney, Australia

Maurice Cassier CERMES, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifi que, France

Evan Castel University of Toronto, Canada

Michel Castra Université de Lille, France

Roberto Castro National Autonomous University of Mexico

R. Centis World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for TB, Italy

Jasleen K. Chahal Miami University, USA

Brigitte Chamak Université Paris Descartes, France

Susan Meyers Chandler University of Hawaii, USA

Kuan-Yi Chen City University of New York, USA

Meei-shia Chen National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan

Xinguang Chen Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA

Wanda M. Chernomas University of Manitoba, Canada

Yuet-wah Cheung Th e Chinese University of Hong Kong

Haejoo Chung Korea University, South Korea

Jeff rey Michael Clair University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Adele E. Clarke University of California, San Francisco, USA

Jette Aaroe Clausen Metropolitan University College, Denmark

David Coburn University of Toronto, Canada

Geoff rey B. Cockerham Utah Valley University, USA

William C. Cockerham University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Samantha Cockings University of Southampton, UK

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xiv contribu tors

Peter Conrad Brandeis University, USA

Alissa Cordner Northeastern University, USA

Loretta A. Cormier University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Shelia R. Cotten Michigan State University, USA

Steven S. Coughlin Emory University, USA

Amanda J. Counts Loyola University Chicago, USA

Vincent T. Covello Center for Risk Communication, USA

Carole Cox Fordham University, USA

Geneviève Cresson Université Lille 1, France

Peter Crome Keele University, UK

Jennifer Moren Cross Houston, Texas, USA

Shirley M. Crotwell University of New Mexico, USA

Nathan Crowe Arizona State University, USA

Richard L. Cruess McGill University, Canada

Sylvia R. Cruess McGill University, Canada

Steven Cummins London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK

Sarah Curtis Durham University, UK

Julie G. Cwikel Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Joyce Davidson Queen’s University, Canada

Kim Davies Georgia Regents University, USA

Jenny L. Davis James Madison University, USA

Andries de Grip Maastricht University, Th e Netherlands

Pieter de Jager University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

Fernando G. De Maio DePaul University, USA

Nanne de Vries Maastricht University, Th e Netherlands

Raymond De Vries University of Michigan, USA

Justin T. Denney Rice University, USA

Margaret Denton McMaster University, Canada

Geoff rey DeVerteuil University of Southampton, UK

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contribu tors xv

Kevin Dew Victoria University of Wellington, NZ

Khairunnisa A. Dhamani Aga Khan University, Tanzania

Robert Dingwall Dingwall Enterprises and Nottingham Trent University, UK

Matthew A. Dixon London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, UK

Angela J. M. Donkin UCL Institute of Health Equity, UK

Tim Dornan University of Maastricht, Th e Netherlands

Parin Dossa Simon Fraser University, Canada

Keith Doubt Wittenberg University, USA

Patricia Drentea University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

William W. Dressler University of Alabama, USA

Isabel Dyck Queen Mary University of London, UK

William W. Eaton Johns Hopkins University, USA

Leonard E. Egede Medical University of South Carolina, USA

Deborah Ejem University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Carol Emslie MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, Glasgow, UK

Michelle Engelbrecht University of the Free State, South Africa

Christy L. Erving Indiana University, USA

Bethan Evans University of Liverpool, UK

Joshua Evans Athabasca University, Canada

Heidi Ewen Miami University, USA

James Fagg University College London, UK

D. Falzon World Health Organization, Switzerland

Alex Faulkner University of Sussex, UK

Elena Marie Fazio Administration for Community Living, USA

Kenneth F. Ferraro Purdue University, USA

Mark G. Field Harvard University, USA

Anne E. Figert Loyola University Chicago, USA

Angela M. Filipe King’s College London, UK

Ruthbeth Finerman University of Memphis, USA

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xvi contribu tors

Rachael Finn University of Sheffi eld, UK

Claude Fischler École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, France

Kevin Fitzpatrick University of Arkansas, USA

Sebastien Fleuret Université d’Angers, France

Allison Foley Georgia Regents University, USA

Nick J. Fox University of Sheffi eld, UK

Steven L. Foy Duke University, USA

Luisa Franzini University of Texas School of Public Health, USA

Nicholas Freudenberg City University of New York School of Public Health at Hunter College, USA

Jonathan Gabe Royal Holloway, University of London, UK

Bernard J. Gallagher III Villanova University, USA

Cecilia Ganduglia University of Texas School of Public Health, USA

Victor M. Garcia-Barrios Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Austria

Elizabeth Gary Boston University, USA

Anthony C. Gatrell Lancaster University, UK

Linda K. George Duke University, USA

H. Getahun World Health Organization, Switzerland

Philip A. Gibson University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Claude Gilbert Centre National de la Recherche Scientifi que, France

Chris Gilleard University College London, UK

Simona Giordano University of Manchester, UK

Maya J. Goldenberg University of Guelph, Canada

Melinda Goldner Union College, USA

Fang Gong Ball State University, USA

Keisha Goode City University of New York, USA

Dan Goodley University of Sheffi eld, UK

Dawn Goodwin Lancaster University, UK

Carolyn C. Gotay University of British Columbia, Canada

Jacqueline Simmonds Goulbourne University of the West Indies, Jamaica

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contribu tors xvii

Marjan J. B. Govaerts Maastricht University, Th e Netherlands

Edward C. Green Johns Hopkins University, USA

Beth Greenhough Queen Mary University of London, UK

Sander Greenland University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Heather Louise Greenwood University of Ottawa, Canada

Arthur L. Greil Alfred University, USA

Laura Griffi th University of Oxford, UK

Feike Grit European Academy of Optometry and Optics, UK

Greg Guest FHI 360, USA

Alya Guseva Boston University, USA

Sara M. Hachey Cornell University, USA

Craig Hadley Emory University, USA

Frederic W. Haff erty Mayo Clinic, USA

Th ora B. Hafsteinsdóttir University Medical Center, Utrecht, Th e Netherlands

Nao Hagiwara Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

Timothy M. Hale Partners Center for Connected Health and Harvard Medical School, USA

Edward Hall University of Dundee, UK

Harry Hamilton University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Karin Hammarberg Monash University, Australia

Jennifer L. Hanis-Martin University of Chicago, USA

Olena Hankivsky Simon Fraser University, Canada

K. Harbert South College, Knoxville, USA

Karen Harris University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Sarah J. Hatteberg Indiana University, USA

Alesia O. Hawkins University of Illinois College of Medicine at Rockford, USA

Katharine J. Head University of Kentucky, USA

Phil J. M. Heiligers Utrecht University and Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research

Daliah Heller City University of New York Hunter-Bellevue School of Nursing, USA

Emmanuel Henry Université de Strasbourg, France

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xviii contribu tors

Claes A. Herlitz Dalarna Research Institute, Sweden

Melba A. Hernandez-Tejada Medical University of South Carolina, USA

David L. Heymann Centre on Global Health Security, Chatham House, UK

Virginia Aldige Hiday North Carolina State University, USA

Paul Higgs University College London, UK

Rowena Hill Nottingham Trent University, UK

Terrence D. Hill University of Utah, USA

Brian P. Hinote Middle Tennessee State University, USA

Susan W. Hinze Case Western Reserve University, USA

Klaus Hoeyer University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Lily M. Hoff man City University of New York, USA

Marja-Liisa Honkasalo University of Turku, Finland

Allan V. Horwitz Rutgers University, USA

Anne-Cécile Hoyez Université Rennes 2, France

Jody Huddleston University of North Texas, USA

Michelle Hudson-Shore FRAME, UK

Wesley S. Huey United States Naval Academy, USA

David Hughes Swansea University, UK

Michael Hughes Virginia Tech, USA

Ellen L. Idler Emory University, USA

Rick Iedema University of Technology Sydney, Australia

Amy Irby-Shasanmi Indiana University Bloomington, USA

Jay A. Irwin University of Nebraska at Omaha, USA

Samer Jabbour American University of Beirut, Lebanon

Angela J. Jacques-Tiura Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA

Craig R. Janes Simon Fraser University, Canada

Jakob D. Jensen University of Utah, USA

Lori L. Jervis University of Oklahoma, USA

Lei Jin Th e Chinese University of Hong Kong

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contribu tors xix

Helle Johannessen University of Southern Denmark

Katrine Schepelern Johansen University of Copenhagen, Denmark

R. Elise B. Johansen Norwegian Centre for Violence and Traumatic Stress Studies, Norway

Katherine M. Johnson Pennsylvania State University, USA

Robert J. Johnson University of Miami, USA

Tara L. Jones Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA

Andy P. Jones University of East Anglia, UK

Barbara Jones Warren Ohio State University, USA

Lutz Kaelber University of Vermont, USA

Bonnie N. Kaiser Emory University, USA

Zeenatkhanu Kanji Aga Khan University School of Nursing and Midwifery, Pakistan

Vivek S. Kantayya University of Illinois College of Medicine at Rockford, USA

Saff ron Karlsen University College London, UK

Joanne Katz Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, USA

Akilah Dulin Keita Brown University, USA

Julie Kent University of the West of England, UK

Stefan G. Kertesz Birmingham VA Medical Center, USA

Corey L. M. Keyes Emory University, USA

Ciara Kierans University of Liverpool, UK

Emma Kirby University of Queensland, Australia

Maggie Kirkman Monash University, Australia

Mika Kivimaki University College London, UK

Joëlle Kivits Université de Lorraine, France

Susan F. Klaus University of Kansas Hospital, USA

David Koh SSH School of Public Health, National University of Singapore

Woon-Puay Koh Duke–NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore

Brandon A. Kohrt Duke Global Health Institute, USA

Gerjo Kok Maastricht University, Th e Netherlands

Monica Konrad Independent Scholar, Cambridge, UK

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xx contribu tors

Adam D. Koon University of Witwatersrand, South Africa

Gary L. Kreps George Mason University, USA

Dionne Sofi a Kringos University of Amsterdam, Th e Netherlands

Patrick M. Krueger University of Colorado at Denver, USA

Heather Kugelmass Princeton University, USA

Mei-Po Kwan University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA

Alain B. Labrique Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, USA

Zahra S. Ladhani Aga Khan University School of Nursing and Midwifery, Pakistan

Keren Ladin Harvard University, USA

Gina Lai Hong Kong Baptist University

Iain R. Lake University of East Anglia, UK

Christopher Lane Northwestern University, USA

Martha E. Lang Guilford College, USA

Th ierry Lang Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France

Stéphanie Larchanché École des Hautes Études en Science Sociales et Centre Minkowska, France

David Le Breton Université de Strasbourg and Institut Universitaire de France, France

Anthony B. Lee University of South Carolina at Columbia, USA

Sean Lee Northwestern University, USA

Shoou-Yih Daniel Lee University of Michigan, USA

Kevin T. Leicht University of Iowa, USA

Pranee Liamputtong La Trobe University, Australia

Donald W. Light University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, USA

Chin Leong Lim Singapore Sports Institute and Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore

Jeremy Lim Insights Health Associates, Singapore

John Wah Lim SSH School of Public Health, National University of Singapore

Hui Liu Michigan State University, USA

Sida Liu University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA

Hanoch Livneh Portland State University, USA

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contribu tors xxi

Amy C. Lodge University of Texas at Austin, USA

Pierre Lombrail Université Paris 13, France

Sandra Y. Lopez-Rocha University of Bristol, UK

Th eo Lorenc London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK

James Lowe University of Southampton, UK

Isaac N. Luginaah Western University, Canada

Deborah Lupton University of Sydney, Australia

Scott M. Lynch Princeton University, USA

Ke-Zong Ma Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan

Kelly Rhea MacArthur Kent State University, USA

Edouard Machery University of Pittsburgh, USA

James E. Maddux George Mason University, USA

Fortunata Songora Makene Worcester State University, USA

Andrew H. Mannheimer Florida State University, USA

Bruno Marchal Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium

Fred E. Markowitz Northern Illinois University, USA

Graham P. Martin University of Leicester, USA

Jeff rey R. Masuda University of Manitoba, Canada

Antonio Maturo Università di Bologna, Italy

Robert Mayberry Morehouse School of Medicine, USA

Carlene A. Mayfi eld Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences, USA

Wasim Maziak Florida International University, USA

Morag McArthur Institute of Child Protection Studies, Australia

Penny McCall Howard Maritime Union of Australia

Sara McLaff erty University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA

Jane D. McLeod Indiana University, USA

Celia McMichael La Trobe University, Australia

Rebekah McNaughton Teesside University, UK

Melinda S. Meade University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA

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xxii contribu tors

Marcia L. Meldrum University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Robert Menzies Simon Fraser University, Canada

Barret Michalec University of Delaware, USA

G. B. Migliori World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for TB, Italy

Christine Milligan Lancaster University, UK

Adrienne N. Milner University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Richard Mitchell University of Glasgow, UK

Uchechi A. Mitchell University of California, Los Angeles, USA

Ishwar Modi India International Institute of Social Sciences, India

Mairead Eastin Moloney North Carolina State University, USA

Graham Moon University of Southampton, UK

Lisa Jean Moore Purchase College, State University of New York, USA

Tim Moore Institute of Child Protection Studies, Australia

Julia Moorman University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

Catherine L. Moran University of New Hampshire, USA

Tiago Moreira Durham University, UK

Rachel Morello-Frosch Northeastern University, USA

Brian J. Morris University of Sydney, Australia

Michael Morrison University of Oxford, UK

Patricia M. Morton Purdue University, USA

Krysia N. Mossakowski University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA

Anne-Marie Moulin Centre National de la Recherche Scientifi que, France

Dawne M. Mouzon Rutgers University, USA

Mark R. Munetz Northeast Ohio Medical University, USA

Sarah-Anne Munoz University of the Highlands and Islands, UK

Carles Muntaner University of Toronto, Canada

Elaine Murphy George Washington University, USA

Mercy Mwaria Program Reach, USA

Shan Naidoo University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

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contribu tors xxiii

Lin Naing Universiti Brunei Darussalam

Belinda L. Needham University of Michigan, USA

Julie Netherland Th e New York Offi ce of the Drug Policy Alliance, USA

Sarah Nettleton University of York, UK

Mary Neubrander Northeast Ohio Medical University, USA

Edwin Ng University of Toronto, Canada

Jonathan S. Nguyen-Van-Tam University of Nottingham, UK

Kim B. Nguyen NORC at the University of Chicago, USA

Peter V. Nguyen Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

Seth M. Noar University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA

Pauline Norris University of Otago, New Zealand

Everardo Duarte Nunes Campinas State University, Brazil

Michael Nurok Weill Cornell Medical College, USA

Daryl B. O’Connor University of Leeds, UK

Andrew O. Odegaard University of Minnesota, USA

Tor H. Oiamo Western University, Canada

Daniel J. O’Keefe Northwestern University, USA

Kieke G. H. Okma New York University, Wagner, USA

Sigrun Olafsdottir Boston University, USA

Michael J. Oldani University of Wisconsin–Whitewater, USA

LaToya J. O’Neal University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Adrienne O’Neil Barwon Health, Australia

Andrew O’Neill University Hospital of North Staff ordshire, UK

Joseph Oppong University of North Texas, USA

Jakob Ousager University of Southern Denmark

Pavel V. Ovseiko University of Oxford, UK

Bjarke Oxlund University of Copenhagen, Denmark

J. Bryan Page University of Miami, USA

Randy M. Page Brigham Young University, USA

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xxiv contribu tors

Fred C. Pampel University of Colorado at Boulder, USA

An Pan National University of Singapore

Rebecca Park New York University School of Medicine, USA

Bernadette Pauly University of Victoria, Canada

Jamie Pearce University of Edinburgh, UK

Louis A. Penner Wayne State University, USA

Brea L. Perry University of Kentucky, USA

Cheryl A. Perry University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Bernice A. Pescosolido Indiana University, USA

Alison Phipps University of Sussex, UK

Martyn Pickersgill University of Edinburgh, UK

Alison Pilnick University of Nottingham, UK

Patrice Pinell, Centre National de la recherche Scientifi que, France

Valerie Polakow Eastern Michigan University, USA

Caroline M. Poland Taylor University, USA

Gregory A. Poland Mayo Clinic, USA

Kristian Pollock University of Nottingham, UK

Mary Ann Powell University of Nebraska at Omaha, USA

Andrew Power University of Southampton, UK

Rebecca Prentice University of Sussex, UK

Carrie Purcell MRC/CSO Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, Glasgow, UK

Raimo Puustinen University of Tampere, Finland

Stella R. Quah Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore

Adam Rafalovich Pacifi c University, USA

Jocelyn Raude École des Hautes Études de Santé Publique, France

M. C. Raviglione World Health Organization, Switzerland

Deidre Lynn Redmond Indiana University Bloomington, USA

S. M. Reid-Henry Queen Mary University of London, UK

Sheryl Reimer-Kirkham Trinity Western University, Canada

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contribu tors xxv

Chantelle Richmond Western University, Canada

Th omas C. Ricketts University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA

Elianne Riska University of Helsinki, Finland

Ferris J. Ritchey University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Christian Ritter Northeast Ohio Medical University, USA

Fernando I. Rivera University of Central Florida, USA

Helen Mary Rizzo Th e American University in Cairo, Egypt

Magali Robelet Université Lyon 2, France

Gary Robinson Menzies School of Health Research, Australia

Andrew Robles University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA

Christopher C. C. Rocchio University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA

David E. Rohall Western Illinois University, USA

Shawna Rohrman Indiana University, USA

Paul M. Roman University of Georgia, USA

Catriona Rooke University of Edinburgh, UK

Paul C. Rosenblatt University of Minnesota, St Paul, USA

Sarah F. Rosenblum Cornell University, USA

Catherine E. Ross University of Texas at Austin, USA

Marilyn A. Roth University College London, UK

Barbara Katz Rothman City University of New York, USA

Robert L. Rubinstein University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA

Johanna Ruusuvuori University of Tampere, Finland

Clive E. Sabel University of Exeter, UK

Jarron M. Saint Onge University of Kansas, USA

Mike Saks University Campus Suff olk, UK

Jane Sandall King’s College London, UK

A. Jamie Saris NUI Maynooth, Ireland

Bisma Ali Sayed University of Miami, USA

Michael T. Scalfani Kansas City University of Medicine and Biocsciences, USA

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xxvi contribu tors

Sasha Scambler King’s College London, UK

Graham Scambler University College London, UK

Anders Schaerstrom Independent scholar

Teresa L. Scheid University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

Henk G. Schmidt Erasmus University, Th e Netherlands

Jason Schnittker University of Pennsylvania, USA

Kerstin E. E. Schroder University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Maike Schulz Bremen International Graduate School of Social Sciences, Germany

François-Xavier Schweyer École des Hautes Études en Santé Publique, France

W. Richard Scott Stanford University, USA

Gül Seçkin University of Maryland, USA

Chloe Sellwood NHS England (London), UK

Daniel B. Shank University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Rebecca Shankland Université Pierre Mendès-France, France

Ian Shaw University of Nottingham, UK

Brent M. Shea Sweet Briar College, USA

Nicola Shelton University College London, UK

Daniel D. Shephard University of Oxford, UK

Diane S. Shinberg Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA

Janet Shucksmith Teesside University, UK

Judith T. Shuval Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel

Johannes Siegrist University of Düsseldorf, Germany

Zachary Simoni University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Merrill Singer University of Connecticut, USA

Dena T. Smith Goucher College, USA

Jane Ellen Smith University of New Mexico, USA

M. Christine Snead Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA

Marcie Snyder University of Toronto Mississauga, Canada

Eeva Sointu Smith College, USA

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contribu tors xxvii

John Song University of Minnesota, USA

Lijun Song Vanderbilt University, USA

Matt Sothern University of St Andrews, UK

Travis D. Speice University of Cincinatti, USA

Adam Spencer University of Nottingham, UK

Russell L. Spiker University of Cincinnati, USA

Samrit Srithamrongsawat National Health Security Offi ce, Th ailand

Steven John Stack Wayne State University, USA

Yvonne Steinert McGill University, Canada

Irena Stepanikova University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Michael Stern University of Chicago, USA

Fred C. J. Stevens Maastricht University, Th e Netherlands

Fiona A. Stevenson University College London, UK

Shannon Lindsey Stevenson Western Michigan University School of Medicine, USA

Pamela J. Stewart (Strathern) University of Pittsburgh, USA

Nancy Stone University of Central Lancashire, UK

Andrew J. Strathern University of Pittsburgh, USA

Jessica L. Streeter Rutgers University, USA

Kristi Lynn Stringer University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Joni L. Strom Medical University of South Carolina, USA

Richard R. Suminski Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences, USA

Dusanee Suwankhong Th aksin University, Th ailand

Magdalena Szafl arski University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Gabriel Tajeu University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

David T. Takeuchi University of Washington, USA

Mark Tausig University of Akron, USA

Janelle S. Taylor University of Washington, USA

John Taylor Florida State University, USA

Olle ten Cate University Medical Center Utrecht, Th e Netherlands

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xxviii contribu tors

Deborah Th ien California State University, Long Beach, USA

Mieke Beth Th omeer University of Texas at Austin, USA

Claire Th ompson Nottingham Trent University, UK

Nicholas Th omson Capella University, USA

Tine Tjørnhøj-Th omsen University of Southern Denmark

Elizabeth E. Tolley FHI 360, USA

Melanie N. Tomintz Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Austria

Jodi N. Trentman University of Cincinnati, USA

Chau Trinh-Shevrin New York University School of Medicine, USA

Jonathan H. Turner University of California, Riverside, USA

Richard Tutton Lancaster University, UK

Liz Twigg University of Portsmouth, UK

Indira Umareddy Zayed University, Dubai

Debra Umberson University of Texas at Austin, USA

Carey L. Usher Mary Baldwin College, USA

Joëlle Vailly Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, France

Rob M. van Dam Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore

Geert T. W. J. van den Brink HAN University of Applied Sciences, Th e Netherlands

Sjaak van der Geest University of Amsterdam, Th e Netherlands

Dingie van Rensburg University of the Free State, South Africa

Anneke J. A. H. van Vught HAN University of Applied Sciences, Th e Netherlands

Marieke Van Willigen East Carolina University, USA

Carine Vassy Université Paris 13, France

Suzanne Vaughan University of Manchester, UK

Heinrich Volmink University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

Anna Vorobyova Simon Fraser University, Canada

Hubertus J. M. Vrijhoef National University of Singapore, and Tilburg University, Th e Netherlands

Miranda Waggoner Princeton University, USA

Otto Wahl University of Hartford, USA

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contribu tors xxix

Linda J. Waite University of Chicago, USA

Sarah Wakefi eld University of Toronto, Canada

Catherine Waldby University of Sydney, Australia

May C. Wang University of California at Los Angeles, USA

Brian W. Ward University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Justin Waring Nottingham University Business School, UK

Jason Adam Wasserman Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, USA

Ivan Watkins University of Texas at Austin, USA

Dennis P. Watson Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, USA

Nick Watson, University of Glasgow, UK

Lim Wei-Yen Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore

Suzie S. Weng University of North Florida, USA

Elaine Wethington Cornell University, USA

Kevin White Australian National University, Australia

Owen Whooley University of New Mexico, USA

James M. Wilce Northern Arizona University, USA

Janine L. Wiles University of Auckland, NZ

Catherine M. Will University of Sussex, UK

Allison M. Williams McMaster University, Canada

Beverly Rosa Williams University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Charlott Williams Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences, USA

Clare Williams Brunel University London, UK

Gareth Williams Cardiff University, UK

Shanna Williams Pennsylvania State University, USA

Don Willis University of Arkansas, USA

Kathi Wilson University of Toronto Mississauga, Canada

Vicki Winstead University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Brit Ross Winthereik IT University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Christina M. Wong FHI 360, USA

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xxx contribu tors

Joseph D. Wolfe University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Turro Wongkaren University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA

Eric R. Wright Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, USA

Susan J. Wurtzburg University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA

Juan Xi University of Akron, USA

Bo Xie University of Texas at Austin, USA

Jun Xu Ball State University, USA

Jie Yang Simon Fraser University, Canada

Sarah Yardley Keele University, UK

Elizabeth A. Yost University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA

Wendy B. Young Duke University, USA

Chris Yuill Robert Gordon University, UK

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Introduction

Research confirming the significant rela-tion ship between social and behavioral factors and health, including their impact on disease and mortality, have been build-ing steadily since the mid-twentieth cen-tury. We now find that not only do these factors influence the experience of illness, but in some cases they actually cause disease (Cockerham 2013). Therefore, it is clearly time for the publication of an ency-clopedia of knowledge about health or medical sociology, health psychology, medical anthropology, medical geography, and the behavioral aspects of public health. This encyclopedia is a response to this need. It is a worldwide endeavor, with contributions from social and behavioral scientists around the globe. Every conti-nent and many countries in the world are represented by the scholars in these pages. The final result is a publication that is truly global.

In compiling this encyclopedia, it would have been helpful to build on previous encyclopedias; however, none existed. Students and professionals in the social and behavioral sciences seeking background information and descriptions of current trends in particular subjects had nowhere to go other than general encyclopedias or textbooks. There was no single source

encyclopedia. These volumes are intended to fill this void. Our objective in compiling them has been to provide a comprehensive and interdisciplinary reference with cur-rent information on topics of interest to students and professionals seeking an authoritative source of information about the topics they cover.

The finished product is really to be dis-tributed globally and made available to libraries serving students/faculties in the social sciences, public health, medicine, nursing, and other health-related profes-sions. Joining me as co-editors were Robert Dingwall, a noted medical sociologist for-merly of the University of Nottingham, UK, and Stella Quah, Duke University-National University of Singapore Graduate School of Medicine, another well-known medical sociologist and previous co-editor of an international encyclopedia on public health who brought expertise in that field to the project with respect to potential contribu-tors and entries. Quah also served as associ-ate editor for the section on health and illness behavior in this encyclopedia.

Other associate editors include Tim Brown, Queen Mary University London, UK (medical geography); Shelia Cotten, Michigan State University, USA (stress); Patricia Drentea, University of Alabama at

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introduction xlvii

Birmingham, USA (gender and family); Brian Hinote, Middle Tennessee State University, USA (social class, comparative systems of health care delivery); Jessica Mesman, Maastricht University, The Netherlands (medical anthropology); Krysia Mossakowski, University of Hawaii, USA (mental health); Fred Stevens, Maastricht University, The Netherlands (professions and occupations, medical education); Carine Vassy, Université Paris 13, France (organizations, policies, biomedicine); Jason Wasserman, Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, USA (race, homelessness, national health profiles); and Wong Mee Lian, National University of Singapore (public health, chronic disease). Each of them were selected because of their expertise in particular fields reflected in a record of outstanding scholarship.

In addition, Mike Ryan, University of Maryland, USA, served ably as the web-master and project coordinator who was central to practically every aspect of organ-izing and facilitating the flow of entries from the initial invitations to their final acceptance. As for the contributors of the entries to this encyclopedia, every effort was made to invite the scholar most known  throughout the world for his or her  research on a particular topic. In most cases, we were successful in securing the participation of the person or persons

who  had literally “written the book” on a particular subject. In other cases, we found a  researcher with a similar strong reputa-tion or invited a rising younger scholar with special expertise as a contributor. It was important to get youthful thinking involved in the encyclopedia, as well as that of older, more established figures in the various dis-ciplines. All in all, many of the world ’ s top social and behavioral scientists now and in the future have participated in this project and helped to make it success.

Finally, the assistance of the highly professional staff at Wiley-Blackwell in Oxford, UK, needs to be acknowledged for their support and outstanding assistance to bring this encyclopedia to reality. These include Justin Vaughan, who commissioned the work and managed the overall project; Ben Thatcher, project editor; Sarah Dancy, project manager; and Karen Raith, editorial assistant, who handled the contractual work and other matters. Also helpful were the various copyeditors: Claire Creffield, Janey Fisher, Brian Goodale, Jacqueline Harvey, and Caroline Richards.

William C. Cockerham University of Alabama at Birmingham

REFERENCE

Cockerham , William C. 2013. Social Causes of Health and Disease , 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK : Polity .

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Timeline

The subject matter of this encyclopedia on health, illness, behavior, and society covers a broad range of topics and disciplines, but is linked together by a singular focus on health and how it is affected, either positively or negatively, by the topic under discussion. Recognition of the significance of the complex relationship between various sociological, psychological, public health, anthropological, and geographic factors and the health profile of individuals, groups, and societies has stimulated health-related studies by these various disciplines. The notion that a person ’ s health can be affected by certain social and behavioral conditions no doubt goes back to ancient times by way of common sense and practical experience. We see this in the development of public health when it was determined that the quality of food, water, air, and living conditions could promote health and reduce the onset of communicable dis-eases. Prior to the birth of modern medicine, high mortality rates from the plague, cholera, typhus, scarlet fever, tuberculosis, measles, and other communicable diseases were significantly lowered in Europe as a result of improved personal hygiene and community sanitation (Cockerham 2012 ). In fact, the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries are conspicuous for the systematic implementa-tion of public health measures (Porter 1997 ).

Modern medicine, in turn, made great strides, as Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, and others confirmed the germ theory of disease

in the mid- to late 1800s and discovered the causes of several communicable diseases, including typhoid, tetanus, and diphtheria, as  well as the vaccines providing immunity. Especially important was Alexander Fleming ’ s discovery of penicillin – the first antibiotic – in 1928. Industrialization allowed the mass production of drugs leading to the rise of large global pharmaceutical firms. Further progress in surgical techniques, anesthesiol-ogy, immunology, internal medicine, and other medical fields led medicine to focus pri-marily on the biomedical model. As René DuBois ( 1959 ) pointed out, twentieth- century medicine had become dominated by the search for, and use of, drugs as “magic bullets” to be shot into the body to kill or control all health problems. However, as communicable diseases were severely curtailed in most of the world, and polio and smallpox were largely eradicated by the late 1960s, an epidemiological transition took place. Chronic diseases, that by definition are long term and incurable – such as heart disease, cancer, stroke, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS – became leading threats to health and longevity. Since chronic diseases are closely associated with, and even caused by, the ways in which people live, the social and behavioral sciences became more impor-tant in understanding the onset and progno-sis for such ailments (Cockerham 2013 ). This relevance has continued as chronic diseases still persist and communicable diseases have re-emerged and new ones have developed.

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xlii timeline

A TIMELINE OF HEALTH, ILLNESS, BEHAVIOR AND SOCIETY

400 bce The Greek physician Hippocrates writes his treatise, “On Air, Waters, and Places,” which explores the relationship between health and the environment.

1340–1750 Black plague kills an estimated one-third of Europe ’ s population, with the lowest segments of society having the highest mortality.

17th century Beginning of the study of the nature and origins of human races, which stimulates the development of physical anthropology, a predecessor of medical anthropology.

1792–5 Leonard Ludwig Finke publishes his two-volume Versuch einer Allgemeinen Medicinisch-Praktischen Geographie [ Attempt at a General Medical-Practical Geography ], a work in the Hippocratic tradition and an important forerunner to modern medical geography.

1798 Valentine Seaman, a surgeon based in the New York Hospital, publishes the first recorded spot map based on his study of yellow fever in 1796.

1869 Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) founds the Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory. Virchow pointed out the link between social and economic conditions and ill-health and, as such, contributed to the development of what would become known as “medical anthropology.”

1827 Friedrich Schnurrer produces the Charte über die Geographische Ausbreitung der Krankheiten [ A Map of the Global Distribution of Diseases ], which is regarded as the first global map of the distribution of human diseases.

1845 Friedrich Engels, Karl Marx ’ s friend and collaborator, publishes a book entitled The Condition of the Working Class in England that is a forerunner of contemporary research on health disparities.

1854 John Snow determines that the water well on Broad Street in London is the source of a cholera epidemic and stops the outbreak by removing the pump ’ s handle. His methods led to the establishment of epidemiology as the science of epidemics.

The timeline shown below provides a selected chronology of these developments. Other events could no doubt have been added, but the ones included provide an overview of the interface between health, illness, behavior, and society. The objective is to acquaint read-ers of this encyclopedia with the key events that have taken place over time in the health-related social and behavioral sciences.

William C. Cockerham University of Alabama at Birmingham

REFERENCES

Cockerham , William C. 2012 . Medical Sociol-ogy , 12th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson Prentice-Hall .

Cockerham , William C. 2013 . Social Causes of Health and Disease , 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK : Polity .

DuBois , René . 1959 . Mirage of Health . New York : Harper & Row .

Porter , Roy . 1997 . The Greatest Benefit to Man-kind: A Medical History of Humanity . New York : Norton .

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timeline xliii

1858 Rudolf Virchow of Germany formulates a concept of disease based on cellular pathology. Virchow maintained that medicine was a social science after observing the health problems of the poor.

1878 Louis Pasteur develops the germ theory of disease in France.1880 Henri-Clermond Lombard produces the voluminous Atlas de la Distribution

Géographique des Maladies dans leur Rapports avec les Climats [ Atlas of the Geographical Distribution of Diseases in their Relationship to Climate ], which includes distribution maps of malaria, yellow fever, pulmonary tuberculosis, and cholera.

1883 Germany establishes the first state-sponsored compulsory health insurance program under Chancellor Bismarck.

August Hirsch ’ s Handbuch der Historisch-Geographischen Pathologie [ Handbook of Geographical and Historical Pathology ] is translated into English.

1894 Charles McIntire was the first to use the term “medical sociology” in an essay on physicians as a separate social class that appeared in the Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine .

1897 Émile Durkheim publishes his famous study of suicide ( Suicide: A Study in Sociology ).

1910 The Flexner Report led to a significant change in US medical schools by recommending improved standards and that medical education should be conducted by universities at graduate level.

1911 Britain inaugurates a national health insurance program.1924 Publication of what is considered the first medical anthropological study:

Medicine, Magic and Religion , by W. H. R. Rivers. With this publication, Rivers established his position as the founding father of medical anthropology.

1927 Bernard Stern publishes the first book on medical sociology from a sociological perspective, entitled Social Factors in Medical Progress .

1928 Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin, the first antibiotic.1930s Flourishing of the “Culture and Personality” school, one of the predecessors of

medical anthropology. Eminent scholars in this field include Edward Sapir (1884–1939), Ruth Benedict (1887–1948), and Margaret Mead (1901–78).

1932 The infamous Tuskegee study in Alabama of untreated syphilis in a group of African American males who were not informed of the project ’ s experimental goals in which one group received treatment and the other did not.

1937 Publication of Evans-Pritchard ’ s study of Azande witchcraft, oracles, and magic, which is considered as a prominent example of ethnomedicine as this ethnography has its focus on “indigenous” beliefs and practices related to health, illness, and healing.

1943 Mexico establishes the IMSS ( Instituto Mexicano de Seguro Social ) government-sponsored social security plan that includes health insurance for salaried workers in the private sector.

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xliv timeline

1948 Britain establishes a National Health Service (NHS).World Health Organization (WHO) created as a specialized agency of the

United Nations.The Framingham, Massachusetts, heart study is initiated. This still ongoing

study of heart disease has provided important information about leading risk factors.

1950 Jacques May publishes Medical Geography: Its Methods and Objectives and establishes disease ecology as a key focus for Anglo-American medical geography.

1951 Talcott Parsons publishes The Social System, introducing his influential concept of the sick role.

1956 The Medical Sociology Group of the British Sociological Association is organized.

1958 August Hollingshead and Frederick Redlich publish Social Class and Mental Illness: A Community Study , a seminal work on the relationship between class and mental illness.

1959 The Medical Sociology Section of the American Sociological Association is formed.

1960 Mexico initiates the ISSSTE ( Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Para los Trabajadores del Estado ) for government workers. The ISSSTE is the largest health plan in Mexico.

The Journal of Health and Social Behavior is established.1961 Howard Becker and his colleagues publish Boys in White , a classic sociological

study of medical student socialization.Canada provides universal hospital insurance.Japan introduces a national health insurance plan.Erving Goffman publishes Asylums , his influential book on mental hospitals.

1964 The Medical Sociology Group of the British Sociological Association is established.

1965 The US Congress passes Medicare (for the elderly) and Medicaid (for the poor) health insurance legislation.

1966 Irwin Rosenstock develops the Health Belief Model.The Journal of Health and Social Behavior becomes an official journal of the

American Sociological Association.1967 Whitehall Studies, set up by Michael Marmot in the UK, establish the

existence of the social gradient of mortality.The Research Committee on Health Sociology of the International

Sociological Association is organized.The international journal Social Science & Medicine is established in the UK.

1968 The first annual conference of the British Medical Sociology Group takes place.

1970 Eliot Freidson publishes The Profession of Medicine and Professional Dominance , explaining the high professional status and authority of physicians in the 1960s.

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timeline xlv

1972 Establishment of Medical Anthropology Newsletter , the predecessor of Medical Anthropology Quarterly .

1973 Canada provides universal insurance for physician fees.Michel Foucault publishes The Birth of the Clinic in English, which discusses

the development of the medical profession and the organization of its knowledge. The French version appeared in 1963.

1974 The Japanese Society for Health and Medical Sociology is formed.1976 The deadly Ebola disease appears for the first time in Sudan.1977 Publication of Culture, Disease, and Healing . The book, edited by David Landy,

had a huge impact on the establishment of medical anthropology as a discipline.

The launch of Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry , a journal in the field of medical and psychiatric anthropology

1978 Publication of the first handbook of medical anthropology by Foster and Anderson.

The international journal Sociology of Health & Illness is established in the UK.1979 First known appearance of HIV/AIDS in North America and Europe.1980 The Black Report in Britain found that despite improved access to health care

for all social classes, the gap between the rich and poor in health and longevity was nevertheless increasing.

Arthur Kleinman publishes his ethnographical study about diverse medical practitioners in Taiwan, proclaiming a new perspective and confirming the birth of modern medical anthropology as a new and promising field of study.

1982 Paul Starr publishes The Social Transformation of American Medicine , which details the decline in the professional status and authority of physicians.

1983 The European Society of Health and Medical Sociology is established.1984 Bryan Turner ’ s book The Body and Society leads to the establishment of the

sociology of the body as an area of study.1985 Whitehall Study II further confirms the social gradient in mortality.1986 Mad cow disease surfaces in Britain and later spreads to Europe and North

America.1999 West Nile disease appears in the United States for the first time, after

previously existing only in the Middle East.The journal Health is established in the US and the UK.

2003 SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) outbreak in Asia and Canada.2008 The Canadian Association of Medical Sociologists is organized.2010 The US Congress passes President Obama ’ s Patient Protection and Affordable

Care Act, which expands health insurance for low-income individuals and families.

2012 The US Supreme Court rules that the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act is constitutional and the penalty for noncompliance constitutes a tax.

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