dynamics of fundamentalism and its impact on global
TRANSCRIPT
DYNAMICS OF FUNDAMENTALISM AND ITS IMPACT ON
GLOBAL SECURITY: THE CASE OF AL QAEDA
(1989 – 2014)
BY
JERICHO GEZA
A DESSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS OF THE MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE STUDIES
FACULTY OF SOCIAL STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
FEBRUARY 2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want first to thank God for giving me the strength to go through the Masters Degree
program. I would also like to thank my colleagues who have been with me through this
journey; Nick Dube, Waluza Alipole, Beavan Masinga, Charles Kaneta and Lysinda Marandu
for their unwavering support and encouragement. I would also like to thank my late mother,
brothers and sisters for their unwavering faith in me.
This dissertation would not have been possible without the help and support of my supervisor
Mr. L Mhandara who has walked this journey with me from the beginning. His patience and
guidance enabled me to produce this final piece of work.
I would also like to acknowledge the assistance from the members of staff at the Department
of Political and Administrative Studies. Special mention goes to Dr. C Manyeruke, the
Chairperson for her support and encouragement throughout.
Last but not least, l would like to express my sincere indebtedness to all those who
contributed to the research , especially officials from the Algerian, Pakistan, Egypt and
Tanzania Embassies, Mr Sikacha and officials from the Islamic Education Centre who
responded to my questionnaires and those who spared their time for my interviews. This
research would definitely not have been possible without you.
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my wife Tandie, my now late mother and my children
Precious and Patricia. I am extremely grateful for bearing with me and enduring those long
hours without me.
ABBREVIATIONS
AU African Union
AIS Army of Islamic Salvation
AQAP Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CRS Congress Research Services
DJIA Dow Jones Industrial Average
EU European Union
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigations
GIA Armed Islamic Group
4GW Fourth Generation War
GDP Gross Domestic Product
ITAC International Trade Administration Commission
KII Key Information Interview
MB Moslem Brotherhood
MAK Maktab al-Khidamat (Service Office)
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
OIC Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
NIF National Islamic Front
FIS Islamic Salvation Front
PSI Pan-Sahel Initiative
UAV Unmanned Ariel Vehicle
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UN United Nations
UNFIL United Nations Intervention Force in Lebanon
UNISOM United Nations Mission in Somalia
UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
WTC World Trade Centre
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Allah God
Al Qaeda Bin Laden‟s terrorist organisation (base or Foundation)
Assabiyya Group dynamics
Dar al-Islam Islamic Islamicate
Emir Supreme Commander
Fatwa Legal opinion or binding religious edict by an Islamic scholar
Hedeeth (Sunnah) Collection of Prophet Muhammad‟s proclamations
Hezbollah God‟s group
Hikkimiyat Allah God‟s will
Islam Religion (peaceful, complete and comprehensive life)
Jihad Struggle or strive for better
Khilafa God‟s command
Muhammad Prophet (peace be with him)
Mujahedeen Holy fighters
Mu‟mineen True believers
Quran (Koran) Holy book (last testament) revealed by Muhammad
Sharia Islamic law (right path)
Sahwa Islamista Past glory
Shura Discuss, consultation and Council of advisors
Takfir Ex-communicated
Umma International Islamic Society
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements……………………………………………...……………….…….i
Dedication……………………………………….……………………………………..ii
Abbreviation…………………………………….…………………………………….iii
Glossary of Terms……………………………….………………………………….....v
Table of Contents……………………………….……………………………………..vi
……………………………………………………………………………………….....vii
………………………………………………………………………………………...viii
………………………………………………………………………………………….ix
……………………………………………………………………………………….....x
Abstract….…………………………………………………………………………….xi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study……………………………………………...……...1
1.2 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………….4
1.3 Justification of the Study………………………………………………..…....5
1.4 Objectives……………………………………………………………..……….5
1.5 Research Questions……………………….………………………….….……6
1.6 Theoretical Framework………………….…………………………….……..6
1.7 Preliminary Literature Review………….…………………………………...6
1.8 Methodology……………………………….……………………….…………9
1.9 Research Design…………………………………………………....………….9
1.9.1 Sampling……………………………………………….……………...…....10
1.9.2 Sample Frame.…………………………………………....…………..…….11
1.9.3 Data Collection Techniques.…………………….………..…..……………11
1.9.3.1 Documentary search...………………….……………...…………….....12
1.9.3.2 Key Informant Interviews…………………….………………………..12
1.9.3.3 Questionnaires……………………………….………………….………12
1.9.4 Data Analysis Procedure...……………...…………………………13
1.9.5 Data Presentation…………………………...…………………..….13
1.10 Limitations………………………………….………………………………13
1.11 Delimitations………………………………….………………………….…14
CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF FUNDAMENTALISM AND HOW RELIGION HAS
BECOME A POLITICAL TOOL
2.1. Introduction……………………………………………………..……………15
2.2. Islam A Religion of Peace……………………………………………………15
2.2.1 Contradiction between Islam and Fundamentalism……………….16
2.2.2 Major Branches of Islam…………………………………………….17
2.2.3 Sharia Law………………………………………………....................17
2.2.4 Origins of Fundamentalism… ……………………….........................17
2.3 The West and its Islamophobia………………………..……………………....18
2.3.1 Battle for the Holy Land…..,..……………………………………………19
2.3.2 US Foreign Policy………………....………………………........................19
2.3.3 Decline in European Nationalism…………………………………….......20
2.3.4 Lack of Development in Arab States………………….............................20
2.4. Politicisation of Religion………………………………………………….……21
2.4.1 Link between Church and State………………………………....……21
2.5. Re-imaging of Islam……………………………………………........................22
2.6. Al Qaeda and the Metamorphosis of Muslim Rage………….........................23
2.6.1. Bin Laden and the CIA Connection………………………………...….…..23
2.6.2. Rise of Al Qaeda………………………………………………………….….23
2.6.3. The Iraq Invasion…………………….………………………………….......25
2.6.4. Al Qaeda as a Terrorist Organisation.…………………………………........26
2.6.5. Organisation and Command Structure….……………….............................26
2.6.6 Field Forces………………………………………………………...……........27
2.6.7. War on Terror……..……………………………………………..……...……28
2.6.8 Leadership………………………………………………….............................29
2.6.9 Concept of Jihad……………………………………………………….........34
2.6.10 Ideology………………………………………………………………............34
2.7. Conclusion..…………...………………………………………..........................34
CHAPTER 3: EFFECT OF RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM ON
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
3.1. Introduction……………………………………….…………………………...36
3.2. Basis of Fundamentalism..………………………….…………………………36
3.2.1 International Security………………………………………………………37
3.2.2 Political Effect of Fundamentalism…….……………………......................37
3.2.3 Fundamentalism in the Middle East…...…………………………………...37
3.2.3.1 Egypt…...………………………………………………..........................38
3.2.3.2 Libya…...……………………………………………..............................38
3.2.3.3 Sahel and Sinai Peninsula…....………………………………………...39
3.3. Muslim’s Real Terrorist………………………………………………………..39
3.4. Economic Impact……..………………………………………...........................39
3.4.1. Effect of Islamic Culture on Economies…………………………………….39
3.4.2. The Cost of 9/11………………………………………………………………40
3.4.3. Effect on African Economies………………………………………………40
3.5. Al Qaeda Media Strategy………………………………………………………41
3.5.1. Battle for Hearts and Minds…...……………………………………………41
3.5.2. Innovative Use of Technology…..………………………………………...42
3.6. Conclusion……….…………………………………………………...................42
CHAPTER 4: AL QAEDA ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL
SECURITY
4.1. Introduction…………………………………..…………………………………..43
4.2. History of Al Qaeda …….……………………………..……………...…..……...43
4.2.1. Al Qaeda Global Influence………………………………….……………44
4.2.2. Al Qaeda in the Arab Peninsula (AQAP)…………………………..….. 44
4.2.3. Al Qaeda in the Maghreb and Sahel (AQIM)..……..………………...…45
4.2.4. The Sahel……………………………………………..………………..……46
4.2.5 Al Qaeda in East Africa….………………………………………………….47
4.2.5.1 Al Qaeda in the Horn of Africa…………………………………………...48
4.2.6 Sudan (National Islamic Front)………………………………………….…48
4.3. Al Qaeda and the Arab Springs……………………..………………………….....49
4.4. Other Areas………………..……………………………………………………......49
4.5. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..50
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Introductions……....………………………………………………………………..51
5.2. Conclusions……………………………………………………….………................51
5.3. Recommendations…………………………………………………………….…….52
5.4. Implications for further Research……………………..…………………………..52
BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………….…53
……………………………………………………………………………………………….54
………………………………………………………………………………………………..55
APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………….....................56
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Development Indicators…………………………………………21
Table 2: Al Qaeda Affiliated Groups…………………………….............25
Table 3: Countries and Organisations that designated Al
Qaeda a terrorist Organisation……………………………….....26
Table 4: Al Qaeda in other Countries……………………………..............28
Table 5: Al Qaeda Committee Structures………………………………...33
Table 6: Major Attacks by Al Qaeda……………………………...............44
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Khobar Towers……………….………..………………................24
Figure 2: The Twin Towers……….……………..……………………….....27
Figure 3: Sayyid Qutb……………………………..……………………...…29
Figure 4: Osama Bin Laden………………………..……………………......30
Figure 5: Ayman Al-Zawahiri…………………….….…………………......30
Figure 6: Abdullah Azzam……………………….….………………………31
Figure 7: Abu Musab Al-Zarawaqwi……………………..………...............32
Figure 8: Anwar Al-Awlaki………………………………..…………….......33
LIST OF MAPS
Map 1: Map of Middle East………………………….….…………………22
Map 2: Map of the Maghreb……………………………..……….………..46
Map 3: Map of the Sahel………………………………….……..………….46
ABSTRACT
The research analyses Islam as a religion; what it really is and what it stands for and the
dynamics of fundamentalism and the impact of Al Qaeda activities on international security.
Al Qaeda and its affiliate have been designated terrorist organisations by the UN, EU and
most Western countries. The research was guided by the following questions in the discourse
on fundamentalism, does Islam support fundamentalism? Who is the real terrorist between Al
Qaeda and the US and its allies? The methodology used for this research was a triangulation
of both qualitative and quantitative methods which included key informant interviews and
documentary search. The research established that, Bin laden the then leader of Al Qaeda
though dead, his legacy still inspires the rank and file of the organisation. However with the
persistent pressure on the remaining leadership which has kept them on the run, the
effectiveness of the organisation is beginning to be questioned. This study also brought out
that some of the major causes of fundamentalism are lack of development in Arab states, the
US foreign policy and the support given to the Zionist state of Israel at the expense of
Palestine. Implications of Al Qaeda‟s activities on international peace and security have been
mainly global insecurity as no state across the globe is safe from Al Qaeda attacks as it
proved through the 9/11 attacks on the US and the strain on the economies as countries
enhance their security. The major conclusions coming out of research are that the different
interpretation of the Koran was a major cause of fundamentalism and that the objectives of
Islam are the same as those of fundamentalism. The research recommended finding common
ground between the West and Muslims in order to solve the antagonism instead of resorting
to war.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Fundamentalism has impacted negatively on many states, affecting the ecology, basic rights,
general economies and individual lives. To understand fundamentalism an understanding of
Islam; what it is and what it stands for is imperative. Islam is a religion of peace, „Salam‟
means peace. Islam means a complete and comprehensive way of life; it is a religion as well
as way of life, it governs every facet of a Muslim‟s life. Its ideology is based on equality,
peace and caring which Muslims believe can be used as a model to achieve global peace.
The Oxford English Dictionary (2010:310) defines Islam as, “a religion revealed by
Muhammad, it means the act of resignation to God.” God (Allah) revealed himself to Prophet
Muhammad and gave him the commandments which are in the Quran that all Muslims must
obey. Prophet Muhammad, the last prophet of God, also wrote extensively (Sunnah) on
issues of religion and socio-economic aspects. Islam has become the second largest religion
universally with approximately1.25 billion Muslims in the world, with the majority of them
concentrated in Afghanistan, Middle East, Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
(Mandeville, 2007:4).
Khan (2001:215) argues that, „„Islam has contributed immensely to the establishment of
global peace. Prophet Muhammad was a pacifist who preached peace.‟‟ The Quran (33:21)
points out that, „„you have indeed in the Prophet of God, a good example for those of you
who look to the last day and remember God always look forward to the last day.‟‟ Islam does
not support radicalism although its main objective of prevailing over all other religions is the
same with fundamentalism.
American Academy of Arts (1988), Defines Fundamentalism as, “approach or set of
strategies by which be-leagued believers attempt to preserve their distinctive identity as a
people by selective retrieval of doctrines, beliefs and practices from their sacred past.”
Contemporary fundamentalism aims at replacing the international liberal order with a global
Islamic Caliphate of a Dar al-Islam by following the original tenets of Islam.
Fundamentalism was caused by various interrelated reasons among which are; the failures of
the Arab nationalist governments to develop the states, the Arab defeat by Israel in the Six
Day War in 1967 which led to the politicisation of Islam and religionisation of politics in the
Arab states, the different interpretations of Prophet Muhammad‟s writings, the occupation of
Saudi Arabia by foreign forces (Crusaders) since the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq in 1990.
Fundamentalism is premised on two concepts: Salafism/Wahhabism and Jihad. Salafism and
Wahhabism are terms that are used interchangeably, as both are premised on Sunni group of
Islamic ideologies. Within the Sunni is a minority radical group which advocated for a return
to basic fundamentals provided in the Quran and Sunnah, with passage of time they
developed into fundamentalism (Mandeville 2007:239). This group quotes texts from the
Quran to justify their actions and advocate use of violence to achieve their objective.
The phenomenal growth of fundamentalism was facilitated by globalisation which through
mass migration of poor Muslims into Europe. This created identity and citizenship problems
and led to creation of global networks of Muslims as they tried to re-establish an identity. It is
these same networks that fundamentalist groups like Al Qaeda are utilizing to recruit
members. Those born in Europe their allegiance is then divided between the two countries.
The only link that has remained unbroken is their adherence to Muslim cultural values
(Lewis: 1990:34). Fundamentalism has created a dilemma in the Muslim community
particularly as regard to who speaks for the religion.
Islamic fundamentalism and its link to violence contradicts fundamentalism in other
religions; Hindu radicalism is also violent but over the years has been confined to India;
Jewish radicalism is also violent by nature but is constrained by lack of mass, while Christian
fundamentalism is universal, apolitical and at times violent, focuses on spiritual
emancipation and uplifting lives of its members.
Islamic fundamentalism though perpetuated by a minority has become transnational and is
manifesting in different forms: in the Middle East it has emerged as a formidable opposition
in most states; the Taliban in Afghanistan, Moslem Brotherhood in Egypt, and Hezbollah in
Lebanon and al-Mahdi in Iraq. In other regions they have become militant groups fighting
western influence: Al Qaeda in the Arab Peninsula (AQAP), Al Qaeda in the Maghreb
(AQIM), and other affiliate groups (Tibi cited in Frisch and Inbar 2008:2).
Sharia law the basis of fundamentalism is one of the world‟s greatest legal systems and
forms the cornerstone of Islam. It has influenced the Islamic legal system in the same way
that Judaic law has influenced western legal systems. Sharia law comes from the sacred
book Quran which contains the actual words and commands of God. In Arabic „sharia‟
means, „the right path‟ and it is derived from Prophet Muhammad‟s teaching and from
renowned legal scholars. Because of its strict requirement for adherence to original values
and beliefs of Islam, its application to contemporary societies has posed challenges.
Moderate Muslims have called for selective application of the law while fundamentalism has
called for strict adherence to the law without any flexibility. Fundamentalist clerics strongly
believe that flexibility involves two opposing positions; Islamic doctrine of monism tolerates
only one position Islam and does not bend under whatever circumstance (Rushdie: 1989).
The concept of „Jihad‟ has a complex and contested history even within Islam itself. In basic
Arabic „Jihad‟ literally means „struggle‟. The concept has been interpreted differently in
different socio-political environments in the Quran and Hadeeth. Conceptually the term
encompassed striving for the better, but because of the consistent use by radicalists the term
is now synonymous with war fought by radical Muslims against non believers. Muslim legal
scholars agree that Jihad is an individual religious obligation‟‟ (Euben, 2002:21). Jihad has
two dimensions: first, it refers to the individual‟s inner personal belief and faithfulness to
Allah (God). Second, is the obligation to defend Islam at all costs? The second obligation is
„defensive Jihad’ which is military reaction in response to attack on Islam and has become
the rallying point of fundamentalism (Scheuer, 2004:78).
The origins of Al Qaeda can be traced back to 1979 when Soviet Union attacked
Afghanistan. Bin Laden then believed to be connected, to CIA through Pakistan Intelligence
Services moved from Saudi Arabia to Afghanistan and successfully helped organize, fund
and equip the Arab Mujahedeen to resist the Russian invasion. Bin Laden together with
Abdullah Azzam and Ayman al-Zawahiri later after falling out with the US formed Al Qaeda
in 1989. In 1996 and 1998 Bin Laden who had emerged as a fearless and charismatic military
leader issued his „fatwa’s‟, directed at America to remove its troops from Saudi Arabia and
stop supporting Israel. In both Fatwa’s Bin Laden used extensive quotes of Quran texts to
whip the emotions of Muslims to attack American interests anywhere in the world until they
accepted the demands (Qutb 2002:180).
Over the years, Islamic inspired Al Qaeda activities have impacted significantly on global
security before and after the 9/11 attacks. According to Adamson (2011:31) Bin laden
reiterated that, „„US government does not understand what peace is, it does not understand
the language, manners and principles, so we will address it with the language it
understands.‟‟ The conduct of 9/11 and other high profile attacks across the globe are
indications of the dynamics of fundamentalism and imply that no state was any longer safe
from international terrorist attacks. 9/11 attack was carefully planned by Al Qaeda and has
ignited debate on the form and conduct of future wars after the Cold War. Ault cited in the
African Defence Forces Journal (2011:29) notes that, “the meticulous planning and execution
of 9/11 attacks by AI Qaeda is indicative that the organisation has evolved and has adopted
4th
Generation War (4GW) (asymmetric) as its doctrine for its global Islamic Jihad,”
creating a new complex dimension to international terrorism.
Al Qaeda and its affiliates receive massive support from states like Iran, Pakistan and Syria.
Islamic Fundamentalist groups have over the years also taken advantage and thrived in failed
and unstable states. This is evidenced by the mushrooming of militant groups linked to Al
Qaeda in present day Somalia, Iraq, Yemen, Bahrain, Libya and Syria. In Somalia Al-
Shabaab has caused instability in the region by attacking Kenya and Uganda.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The study will analyse the dynamics of fundamentalism as well as the belief that they are the
true believers which has created the problem of who speaks for the religion. Contributing to
the problem is the regionalization of politics and politicization of Islam which makes
religious conflicts violent and non negotiable. On the other hand, the complex contradictions
of ideas and perceptions between Islam and Fundamentalism have created problems.
Fundamentalism is increasingly being carried out by non state actors such as Al Qaeda in the
name of Islam, creating international ramifications. The West‟s through their foreign policies
and actions has created a controversial perception of „Islamophobia‟ which link Islam to
violence.
Economically, the 9/11 attacks cost the US government a lot in terms of human, material and
financial resources. More than 3000 people were killed and the US Government spent $31
Billion in New York City after the attack and another $70 Billion to improve Homeland
Security (Adamson 2011:36). The attack led to the Afghanistan and Iraq wars which
eventually proved more costly than the Vietnam War. Questions that might shed light are; is
Al Qaeda still a lethal organisation more than a decade after 9/11 and with the death of Bin
Laden? And can Islam contribute to establishment of global peace? And does
fundamentalism have the support to achieve its objectives? Is an international caliphate a
viable alternative to pluralism?
1.3 Justification of the Study
This study adds to the contemporary policy debate on the controversy surrounding the nature
of fundamentalism and how to obviate the challenges emanating from this phenomenon.
Current Islamic literature by Qutb, Tibi, Mawdudi, Abukhalil, Azzam, Zawahiri and others
does not reveal clearly the departure point with fundamentalism and only deals with narrow
conception of Muslim identity challenges in socio-politico issues. The identity challenge
emanates from the West‟s oriental islamophobia portrayal of Islam as violent, anti modernist,
secularist, democratic, Semitism and feminism. The literature alluded to above is devoted to
the old Islam without much regard to the emerging new Islam (Fundamentalism).
Interestingly fundamentalism has become a rallying point for; academics, religious leaders,
journalists and Islamic scholars the whole world.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study were:
To examine the origins of religious fundamentalism;
To trace the origins of Al Qaeda group and ascertain its activities across the globe
over the years;
To ascertain the impact of Al Qaeda activities on global and peace security;
To examine the impact of Al Qaeda‟s adoption of 4th
Generation War on Global
security.
To ascertain the influence of culture on Islam; and
To proffer recommendations.
1.5 Research Questions
The questions that guided the research were:
What are the origins of religious fundamentalism?
What are the origins of Al Qaeda and its activities over the years?
What is the impact of Al Qaeda activities on global peace and security?
What is the impact of international terrorism adoption of 4th
GW on global and peace
security?
What is the influence of culture on Islam?
1.6 Theoretical Framework
Constructivism has become important in focusing on the social construct of world politics
and how it impacts on global security. Fundamentalism as a threat is perceived to be a social
construction of the West and to put it into correct perspective one has to first understand the
constructed relationship and dynamics between religion and terror. Constructivism as a
theory is invaluable in trying to understand the dynamics and social construction of world
politics and security. Williams (2008:59) argues that, “constructivism believes that the world
is constituted socially through inter subjective interactions that agents and structures are
mutually constituted and ideational factors like norms, identity and ideas are central to the
construction and dynamics of world politics and security”.
1.7 Preliminary Literature Review
Qutb (1981) a renowned activists, teacher, author and leader of the Moslem Brotherhood
(MB) in Egypt, is the most influential author on fundamentalism and critic of moderate
Muslims and Western influence. He bases his argument on the evils of European culture
which he experienced during his days at university in the US and advocates that the only
legitimate governments under the eyes of God are those under Sharia law. His writings
influenced many radicalism leaders and clerics including Osama Bin Laden.
It is also evident that Islam as a religion does not support any form of radicalism. The West
on the other hand believes origins of terrorism are linked to Islam, emanating perhaps from
the link between church and state in Arab states. Frisch and Inbar (2008:18) defines
fundamentalism as, „„a movement or groups that want to use Islam as a political force to
mobilize the public, gain control and reform society and states in accordance with their
doctrinal religious agenda.” The government of Iran established after the revolution is an
epitome of such goals.
Lewis (1990:67) argues that, “the phenomenon of radicalism has had ripple effects even on
the seemingly stagnant economies of Arab states”. In addition Rodinson (2008) posits that,
„„the failure by Muslim societies to separate church from state has contributed to the endemic
economic decline in most states leading to a decline in the standard of living of the generality
of the Muslim people.‟‟ He further points out that, „„Christians are enjoined in their
scriptures, „render unto Caesar what belongs to Caesar and God what belongs to God‟.
Separation of church from state has been the embodiment and foundation of Christian
societies globally.
The Islamic Foundation (1980:29) proffers an insight of the religion, its origins and key
tenets. The book is a synopsis of the dynamic world of Islam, seen through the eyes of
Muslims, bringing out a whole complex spectrum of its beliefs, values, guiding principles,
cultural issues and contemporary challenges Islam faces in collaborating with other religions.
On the other hand Abu Khalil (2002:24) argues on issues around the different sentiments by
the West to issues associated with Islam. He further states that the West and its media have
developed an organic link between Islam and violence. Of interest however is that to the
West, Muslim violence is terrorism, while western violence is regarded as justified. He gives
an analogy between Bin Laden‟s violent terrorism and the violent actions of the US and the
Coalition of the willing in their interventions abroad, in addition in 1968 when Sirhan Sirhan
assassinated Robert Kennedy the western media hastened to label the Palestinian community
as terrorists.
Choueiri (1998) offers several dimensions to political Islam in the Middle East, in which he
brings out two interesting but opposing perspectives, which put to the fore Western media
portrayal of the organic link between Islam and violence. The author brings out an essentially
explicit analysis to the philosophy and political discourse of renowned fundamentalism
activists: Mawdudi, Khomeini and Qutb in one of the most powerful analysis of Islam
doctrine. The author reveals glaring contradictions between violence and democracy in Islam
societies. This violence can either be between Muslims themselves or with non Muslims. In
one of his findings he argues that, “Islam need not be incompatible with democracy and that
there is a tendency to neglect the fact that even Islamic states have been engaged in brutal
suppression of democratic forces as was evidenced in Lebanon, Afghanistan and Palestine
causing them to take up arms against the state and its foreign supporters.” Nonetheless the
link between fundamentalism and terrorism remains in part unexplained despite a number of
theories seeking to account for their growth and appeal. It is therefore the purpose of this
study to bring out this missing link. On the other hand authors like Khalil (2002:19) believes
that, „„Islam on the contrary holds prospects for the redemption of human kind and offers the
only hope for lasting global peace, a rejection of Islam will inevitably lead to racial and
religious prejudices”. According to the Islam website 2013, „„the holy Quran and Hedeeth
(prophetic messages) play a pivotal role in the day to day life of Muslims. In chapter 3:19 the
Quran states that, „„there is only one religion in the sight of God, that is Islam.‟‟
Relationship between fundamentalism and international security can be clearly put into
context when the complex ways in which religious values and norms affect political
development, social conditions which produce the religious groups, leaders and their
followers and the generic link between the objectives of these diverse and dynamic groups. It
is the group dynamics and capacity of radical organizations like Al Qaeda which is evident
that no state across globe is any longer or immune safe from international terrorist. (Ault
2011:3). After 9/11 the US President George Bush commented that, „‟ the greatest danger the
US and other liberal democracies faces, lies at the crossroads of fundamentalism and
technology.‟‟ He was acknowledging the opportunities in technological advancement that Al
Qaeda had exploited.
Frisch and Inbar (2008) explore in greater detail the emergence of contemporary political
Islam focusing mainly on the challenges that the phenomenon poses to the international
system. The authors go further and proffer several suggestions as to how the challenges of
fundamentalism can be alleviated. In reference to the global Jihad, Frisch and Inbar focus on
the link between Islam and violence by tracing its roots to the social realities of
religionisation of politics and politicization of the religion in the Arab world. Adamson
(2011) looks in explicit terms at issues around the emergence of Al Qaeda and the
formulation of their global jihad and the serious security implications it has caused. He also
brings in an interesting aspect of the economic consequences of Al Qaeda activities on such
countries like the US which has been the centre of the global jihad.
The literature reviewed above has a lot of strengths and weaknesses especially the failure to
bring out the proper link between Islam and fundamentalism. Authors like Lewis (1990),
Choueiri (1998), Frisch and Inbar (2008) analysis was primarily neo-liberal contaminated by
Western thinking which based islamophobia. On the other hand Moslem authors like Qutb
(1981), Zawahiri (2002) and Mamdani (2002) also offered a partisan analysis which was
predominantly protective of Islam. It his therefore in view of the existing weaknesses pointed
out, that this study will fill one aspect of the weaknesses which is bringing out the link
between Islam and Fundamentalism.
1.8 Methodology
In this section the researcher‟s objective is to depict the varied means of data collection used,
and how data was analysed and presented. Research methodology is a system of collecting
data for social research. This data should of necessity be valid (Weiner and Braun 1998:86).
Data gathered should also be reliable. Joppe (2000: 6) defines reliability as, „„extent to which
results are consistent over time.‟‟ In this research both qualitative and quantitative methods
were used. Qualitative was used in the initial stages and quantitative was used to compare
fundamentalism and other Christian groups as well as with Islam.
1.9 Research Design
According to Winner (1971:47), research design is, „„a logical structure of a study which
enables data collection and analysis.‟‟ The design therefore is a means of testing the theories
applicable to the subject. Winner further points out that research design „„ensures that data
collected offers enough evidence to answer research questions adequately. Relevant data
enabled the theories used to be tested to accurately analyse the phenomenon.‟‟ A research
design is invaluable as it informs the type of method to be used to collect data and lays the
basis for data collection process, accuracy of the data and the requisite challenges in
obtaining the data.
Explanatory design was used to analyse the dynamics of fundamentalism, its motivation from
texts of the Quran. This enabled the author to compare Islam as a religion to other
conventional religions and bring out pertinent information on source of divergence. The study
of Al Qaeda enabled the author to infer the link between religion and violence and the
phenomenon of West‟s islamophobia, the impact of its activities against the West in general
and international security in particular. The planning and conduct of attacks across the globe
and the conduct of the 9/11 attacks has indicated that Al Qaeda has transcended the confines
of a mere fundamentalists terrorist group into a dynamic technology driven organization
utilizing optimally opportunities offered by globalization creating an global sense of
insecurity.
1.9.1 Sampling
Sampling according to Gareth (2000:36) is, „„a statistical process of selecting and studying
characteristics of a reliably small part of a larger population to draw statistically valid
inferences about the entire population‟‟ The study of a sample enabled the researcher to
generalize the results to get the best results. The research utilized non-probability sampling
techniques where elements of the population were selected because of their availability.
Purposive or judgmental (selective/subjective) sampling was used to collect data because of
limited resources. Purposive sampling is, „a form of non-probability sampling in which
decision concerning individuals to be included in the sample is based on a variety of criteria
which may include deep knowledge of the subject and willingness of respondent to take part
in the research‟‟ (Jared 1997:72). Fundamentalism is a sensitive issue, though a lot has been
written about the subject, very few people in the Moslem communities are willing to candidly
talk about fundamentalism. The majority of information for this research was thus obtained
from written literature and interviews with the Moslem community resident in Zimbabwe.
This inevitably limits the number of people with adequate information about the research.
The few people selected are invaluable because they are knowledgeable on the subject. These
are the primary source thus minimized any distortions on the research since purposive
sampling yields more accurate results than alternative secondary sources (Fox 1992:78).
Convenience sampling was also utilized to get information from both male and female
Muslims selected because of ease of access. Carl (1998:67) posits that, „convenience
sampling or accidental sampling is selection of sample of participants from a population
based on convenience and availability to take part in the research.‟‟ Convenience sampling
was used where the Muslim community was accessed especially at their churches and at their
Embassies. Like purposive sampling, convenience sampling enabled the researcher to gather
primary data.
1.9.2 Sample Frame
A sampling frame is „„a list used to define a researcher‟s target population. The frame
basically defines a set of elements from which a researcher can select a sample of the target
population. Due to challenges of accessing the whole population, a researcher uses a
sampling frame to represent the target population.‟‟ (Currivan: 2004). The sample frame for
this research was obtained from the diplomatic corps and Moslems resident in Zimbabwe.
This frame assisted the researcher to get as much information on fundamentalism and Al
Qaeda as much as possible and the impact of its activities on global security.
1.9.3 Data Collection Techniques
Data collection tools are used in research to collect data from respondents and are dependent
on the nature of information required. Knatterd et al (1998), „„data collection is the process of
gathering and measuring information on variables of interest systematically in order to
answer research questions test hypothesis and evaluate outcomes.‟‟ The accurate outcome of
the whole research is hinged on the strength and weakness of tools used. Social research
makes use of two main sources of data; primary and secondary (Globusz, 2001). The
research utilized both sources to achieve depth of data gathered on Islamic radicalism or
Political Islam and Al Qaeda.
1.9.3.1 Documentary Search
Documentary search data collection technique was used as the main qualitative data
collection method in the research. The search involved extensive use of literature to gather
the requisite information on fundamentalism and Al Qaeda activities and their impact on
global security. According to Casley and Lury (1986:70) „„documentary search is analysis of
literature written on the subject.‟‟ The research made extensive use of literature written by
renowned Islamic scholars some of them founding members of Islamic radicalism who
informed and inspired organisations like Al Qaeda among others. Documentary search
provided the author with invaluable information on Islam as a religion, the origins of
fundamentalism and the current discourse on Islamic violence (Islamophobia) and its generic
link to international terrorism.
1.9.3.2 Key Informant Interviews
Key Informant Interviews (KII) were used to complement questionnaires. Slocum et al
(1995:25) „„KII are face to face discussions with interviewees who have knowledge of the
subject. The advantage of this in depth interview is that clarifications and immediate
feedback is provided.‟‟ KII availed to the author critical information on Islam as a religion,
origins of fundamentalism and its perceived link to international terrorism. The interviews
helped to bring out information pertaining the myth of islamophobia. Of interest were the
origins and motivation of Al Qaeda and its global jihad against the West. The author had an
opportunity to infer additional information from the interviewee‟s body languages and
attitudes on certain topical aspects. KII enabled the author to have first hand information
from the Moslem community in Zimbabwe and some Embassy officials of countries that
were at one time targets of international terrorism.
1.9.3.3 Questionnaire
Questionnaires were used for respondents in Embassies and Islamic community in
Zimbabwe. According to Bell (1999:45) a questionnaire is, „„a technique of data collection in
which basically each respondent is asked to respond to the same set of questions.‟‟
Questionnaires enable responses to be collected from more respondents. Respondents are
required to answer precise questions which enable the objective of the research to be
achieved.
1.9.4 Data Analysis Procedure
All data gathered in this study was analysed using themes. According to Bryman, (2001:22)
Thematic analysis is, „„the compiling of data of events, activities and emotions through
inductive reasoning, thinking and theorizing and inferring recurring themes.‟‟ Data analysis
was carried out on information from KII. Thematic analysis assisted in comparing Islam,
what it is and what it stands for and its subset Fundamentalism with other conventional
religions, how they have related to political and socio-economic developments. Data is
presented in tables, maps, photos and narratives are explained in the following paragraph.
1.9.5 Data Presentation
Data presentation seeks to provide the data analysed in a systematic way to bring out the
requisite answers and meaning of the research. Data presentation in this research will be
presented in words, pictures, maps and tables showing the various regions, Al Qaeda
leadership, committees and organisation and activities of Al Qaeda. The data will show how
the activities of fundamentalism through non state actors like Al Qaeda have impacted on
national, regional and international security.
1.10 Limitations
The study encountered challenges in getting willing respondents in Muslim population
forthcoming in discussing such sensitive issues around their religion. Consequently there
were fewer respondents than anticipated. Convincing them to open up was a mammoth task;
History has also shown that the subject of fundamentalism and terrorism are emotional issues
in Islam and therefore few were eager to discuss these issues with a non-Muslim. In order to
obviate these challenges the study also heavily relied on documentary search.
1.11Delimitations
The study primarily confined to the origins and growth of fundamentalism and what
motivates Al Qaeda in their Jihad against the US and its allies. In an endeavor to understand
the motivation of Al Qaeda the study brought out key tenets of Islam and selected influential
scholars who inform the religion. The study also brought out how the religion as a social
structure is constituted and how it interacts in the dynamics of international politics and
security as is evidenced by the impact of Al Qaeda activities on global security.
CHAPTER 2
ORIGINS OF FUNDAMENTALISM, AL QAEDA AND HOW RELIGION HAS
BECOME A POLITICAL TOOL
2.1 Introduction
This chapter gives a synopsis of Islam, what it is and explores the origins of religious
fundamentalism and the use of religion as a political tool. The degree and depth of support
fundamentalism enjoys within some Arab States as well as the contradictions between Islam
and fundamentalism on the use of violence to establish an international Caliphate will also be
brought out in this chapter. Issues of biases, prejudice and Islamophobia by the West will be
analysed against the background that fundamentalism emerged as a crisis in the Middle East
and the international community which led to a cultural revolt to de-westernize the Muslim
world.
Fault lines between Islam and other religions from textual interpretations proffering insights
into what the religions stand for are also analysed. The true perspective is presented based on
primary and secondary evidence from institutions and officials in institutions such as
Embassies, the Islamic Education Centre, the Islamic community in Zimbabwe and renowned
authors also provide information presented in this chapter.
2.2 Islam: A Religion of Peace
Islam according to Muslims is a religion of peace and entails a complete and comprehensive
way of life; by living in it and through it, it governs every facet of a Muslim‟s life. Because
Islam is comprehensive Muslims want the whole world to experience this
comprehensiveness. Interestingly Fundamentalism pursues the same objective but their
departure point is on use of violence. Islam is based on the individuals‟ relationship with
God guided by the five pillars; faith, prayer, fasting, Zakat (financial institution) and (Hajj)
pilgrimage. The Prophet Muhammad himself was a pacifist and signed peace treaties with
Christians and Pagans. Islam is not against non Muslims or other religions and not all
Muslims are against the West. Islam is also unique it does not have a hierarchical Papal
structure, (Interviews, Embassy and Islamic Education Centre Officials).
Islam and Fundamentalism have the same objectives therefore for all purposes and intent
they are same. By implication Islam has failed to maintain peace in the Middle East. In Iraq
Sunni Al Qaeda through its affiliate Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) incite sectarian violence by
attacking Shia Mosques at; Imam Ali, Ashura and Karbala. After Saddam‟s death the US
formed a Shia police force which vented its anger on Saudi Arabia sponsored Sunni
community. In Egypt the Shia revolted against the Sunni Moslem Brotherhood leading to the
current impasse with the powerful military. Morsi was disposed and imprisoned together
with thousands of his supporters waiting trial. Al Jazeera News 25 March 2014 reported that
more than 500 Moslem Brotherhood supporters were sentenced to death.
2.2.1 Contradictions between Islam and Fundamentalism
The contradictions between Islam and fundamentalism emanate from various reasons.
Abukhalil (2002:29) argues that, “it is not theology that drives fundamentalism but issues of
politics and economics, creating a climate within which they misuse religion.‟‟ The major
concerns are around issues of human rights, imposition of sharia law, freedom from religious
policing, equality between men and women, separation of religion and state and freedom of
speech. (Interviews, Embassy and Islamic Education Centre Officials). Ironically
Fundamentalists and mainstream Islam all go to the same Mosque, It is their orientation only
which is at odds with each other creating a dilemma of separating them.
Fundamentalism believes the problems bedeviling the world emanate from secular systems
and therefore they must be replaced through violence by a Caliphate. Islam on the other
hand and some Fundamentalist groups advocates for incremental reform to change political
regimes by joining governments through elections like the Moslem Brotherhood in Egypt
and Hezbollah in Lebanon (Interviews Embassy Officials).
2.2.2 Major Branches of Islam
According to the American Heritage (2005), „„in most Arab states, the Shiite and Sunni make
up the two major branches of Islam. Within the Sunni has emerged a small group who are
principled following religiously the basic tenets of the Quran and the Sunnah.‟‟ This hard-
line approach later turned into fundamentalism. Qutb (1981:27) a renowned fundamentalism
author in support of this hardliner stance argued that, „„for the entire human race, there is
only one way of life, which is right in the eyes of God and this is al-Islam”. (Interviews,
Islamic Education Centre Officials).
2.2.3 Sharia Law
Islamic law forms the basis of Islam and has evolved over the years and in some states like
Tunisia and Turkey the law has been adapted to suit prevailing situations yet in other
fundamentalist states like Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia and Iran it is applied in the original
form. Western culture has also influenced Sharia law in terms of codification, courts
systems, the appeal systems and the division of law into family and criminal law. Sharia is
believed to have numerous violations of human rights embedded in its statutes like the
discrimination of women and other non Muslims groups coupled with bureaucracy and
corruption, acceptance of international law on human rights has been limited in the region
(Tibi1995:23). Mayer (1999:58) in agreement argues that, „„in 1990 the OIC under Saudi
Arabia leadership adopted the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam diverting from
the UDHR of 1948.‟‟ Under the law killing is justified and this makes implementations and
imposition of the law contentious in many Arab states. Sharia law does not guarantee human
rights and many other basic rights for women. The adoption of the Cairo Declaration by OIC
was a tragedy for natural justice in Islamic states.
2.2.4 Origins of Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism was based on a minority group of Sunni Muslims who wanted to return to
basic values of Islam. At that time it was not a problem to be principled in following Islam.
As the West increased its influence in the region the hardliners began voicing their concern
over the westernization of their values and beliefs. On the other hand traditional
fundamentalism had been introduced by Jamal al- Afghari, Muhammad Abdul and Rashita
Rida in the 19th
century (Hillman 2007:49).
Frisch and Inbar (2008:13) believe Qutb the Egyptian leader of the Moslem Brotherhood
introduced the revolutionary agenda in fundamentalism and the idea of Jihad as a permanent
Islamic world revolution to establish God‟s wills Hikkimiyyat Allah. Jihad uses suicide
bombers (Interviews, Embassy Officials). In Palestine the US provides the Israel army with
state of the art weapons while the PLO has outdated weapon systems and some even throw
stones. Israel receives in excess of $1 billion per year in military aid. The Intifada has a basis
to be justified from a Palestinian perspective as they are fighting occupation of their land.
2.3. The West and its Islamophobia
In the eyes of the West, Islam is violent; this has created an oriental phobia for Islam
(Islamophobia) an ideology of hostility which after the cold war has attributed everything evil
to Islam. In support of this assertion, Lewis (1993:76) believes that, „„all Muslims have
similar characteristics and mode of behavior, and their nasty behavior can be attributed to the
Quran which provides spiritual revelations central to fundamentalism dogma.‟‟ Surprisingly
Christian groups and Klan Klux Klan (KKK) criminals carry out violent acts or burn abortion
clinics no one complains. The 1968 assassination of Robert Kennedy by Palestinian Sirhan
Sirhan was used to label all Palestinians as terrorists (Abukhalil, 2002:24-30). The obsession
of the West with Islam is historical and a civilisational struggle between the two. Although it
is possible to locate anti Jewish passages in the Quran, Islam is not against non Muslims
(Interviews, Islamic Education Centre Officials).
After 9/11, the Guardian of 20 December 2001 reported that from 01 December when
“Operation Enduring Freedom” started to end of December 2001, the US bombing and
Drones killed about 3767 civilians in Afghanistan and in total the US killed more than 10 000
civilians. Mamdani (2002;23) argues on the hypocrisy of the West ignoring their violence and
trail of instability in Libya once a success now a failed state, Iraq evidenced by the anarchy
and Lebanon. The West has also tried to divide the Muslims by advancing the idea of a good
and bad Muslim.
2.3.1 Battle for the Holy Land
The occupation of the „holy land‟ and Defence of the „holy land‟ contributed to rise of
fundamentalism. The killing of Palestinian civilians and occupation of Jerusalem‟s sacred al-
Aqsa Mosque where Muhammad ascended to heaven has angered the Muslims. Osama Bin
Laden cited in Lawrence (2006:30) argued that, “The greatest disaster to befall the Muslims
since the death of Muhammad is the occupation of Saudi Arabia.‟‟ The revival of Islam
according to Milton-Edwards (2000:123) started „„after the Arabs defeat in the 1967 Six Days
War, This defeat was an end of Pan-Arabism and failure of nationalist regimes. The defeat
offered an opportunity to Fundamentalism who moved in quickly to become opposition
political movements in the Middle East; Moslem Brotherhood in Egypt, Hezbollah in
Lebanon, SCIRI and al-Mahdi in Iraq.‟‟
The revival was later boosted by the1979 Iran revolution which ushered in an Islamic regime
which challenge the US during the Teheran US Embassy crisis as well as the 2006 Lebanon
war between Hezbollah and Israel which resulted in deployment of UNFIL was another
victory for fundamentalism as there was no winner. (Interviews, Embassy Officials).
2.3.2 US Foreign Policy
US foreign policy in the Middle East was driven by Cold War strategies to defeat
communism, but after the Cold War the foreign policy has been causing frosty relations with
Arab states because of increased support of Israel with the assistance of the Israel Lobby
Group in the US. During the Clinton era this contributed to the surge of antagonism. US
relations with Israel dates back to 1944 when Israel‟s military intelligence where used to
check the balance of power and expansion of communism with the establishment of pro-
Russian governments in Egypt, Syria and Iraq. Israel receives more aid than the whole sub-
Sahara Africa to enable US to maintain influence in the Middle East. USA forged strong ties
with Saudi Arabia during the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 in exchange for oil, weapons and
protection. The US action challenges the notion that it is the champion for democracy and
human rights (Abukhalil 2002:31). The attitude of US towards Israel‟s neighbors has caused
friction in the region. The invasion and overthrow of Sunni in Iraq and replacing them with
the Shia in key security institutions has created tension and retribution and today Iraq is
gradually sliding into a failed state. Their intervention in Libya has left the country in turmoil
(Interviews, Embassy Officials).
2.3.3 Decline in European Nationalism
The decline of nationalism in Europe after the two wars in a way contributed to rise of
fundamentalism. Hillman cited in Frisch and Inbar (2008:153) agrees that, „„the general
decline of nationalism in Europe, globalisation and the low birth rate opened flood gates for
Muslim migration into Europe spreading Islam in the process.‟‟ During that time the
continent failed to speak or act in common agreement on fundamentalism. But European
actions were also causing untold suffering in the Middle East. The United Nations (UN)
Report (2004) reported that more than a million children died in Iraq as a result of the
sanctions imposed on Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait. Muslims believe this is a worse form
of terrorism that is not being regarded by the West.
2.3.4 Lack of Development in Arab States
The lack of meaningful development and good governance in Arab States regardless of oil
revenue also contributed to the rise in fundamentalism. Over and above growing
unemployment, and general social crisis in the region, a result of unequal opportunities led to
decline in morality and there was a danger of religion being eclipsed by western influence on
socio-economic developments. Societal fabrics disappeared, people were measured in terms
of wealth not what they are. The ruling elite were content in getting rich and little was done
to develop more representative polities in their states (Hillman cited in Frisch and Inbar
2008:45-52).
In most Arab states there were no plans in place to end unemployment or guarantee a bright
future for the population. This led to dissatisfaction with the system as well as the ruling elite
(Interviews, Embassy and Islamic Education Centre Officials). Figure for development
indicators are at Table 1. The table gives insight in the low development levels in terms of
human development. Muslim economic policies subordinates economic growth therefore
economies cannot use their ingenuity. Sharia law is restrictive and does not provide a
conducive environment for donors.
Table 1. Development Indicators
Category Mortality Rate
under -
5yrs
Life expectancy
Sec school
enrolment
Boy to girl ratio
Literacy HDI Position
High Income
US
Aust
7.6
5.5
77.4
79.9
94.5
153.8
100
98
99
99
0.944
0.955
10
03
Mid Income
China
Turkey
31.0
32.0
71.4
69.9
70.3
85.3
98.5
85.1
90.9
87.7
0.755
0.750
85
94
Oil
Iran
40.3
70.8
81.9
100
77.0
0.736
99
Non Oil
Egypt
36.3
70.2
86.9
94
57.7
0.659
119
Sub Sahara Africa
Kenya
119.3
48.3
78.0
94.1
73.6
0.494
154
Source: http://web.worldbank.org
2.4 Politicisation of Religion and Religionisation of Politics
Politicisation of religion and religionisation of Muslim politics led to fundamentalism from
the hard line stance. Adamson (2011:6) agrees with this assertion and, argues that, “Islam in
the eyes of fundamentalists is „sui generis’ and transcendal set of beliefs which are above all
other religions.‟‟ fundamentalism opposes all social injustices and inequality, sectarianism,
enlightenment, secularism, democracy, nationalism, Marxism and relativism. (Interviews,
Diplomatic Officials). Fundamentalists differ from main stream Islam in the interpretations of
Prophet Muhammad‟s writings which they believe others are deviating from. While Islam has
inspired a great civilization extending to non Muslims experience of exceptionally enriched
lives, fundamentalism has inculcated a culture of hatred and violence against non Muslims
(Mandeville, 2007:465).
2.4.1 Link Between Church and State
Muslims believe the failure to separate religion from state is historical and cultural, which
can be attributed to the belief in one sovereign God and the religion as a way of life. It is this
oneness which according to Qutb is a model for achieving international peace through
Hikkimiyyat Allah (G0d‟s will) which can only be achieved through Islam. On the contrary
Lewis (1990:46) argues that, “the failure by Arab states to separate church and state is
historical. Christians interpret their scripture: „„render unto Caesar what belongs to Caesar
and to God what belongs to God, as basis for separation of the two institutions‟‟, conflict of
interest may occur but can be amicably solved.‟‟ In some states like Pakistan the constitution
expressly states that Islam will not be used for any political objectives. Map of Middle East is
at map 1. The achievement of an Islamic Caliphate just like in Karl Marx‟s „classless
society,‟ is difficult to achieve because of the diversity of cultures and complexity of
governance (Interviews, Embassy Officials).
Map 1: Map of Middle East
Source: Map data@2014
2.5 Re-Imaging of Islam the Historical Context
The re-imaging of Islam is spearheaded by fundamentalism brings together Muslim
constituencies as a transnational community and serves as ground for mobilization. Tibi
(1995:56) argues that „„one of the major objectives of Fundamentalism is the reinvention of
Islam‟s past glory „Sahwa Islamista‟ into a new international religion by revolting against
Western influence. This revolt is motivated by a recollection of past glories as a basis of
future survival of Islam.‟‟ This returning to history of civilisations contradicts Fukuyama‟s
(1992) prediction of „the end of history‟. Whilst Aristotle (1961:197) argues that, „humans
are political animals by nature‟. Neither the Jihad nor the Caliphate seems to offer any
alternatives to pluralism. This makes the achievement of Islam and Fundamentalism
objective impracticable.
2.6 Al Qaeda and the Metamorphosis of Muslim Rage
Al Qaeda was founded by Osama Bin Laden in Peshawar Pakistan in August 1989 after the
Afghanistan war; the aim was to complement the global Salafi Jihad started in the early
1980‟s by adopting an offensive phase. Al Qaeda means „foundation‟ or „base‟. During the
Afghanistan war, Abu Ubaida established a military training camp referred to as „the base’
since most of Al Qaeda’s founding members came from the base the name was adopted from
that.
Muslim rage emanates from various reasons earlier on alluded to. Main focus is to rid the
region of Western influence. Although Bin Laden is dead and the remaining leadership is on
the run the organisation is believed to be potent and intact. However, more than a decade
after 9/11 and Al Qaeda’s current failure to take decisive action in Egypt where its affiliate
the Islamic Moslem Brotherhood is under siege from the military may be indicative of a
diminishing capacity of the once vibrant organisation (Interviews, Embassy Officials). In
Egypt the complicity of the military is evidence and symbiotic influence of the West.
2.6.1 Bin laden and the CIA Connection
The CIA contributed to the formation of Al Qaeda through funding the Pakistan‟s Secret
Service and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar a Mujahedeen leader (founder of „Hezbollah)‟to fighting
the Soviet occupation. The funding was later withdrawn because of Bin Laden‟s continuing
inclination for radicalism. Before the formation of Al Qaeda the International Muslim
Organization „Maktab al-Khidamat’ (MAK) the „Service Office‟ led by Abdullah Yusuf
Azzam recruited about 250,000 Afghan Mujahedeen, 35,000 foreign Muslim volunteers from
about 43 countries to fight in the Afghan war. MAK was sponsored by the Pakistan Secret
Service, Saudi government and wealthy Arab individuals including Bin Laden, combined
they provided $600 million annually.(Lawrence:2006).
2.6.2 The Rise of Al Qaeda
When the Afghan war started in 1979, Bin Laden came to Afghanistan and successfully
organised, funded and equipped the Arab Mujahedeen to resist the invasion. Bin Laden and
Ayman al-Zawahiri, became more radical in nature and in 1996 and 1998 Bin Laden issued
his first and second „Fatwa’s‟ directed at America to remove its troops from Saudi Arabia
and stop support to Israel. In both Fatwa‟s Bin Laden used Quran texts to whip the emotions
of Muslims to attack American interests anywhere in the world. It is the use of these Quran
texts in their jihad creating an unbreakable umbilical code between violence and the religion
(Lewis: 1990). Sura (2:190) outlines that, „„fight in the way of God with those who fight you,
but aggress not, God loves not the aggressor.” The first Fatwa was a declaration of war
against the US and its allies. True to its warning Al Qaeda in June 1996 attacked the Khobar
Towers in Saudi Arabia killing 19 US citizens and wounded 372 (Interviews Embassy and
Islamic Education Centre officials).
Figure 1. Khoba Towers
According to Lindblom (1975:245) „„Fundamentalists leaders; Bin Laden, Zawahiri,
Ahmadinejad and Nasrallah have perfected their way of using „Perceptoralism‟ to lure
prospective recruits, through persuasion to accept radicalism and secondly inculcate an angry
rejection of European culture and creating a sense of Muslim victimhood. Horrors suffered
by other Muslims in Bosnia, Chechnya, Palestine, Afghanistan and Iraq are used as
illustrations.‟‟ The commonality of approach by radical Muslims in defending Afghanistan
motivated the creation of Al Qaeda and other groups. Al Qaeda affiliated groups are
indicated at table 2.
In 1998, through the World Islamic Front for Combat Against the Jews, Bin laden ordered all
Muslims across the globe to attack US targets in order to liberate the „holy land‟, free Al Aqsa
Mosque in Jerusalem and the „holy Mosque‟ in Mecca, as an order from Allah.‟‟ Of interest
however that is according to Islam, a Fatwa can only be issued by a head of state who can
declare war on another state. In this instance Al Qaeda rejected this authority as compromised
and declared and issued the Fatwas (Rahman, 1972:44). Bin laden, Azzam and Ali
Mohammed a former Special Forces Sergeant trained at Fort Bragg were responsible for
planning all operations. On 8 November 1990, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
raided a New Jersey home of Nosair a close ally of Ali Mohammed and recovered material of
intended terrorist targets in New York and other cities. Mohammed was later arrested in US
and convicted of the 1993 World Trade Centre bombing. After the Soviet defeat in
Afghanistan in February 1999 Bin laden returned to Saudi Arabia where his father had built a
wealthy construction empire.
Table 2: Al Qaeda Direct and Indirect Affiliates
Serial Direct Affiliates In Direct Affiliates
1. Al Qaeda in Iraq
2. Al Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb
3. Al Shabaab in Somalia
4. Egypt Islamic Jihad
5. Al Qaeda Arab Peninsula
6. Al Qaeda Saudi Arabia
7. Islamic Jihad Yemen
8.
9 .
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Islamic Movement East Turkestan
Islamic Movement Uzbekistan
Taliban
Al-Nusra front
Caucasus Emirate
Fatah al-Islam
Lashkar-e-Taiba
Jaish-e-Mohammed
Jemaah Islamiyah
Abu Sayyaf
Rajah Suleiman Movement
Islamic Jihad Union
Jihad in West Africa (Movement of Oneness)
Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group
Boko Haraam (Nigeria)
Source: Al Sahaab. com
2.6.3 The Iraq Invasion
The Iraq invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 and Saddam‟s call for Pan-Arab/Islamism posed
serious security implications for Saudi Arabia. The Saudi forces were well trained and armed
but they were outnumbered by the Iraq forces. Bin laden offered Saudi Arabia the services of
his tried and tested Mujahedeen forces but the Saudi Monarch of King Fahd refused the offer
and opted for US protection. This angered Bin laden because the presence of foreign troops in
the land of the two mosques (Mecca and Medina) profaned sacred soil (Interview diplomatic
official).
Because of the fall out between Bin laden and the Monarch, in 1992 at 39 Bin Laden was
forced into exile in Sudan. While in Sudan he invested in a lot of business ventures and also
planned all future operations. His activities in Sudan led to the bombing of Sudan by the US
in 1993 and Sudan expelled Bin Laden. (Interview Islamic Education Centre Officials).
Because of the importance Muslims place on their holy land Bin laden had every reason for a
standoff with the Saudi Monarch.
2.6.4 Al Qaeda as a Terror Organization
Al Qaeda because of its activities was designated a terrorist organization by the United
Nations Security Council, and most of the European countries led by the US and the EU. List
of organisations and countries that have declared Al Qaeda a terrorist organization are at table
3. The then Secretary General of the UN Annan (2005:35) pointed out that, „„terrorism is a
threat to all that UN stands for, transnational terrorism has acquired global reach that make
common cause to pose a universal threat.‟‟ For developing countries that got their
independence through liberation struggle the term „terrorist‟ is synonymous with heroism and
struggle for emancipation, therefore depending from the individual stand point the term can
have different meanings.
Table: 3 Countries and organisations that declared Al Qaeda a terrorist organisation
Serial Country Organisation
1.
2.
3.
United States of America (USA)
United Kingdom (UK)
India
United Nations (UN)
European Union (EU)
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
4. Australia
5. Canada
Source: al-Sahaab.com
2.6.5 Organisation and Command Structure
Al Qaeda‟ uses „a centralised decision making and a decentralised execution model.‟ After
the declaration of „War on Terror‟ by the US, Al Qaeda leadership become geographically
dispersed (Frisch and Inbar, 2008). Over the years the organisation has evolved into a virtual
organisation and has assumed a new dynamic organisation of four groups; the Central group
which is the core leadership, affiliate groups, affiliates cells and the informal network which
include lone ranger individuals ( Hoffman 2006:36). Bin Laden before his death, was the
supreme commander (Emir) and ideological leader while regional groups had autonomy of
action in response to opportunities offered by the situation. The dispersion of the leadership
and the pressure of the international community hunt, are believed to have affected the
cohesion of Al Qaeda. The command structure of Al Qaeda has proved effective over the
years but with Bin laden dead the effectiveness is beginning to be questioned.
2.6.6 Field Forces (Holy Warriors)
Al Qaeda has a strong force supported and led from Pakistan. The organisation has moved
away from conventional bases to virtual cells networked on the social media globally.
Mobilization and training can be done on social media in different countries while equipment
needed for any tasks can be obtained from the targeted country. This approach was used in
the 9/11 attacks carried out by the „Hamburg Cell.‟ The attack was commanded by
Muhammad Atta the Egyptian, and the plan was to attack all targets in 20 minutes which they
achieved. The 9/11 attacks were meticulously planned and executed by Al Qaeda. The targets
selected, the World Trade Centre and Pentagon, were defining symbols of the US as a nation
where their economic and military power lies. In terms of loss of human life 3000 people
were killed and thousands wounded coupled with immeasurable trauma of the whole nation
and up to 2014 more than 6200 troops have died in Afghanistan and Iraq. (Adamson,
2011:34).
Figure: 2 The 9/11 attack: Twin Towers
Source: onlineislamicstore.com
Al Qaeda has two separate forces deployed alongside insurgent‟s forces in Iraq and Pakistan.
The first one composed of thousands Mujahedeen veterans of the Soviet- Afghanistan war.
The other group of about 10,000 is deployed in Western states where they leave. Most are
Arab, but from 2007 people from other races are joining. Of interest is that 62% of Al Qaeda
members have university qualifications. As at 2004, Al Qaeda Militants in Arab countries
were estimated to be as indicated at table 4.
Table 4: Al Qaeda Strength in Arab Countries
Serial Country Strength
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Afghanistan
Iraq
Maghreb region
Somalia
Nigeria
Pakistan
Egypt
Saudi Arabia
Yemen
Syria
50 – 100
2,500
300 – 800
4,000 – 6, 000
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
500 – 600
6,000 – 10,000
Source: Alqaeda.com
The strength is indicative that fundamentalists were just a small fraction of the generality of
Muslims (Interviews Embassy and Islamic Education centre officials).
2.6.7 War on Terror
After the 9/11 attack on the US the world has never been the same again as the US and its
allies unleashed their „War on Terror‟ machinery which has ruthlessly hunted down and
accounted for most of Al Qaeda leadership in Afghanistan and across the globe. Karon cited
in Time Magazine (2001) points out that, soon after the attack, the US President‟ famous
state address received mixed relations; „„over time it is going to be important for nations to
know they will be held accountable for inactivity against terrorism therefore in our endeavor
to fight terrorism you are either with us or against us in this fight.‟‟
After the US President‟s speech, there were protests in most Arab countries as a sign of
outrage at what the US government was planning to do. In Pakistan the police killed three
protesters who were denouncing President Musharaf stance of supporting US efforts against
Islam. Muslims the world over were angered by the wanton but uncondemned destruction and
loss of life. After 9/11, the Guardian of 20 December 2001 reported that from 01 December
when „Operation Enduring Freedom‟ started to end of December 2001, US bombing killed
about 3,767 civilians in Afghanistan and in total the US killed more than 10,000 civilians.
Drones have caused untold suffering among innocent civilians creating a violation of human
rights. A New American foundation survey (2011) reported that, „„as at May 2011, 242
drone strikes in North West Pakistan killed 2,364 people of whom only 1,893 were
militants‟‟(New American Survey 2011). The hypocrisy of the West is evident when they do
not see the amount of devastation their actions are causing on innocent civilians in the region
and elsewhere and the trail of instability they are leaving behind.
2.6.8 The Leadership
Al Qaeda has a dynamic leadership with a strong conviction that their cause is not an
ordinary cause but a unique calling from God. However since 9/11 the leadership has been on
the run but remain networked and can communicate, mobilize forces and funds and even train
for any tasks online. Of concern however is that: more than a decade after 9/11, the ability of
the organisation is yet to be shown and analysts are beginning to question their capability
(Adamson, 2011:8). With the death of bin laden, Al Qaeda’s inability to deal with the
Egyptian situation which has targeted the Moslem Brotherhood a strong affiliate of Al Qaeda
where it enjoys massive support seems to be indication of possible lack of capacity of the
organisation (Interviews Embassy officials).
Figure: 3 Syyid Qutb: The father of fundamentalism
Source: onlineislamicstore.com
Qutb was born in Egypt in 1906 and graduated from Colorado US with a teaching degree. He
experienced the corruption of western secularism. Back in Egypt he founded the Moslem
Brotherhood in 1928 and led it during the 1950s -60s revolution. He wrote extensively on
fundamentalism and in one of his prominent influential publications the „Milestone‟
castigates corruption of moderate Muslims and non-Muslims. His writings influenced Bin
Laden and other radical spiritual leaders. He strongly believed that true and legitimate
governments are only those under sharia law and introduced violence to fundamentalism. He
opposed world corrupt systems like capitalism, secularism, atheism, imperialism and all
immorality. He was arrested for anti government activities and hanged by Nasser in 1966.
Qutb was a fearless and principled leader and activist, author, teacher and revolutionary. He
was the most influential activist in fundamentalism (Adamson 2011:17).
Figure 4: Osama bin Laden: the Face of Al Qaeda
Source:serapicpress.com
Born in Riyadh in 1957 to a Yemen father Muhammad Bin Laden who was close to King
Abdul Aziz. He was given opportunities to build a wealthy construction empire. Osama spent
most of his childhood in Jeddah, where as a young man he showed exceptional kin interest in
Islam and from a tender age opposed western influence in the kingdom‟s culture which he
said were anti-Islam. He Studied management at King Abdul Aziz University where he met a
Palestinian -Jordanian theologian and Islamist Abdullah Azzam. The two later contributed a
lot in the Afghan war and the formation of Al Qaeda. Osama bin Laden was the Emir
(commander) and Senior Operations Chief of Al Qaeda a fearless military commander in the
Afghanistan jihad managed to mould a small but loyal nucleus of fighters. He was advised by
a „Shura‟, Council of about 20 to 30 senior members. After the Afghan war Osama and other
Mujahedeen fighters returned to their countries. After his death on 1 May 2011 Saif Al-Adel
acted as Chief of Operations until Zawahiri took over on 16 June 2011. After 9/11 Osama
evaded capture for more than a decade until 01 May 2011 when a team of US Special Forces
located him in Abbottabad Pakistan and killed him together with one of his sons and wife.
Osama was a fearless military commander and the mastermind of the organisaton. He was a
principled and flexible leader (Adamson 2011:10).
Figure 5: Ayman Al-Zawahiri: The Lieutenant
Source:serapicpress.com
Zawahiri was born in Cairo, Egypt in 1951 and trained as a physician but had a passion for
Islamic history and theology. Lewis (1990:50) points out that, „„Zawahiri was born an activist
and he personifies contemporary radical Sunni Islam.‟‟ He was imprisonment after the
assassination of Sadat. After graduating from medical school, he went to Afghanistan where
he met Osama bin Laden and Abdullah Azzam and formed „World Islamic Front for Jihad
against Jews and Crusaders‟ in 1998. Zawahiri is the ideological leader responsible for
planning all Al Qaeda operations. In his book „Knights under the Prophet’s Banner,‟ he
outlined Al Qaeda‟s strategy after 9/11. He became the leader of Al Qaeda after Bin Laden‟s
death.
Figure 6: Abdullah Azzam: The Imam of Jihad
Source: Occidentblogspot.com
Azzam was a Palestinian religious scholar born in 1941. He wanted to study agriculture but in
1963 opted to study religion in Syria at the Islamic law School Damascus University where
graduated with a diploma in sharia law in 1966. He was influenced by the writings of earlier
scholars. Western analysts regarded Azzam as the „Godfather of Jihad‟ whilst radical
Islamists regarded him as the, „Imam of Jihad‟. During the Afghanistan war he was an
inspirational figure who through his two books, „The defense of Muslim Territories’ and ‘Join
the Caravan’, explains defensive Jihad and Islamic militancy.
He did not agree with Bin Laden on the focus of their Jihad after the Afghan war. He played
a crucial role in shaping Osama‟s worldview and in the Afghan war both believed they had
found their calling and that Jihad was a compulsory part of Islam. Azzam later joined the
Palestinian Jihad against Israel in 1967and was killed in a bomb explosion in 1989; there was
suspicion that Bin Laden and Zawahiri were involved.
Figure 7: Abu Musab Al-Zaraqawi: The Emir of Mesopotamia
He joined Al Qaeda in Afghanistan during the Russian invasion. He had no formal education
but was known for his ruthlessness and hatred for Americans and moderate Muslim
governments. He was jailed in Jordan for impersonation and arms trafficking. While in jail he
received a religious revival and on his release went to Pakistan and joined Bin Laden. After
the end of the war, he was active in the campaign of terror, assassinations, beheading and
attacks on Americans and Shi‟a Muslims in Iraq from 2003 to 2006. He beheaded US
contractor Nicholas Berg in 2005. Keppel, et al (2008:245) points out that, „„it was Osama
bin Laden who gave him the title, „Emir of Mesopotamia‟ in recognition of his ruthlessness.‟‟
He was opposed to Jordan government and carried out several ruthless attacks in the country
earning him internationally recognition as a ruthless militant violently opposed to the
presence of US and western forces in Islamic territory. He continued relentlessly to attack US
and Shi‟a Moslems in Iraq and also claimed to have attacked three hotels in Amman, Jordan.
On 7 June 2006 he was killed in a US air strike on his safe house north of Baghdad.
Figure.8 AnwarAl-Awlaki:TheAmericanMastermind
Awlaki was born in New Mexico and attended college before going back to Yemen. As a US
citizen his knowledge of US socio-economic issues was invaluable. He conspired with Major
Nidal Hasan in 2009 in the Fort Hood shooting in US and mentored the Nigerian Umar
Farouk Abdulmutallab who attempted to blow the Detroit passenger plane on Christmas day
in 2009. The US President Barak Obama signed a decree authorizing his killing by April
2010 making him the first US citizen on the CIA target list. In September 2011 he was killed
in a targeted drone attack in Yemen. These leaders constituted the „High Command‟ of Al
Qaeda, and convene as and when required. Other committees are at table 5.
Table 5: Al Qaeda Committees
Serial Committee Function
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Military
Business
Law
Islamic Study (Fatwa)
Media
Media Production
Training, acquisition of weapons and plan attacks
Recruitment, training, through bank system, utilizes
irregular banks, pay members, provide fake
documentation. Operates $30 million annual budget.
Reviews Sharia Law recommends action for conformity.
Issue religious edicts (1998 edicts Muslims to kill
Americans anywhere in the world).
Used to publish Nashrat al Akhbar in late 90s.
Established in 2005 (As-Sahab) for video and audio
material.
Source: Al- Sahab.com
2.6.9 The Concept of Jihad
The use of Jihad a term used in the Quran by Bin Laden when declaring war against Jews
and Crusaders has been sensationalised by the media. In the process the west has tried to
polarize the Muslims by reference to moderate Muslims as good Muslims and
fundamentalists as bad Muslims (Abukhalil 2002:29). Al Qaeda has used various techniques
in its global jihad; hijacking, murder, suicide attacks, assassinations, kidnapping and
simultaneous bombing of selected targets of military, civilians and non Muslim considered as
ex communicated (takfir).
2.6.10 Ideology
Al Qaeda‟s fundamentalism ideology envisions a world free from foreign influence
eventually creating a new world order (Islamic caliphate). Muslims belief is that, the
Christian – Jewish alliance is a conspiracy to destroy Islam because of their perception that
Islam rejects the legitimacy of the modern sovereign nation-state and seeks to establish a pan-
Islamic polity through jihad. Al Qaeda has been at the forefront of instigating sectarian
violence among Muslims. Some moderate Muslims believe Al Qaeda is intolerant of non
Sunni Muslims and labels them as ex communicated (takfir). Al Qaeda believes that Shias,
Sufis and other liberal Muslims are heretic and have attacked their Mosques as was evidenced
in Yazidi Community bombing, Sadri City bombing, Ashoura Massacre and the April 2007
Baghdad bombings (Mandeville 2007:239). The main objective of fundamentalism is the
same but the means to achieve the objectives is different. The strength of the ideology of
fundamentalism has been the ability to rally people of different classes to their cause. On the
other hand its failure to be flexible just as Islam is monotheist and uncompromising.
2.7 Conclusion
Muslim politics and fundamentalism are being spearheaded by non state actors. Politicisation
of Islam and the religionisation of politics in the region have created a complex socio-politico
environment were all conflicts are regarded as religious wars. The global jihad against the
West has ushered in a concerted effort by Islamists to re-image Islam and replace the secular
liberal system with an Islamic caliphate. Islam is believed to be the only legitimate religion in
the eyes of god. Islam structures do not have a hierarchical Papal structure, but is bound
together by individual‟s belief and faith.
The capacity of Al Qaeda to carry out high profile attacks seem to be diminishing primarily
because after the 9/11 its leadership has been on the run as the whole international
community is searching for them. More than a decade after 9/11 the organisation has failed to
take decisive action in Egypt one of its strongholds.
Many suggestions have been offered by scholars on how to deal with fundamentalism. The
cultivation of nationalism in European states as well as having a commonality of approach in
dealing with the challenge. US Foreign Policies must also be in line with developments in the
Middle East and must focus on addressing the root cause of the challenge not the symptoms.
CHAPTER 3
EFFECT OF RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM ON INTERNATIONAL
SECURITY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter will examine the relationship between fundamentalism and International
security. Fundamentalism has caused chaos in the Middle East and other regions, as they
pursue their objective to remove secular regimes and create a caliphate. The Arab springs
were not home grown and produced intended and unintended outcomes. The springs were
Western instigated to remove socialist regimes like Gaddafi but also affected pro Western
leaders like Mubarak. Economically the cost of war has affected most countries: US, Asia,
Europe and Africa. It will take many years for the affected countries to recover. The cost of
9/11 attacks to the US in terms of human, material and financial resources was enormous.
Socially the life of people in the Middle East and the world over has been affected. For Arab
countries because of the implications of Sharia law on policies their development has been
slow.
The zeal, ruthlessness of Jihad and global reach of Al Qaeda has every reason to cause
concern throughout the world. The death of Bin Laden seems to have affected the
effectiveness of Al Qaeda. But has the death of Bin Laden weakened the organisation at all?
And more than a decade after 9/11 is the lull in Al Qaeda activities an indication of a fading
Al Qaeda? The chapter will attempt to answer these questions and compare fundamentalism
with Christian community oriented organisations in an attempt to infer the degree of impact
of Al Qaeda activities on international security.
3.2 Basis of Fundamentalism
To clearly understand the effect of fundamentalism on international security, issues of
religion, ethnicity and culture should be considered as traditional value systems in the
Muslim world. Modernisation has not benefited all societies in the same way and there has
never been an equitable distribution of wealth. This has created resistance and seeking of
identity as a platform to rectify these anomalies. One of these platforms has been
fundamentalism, which aims at replacing the socio, economic, cultural and political systems
of the secular world contrary to Christian religious groups that aim at improving the
livelihood of societies and have grown in utility (Interview Islamic Education Centre
Officials).
Muslims over the years have been violated by the West without anyone raising an eyebrow
on the devastation and suffering of the Muslims. In Burma Muslims continue to be killed, in
Palestine, Israel kills innocent civilians but the West has not raised any concern. 9/11 was a
symbolic fight back by Muslims but surprisingly there has been an international outcry and
condemnation of the attack. Adamson (2011:31) points out that, Bin laden in response to this
condemnation argued that, „„those who condemn 9/11 have viewed it in isolation, and have
failed to connect it to previous events or the reason behind it.‟‟
3.2.1. International Security
According to Williams (2008:7) „„security is associated with the relation of threats to
cherished values, those if left unchecked will threaten the survival of a particular individual.‟‟
On the other hand the UN Report: More Secure World (2004), lists terrorism as a threat to
international security which requires collective national, regional and international effort to
deal with. Fundamentalism through dynamic transnational non state actors like Al Qaeda
which has a capacity for global reach has every cause for concern.
Fundamentalism portrayal and appeal to Islam as complete way of life which offers an
alternative to westernization, secularism and materialism that threaten Muslim societies has
created a complex international threat. The threat has manifested in the form of the creation
of the intended international Islamic caliphate. The threat of terrorism is real as is evidenced
by the spread the spread of Al Qaeda activities across the globe. However their intention of
creating an Islamic Caliphate may be farfetched because of the diversity of cultures.
Ault (2001:31) argues that, „„Fundamentalism affects security by the mode of asymmetric
warfare it utilises, the 4th
Generation War (4GW).‟‟ The international community in response
should shift from the conventional counter terrorism war and perhaps go beyond and focus on
issues around culture, religion and ideology.
3.2.2 Political Effect of Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism has caused ripple effects on the global political system; in US government
foreign policy is influenced by the approach to the Middle East crisis. In the Middle East
Fundamentalism has become a powerful opposition movement in most countries; Egypt,
Lebanon and Iraq. Al Qaeda through its affiliates has caused political upheaval in the region
as it causes sectarian division and instability (Interviews with Diplomatic Officials). Islamic
regimes that have participated in elections and governments have not fared well. This has led
to a reformation of some movements like Hezbollah and Muslim Brotherhood to accept to go
into elections in an attempt to achieve gradual reformation of secular regimes.
3.2.3 Fundamentalism in the Middle East
According to Lewis (1993:65), „„Fundamentalism has proved to be incompatible with
democracy although it claims to be against inequality, religious symbolism and social
deprivation.‟‟ It has however emerged as a major opposition force in the Middle East
motivated by the diversity of support it enjoys. The advent of the Arab springs in Tunisia,
Egypt, Algeria, Libya, Bahrain and Yemen though initially not directly linked to
fundamentalism, produced intended and unintended outcomes which were capitalised on by
fundamentalism. Fundamentalism has exploited the political instability in the transitional
period in the region (Interviews Diplomatic and Islamic Education Centre Officials). It is
Western democracy that is the diversity of these cultures. Different cultures have different
traditions and approaches to democracy.
3.2.3.1 Egypt
UN Canada Association Report (2012) points out that, „„the Moslem Brotherhood
phenomenal rise in the 1928 to 1950‟s led by its founder Banna, through the grass roots
support sustained it through the brutal oppression of Nasser until it nearly created a classless
society in Egypt. Its appeal extended beyond Egypt.‟‟ During the Arab springs Mubarak was
ousted and after elections the Moslem Brotherhood came into power. The regime did not
waste time and amassed power around itself creating problems with the Shia community and
the powerful military. The struggle in the country has continued between the military and the
Moslem Brotherhood. President Morsi was deposed by the military and is currently in prison
awaiting trial.
The country has not been stable, it has failed to come up with a social contract and has
compiled three constitutions and there still seems to be no agreement on the proper
constitution for the state. The situation generally has remained volatile and chaotic in Egypt.
Blood continues to be shed and the turmoil has taken a toll on the country‟s economy.
Fundamentalism has not fared well in Egypt in the short period that Morsi has been in power.
Egypt was critical in regional stability and security of Israel. There is evident involvement of
outside influence in Egypt, the US is afraid of losing its influence in the region if Islamic
regimes are allowed to come to power. This failure by Al Qaeda to take decisive action in
Egypt has been seen as a weakening in the organisation after the death of Osama Bin laden
(Interviews Diplomat and Centre for Islamic Education officials).
3.2.3.2 Libya
After the ouster and eventual assassination of Maummar Gaddafi Libya has not stabilized.
The West intervened in Libya during the uprising caused untold destruction to infrastructure.
Therefore fundamentalism may not be holy blamed for the political mess in Libya but the
west as well. The West destroyed a thriving economy into a failed state. Instability seems to
be ideal for the US and its allies just like Iraq to acquire oil. The population is fragmented
along tribal lines with affiliations to various militia groups making the National Transitional
Council tasks of establishing government institutions difficult. Al Qaeda has taken advantage
of this confusion by controlling parts of the country through militia groups like the Libya
Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG). The Libyan uprising was unique in that Jihad volunteers
from Iraq and other countries came to assist. Up to today parts of the country are under the
control of Islamic groups. AQIM is very active in the country trying to establish itself (CRS
2011).
3.2.3.3 Sahel and Sinai Peninsula
AQIM and AQAP have been active in the two regions making the regions ungovernable and
this has impacted negatively on the economies of the affected countries. The coup in Mali
was a consequence of instability and was assisted by Jihadists from Libya. The situation in
Algeria, Mauritania and Niger remain volatile. The increasing influence of Al Qaeda in the
region has political and security implications for the region and internationally. The Egyptian
military led government has been barricading the people from moving into and out of Gaza to
check on the movement of fundamentalist supplies and force (Interview, Embassy Officials).
3.3 Muslim’s Real Terrorist
Over the years fundamentalists have strongly opposed Western perception that Islam is a
violent religion and it supports terrorism and tried to bring out the terrorism of the West.
Most Muslims however believe that the actions of the West in Palestine, Bosnia, Lebanon
and Afghanistan were targeting Islam. US instigated sanctions on Iraq through UN
Resolution 661/90 led to unwarranted suffering of innocent people and the subsequent death
of about 600,000 children due to lack of food and inadequate medical facilities. This
translated into a child dying every 12 minutes, 250 people dying each day and about 90,000
people died in Iraq in a year. Al Qaeda believes this is clear terrorism again Muslims
(UNICEF Report1998).
3.4 ECONOMIC IMPACT
3.4.1Effect of Islamic Culture on Economies
Islamic beliefs and values have had a devastating effect on the general economic
development of Arab states. Weber (1958:40) argues, „„religious beliefs and values systems
in any state have far reaching economic ramifications.” Islamic economic policies mirror
religion aligned and controlled institutions. There seems to be little regard for economic
development in Islam. Radicalism imposes stringent rules on donors based on
uncompromising allegiance to supreme values translating to rent seeking. In other words
Islam subordinates economic development. To make matters worse Islam legal and economic
institutions have not learnt from history, particularly why the industrial revolution happened
in other areas and bypassed the Arab world. Interestingly Muslim secular states: Turkey,
Tunisia and Lebanon have been developing economically leading to economic disparities in
the Arab world. The gap between the rich and the poor has remained. The rich who comprise
about 20% have 70 – 80% of GNP, whilst the poor share only about 5%. Fundamentalists
have not missed this disparity and have exploited this social injustice (Hillman 2007). The
ideological rigidity of Islam culture renders Arab countries incapable of economic prosperity.
Rushdie (1988:51), also brought out the evils of Islam and compared it with the West, „„the
paradox with the UK with regard to freedom of expression is that even radicals and their
mosques have moved from Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia and established themselves in the
very West that they denigrate.‟‟ Most economies are driven by intellectual property and
market forces. Muslim policies seem to limit scope of these critical aspects to economic
development.
3.4.2 The Cost of 9/11
Osama bin Laden cited in Adamson (2011:36), revealed that, „„Al Qaeda spent about $500
000 in preparation planning and executing the 9/11 attacks, while the US government lost
more than $500 Billion.‟‟ The US stock market closed for almost two weeks after the attack.
The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) fell to lowest in history by 684 points (7.1%) to
8920 within the first week and further slipped to 1369.7 points (14.3%) the second week.
Consequently New York City GDP dropped by $27.3 billion for the rest of 2001 and the
whole of 2002.In real monetary terms the US stocks lost $1.2 Trillion in a week. In total US
spent $1.3 Trillion in Afghanistan and Iraq compared to $738 Billion spent in Vietnam. At
home the US government spent $31.7 billion in support of New York and another $70 billion
to the Homeland Security department. For the US is war the best solution to deal with this
challenge? (CRS 2011).
3.4.3 Effect on African Economies
Al Qaeda attacks in Africa and other regions have also impacted negatively on the affected
developing country‟s economies as they try to put in place new security measures at airports
and other places in an endeavor to protect them from further terrorist attacks. The 1998
bombing of the Kenyan and Tanzanian US Embassies were more than 300 people were killed
and more than 4000 were wounded caused extensive damage to infrastructure and
traumatized the locals. The 2013 Kenya Westgate attack was a case that put the impact of
fundamentalism to the fore. Kenya is still counting its losses from the attack. The presents of
Al Shabaab in Somalia has caused instability in the region and led to strain on economies of
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. These attacks on developing countries are putting a strain on
their on their economies as they are also struggling to bring meaningful development to their
people.
Globally the impact of fundamentalism has had ripple effects on many sections of the
economy. Soon after the 9/11 attack air transport globally witnessed marked decreases in
passengers utilizing air transportation. This reduction also had ripple effects in the hotel
industry as the numbers of tourists dwindled; consequently a lot of people were retrenched
across the economic spectrum.
3.5 Al Qaeda’s Media Strategy
The west especially the US made extensive use of their media in order to portray the Islamic
Al Qaeda as a terrorist organisation and convince the international society as well as their
population that there is justification in waging a war against Al Qaeda and its supporters. The
media is an effective means of communication which can be a game changer especially in
times of war. Like any dynamic organisation Al Qaeda realized the utility of the media and
has a devoted media department to portray to the world the true perspective and motivation
behind Al Qaeda. The special media production house is called Al Sahab (cloud) was
established as a move not to completely rely on moderate media houses like Al Jazeera and
other Islamic satellite networks that are tolerant to radicalism.
Arab satellite media houses like Al- Jazeera contributed by portraying the evils of capitalism
while glorifying Islamic values and the honour of partaking in the Global Jihad. Radical
Muslim spiritual leadership also plays a crucial role to re-image Islam through their
indoctrination programmes.
3.5.1 Battle for Hearts and Minds
Islam in principle does not support any form of radicalism and radical groups within the
religion have been trying over the years to impose fundamentalism through the holy Jihad on
all moderate Muslims and non Moslems. This effort has however not been wholly successful
because they have not been able to win the hearts and minds of the whole Muslim Ummah.
According to ITAC (2007), „„Al Qaeda places great importance on winning the battle of ideas
and sees its media strategy as crucial and complementary to its campaign.‟‟ Therefore they
established a media house dedicated to articulating its cause. Bin Laden and his second in
command Zawahiri were the major articulators of Al Qaeda‟ cause and utilized every
opportunity to justify their Jihad (Abu Khalil 2002:26). The media is a powerful weapon and
Al Qaeda has effectively used it to portray its cause and tried to dispel the wrong image
constructed by the West.
3.5.2 Innovative Use of Technology
Al Qaeda has been innovative in using technological advancement, and in a way they have
been successful in telling the US that they will gradually lose the battle. The advent of the
internet and the social media has revolutionized communication making the media a strong
weapon for Al Qaeda’s Jihad against the west and moderate Arab states. Al Qaeda has in the
process created sophisticated Islamic websites through which contemporary issues can be
discussed online. Al Qaeda’s charismatic former leader Bin Laden and Zawahiri used the
social media to win the hearts and minds and inspire potential supporters and recruits.
The social media has become a path to Jihad, in the same way the „Hamburg cell‟ managed
to reach their target during the 9/11 attack. Al Qaeda through the social media will reach its
potential recruits, conduct its training, mobilize funds and equipment, prepare, plan and
execute future operations as was evidenced by the 9/11 attacks (Khalil 2002).
3.6 Conclusion
Fundamentalism has impacted negatively on international security because no state is any
longer safe from terrorist attacks. The spread of fundamentalist activities perpetuated by Al
Qaeda through its core central group, affiliate groups in all the regions of the globe, affiliate
cells of smaller dispersed but lethal cells like the Hamburg cell that conducted the 9/11 attack
and the informal network of radical individuals who may not be connected to the core but are
inspired to take up the cause have all proved to be threats to international security. The
destruction caused by 9/11 attack on the US economy and the trauma caused on the
population and the cost that goes with their deployment across the globe will take years to be
overcome. The attacks on other countries across the globe have also had ripple effects on
their economies and populations. This has also necessitated most countries that have even not
been attacked to enhance their security in and around their territories. The war on terror has
also had its own ramifications. The contentious use of drones which Muslims believe is a
violation of human rights has not been recognized as such by the international community.
The effective use of advancement of technology enabled Al Qaeda to evolve into a virtual
organisation capable of conducting preparations and planning of its operations on the social
media. Recruitment and training as well as mobilization of funds and equipment can also be
done through the social media.
CHAPTER 4
AL QAEDA ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL SECURITY
4.1 Introduction
The chapter will look at Al Qaeda in the Middle East and various regions and its involvement
in many conflicts globally and how these activities have impacted on international security.
The chapter will analyse the socio-economic and political effects of Al Qaeda activities in the
regions. The chapter will also look at the War on Terror effort and how it has affected the
activities of Al Qaeda and the death of Osama bin Laden. The world welcomed the news of
his death and a possibly weakened Al Qaeda, but has his death weakened the organisation?
Almost a decade after 9/11 analysts are beginning to question the capacity of Al Qaeda.
The turmoil in Egypt where the Moslem Brotherhood a strong Al Qaeda affiliate is under
siege from the powerful military with Al Qaeda not taking any decisive action has raised
eyebrows of whether this is indicative of a fading Al Qaeda. Regional efforts taken in the
various regions in order to solve the challenge of fundamentalism will be brought out in this
chapter, as well as the efforts of individual states to check the growth of fundamentalism.
4.2 The History of Al Qaeda
The history of Al Qaeda has been divided into five distinct phases since its formation in the
1980s. The period from 1990 to 1996 is termed a „wilderness‟ period as the organisation was
trying to get an identity. The period 1996 to 2001 is considered as its „heyday‟ since it is the
period it emerged as a formidable recognizable organisation. The period from 2001 to 2005 is
termed „network‟ period, because of the declared war on terror Al Qaeda evolved into a
virtual organisation, took advantage of the opportunities offered by developments in
technology and adopted the fourth Generation War (4GW) as its doctrine. It is the same
period when the 9/11 attacks were carried out. Other attacks conducted by Al Qaeda over the
years are at Table 6. The Network period entailed maximizing on use of social networks for
mobilization, training, communication, propaganda and financing. The period from 2005 to
date is believed to be period of „fragmentation‟ (Khalil, 2002). The War on Terror has
accounted for several of Al Qaeda’s leadership including Bin Laden, which was believed to
have weakened the organisation.
4.2.1 Al Qaeda Global Influences
Al Qaeda has grown and developed from the organisation that conducted the 9/11 attacks on
the US. The founders of the organisation in 1989 revealed that one of the major objectives of
forming the organisation after the Afghan war was to take the Jihad to all areas where it is
needed particularly to fight Islamic regimes that have deviated from Islam. These regimes
had also turned into long standing dictatorships with the express support of the West. This
has consequently seen the organisation being involved in many conflicts across the globe. Al
Qaeda played an important role in the late stages of the Arab Springs and continues to
influence developments in these countries through its affiliates who are deployed in those
areas (Interviews Embassy officials).
Table 6. Major Attacks Conducted by Al Qaeda
Serial Date Incident
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Oct 1983
Mar 1994
Jun 1996
Aug 1998
Sep 1999
Sep 2001
Beirut Barracks Bombing killed 305 and injured 75 people.
Mumbai Bombing killed 250 and wounded 700 people.
Saudi Arabia Khoba Towers killed 20 and wounded 372.
Bombing of US Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania killed 300 and
wounded 4000 people.
Bombing of Russian cities killed more than 300 people.
Bombing of the World Trade Centre and Pentagon in US killed
3000 and wounded 4000.
Source: al-sahaab.com
4.2.2 Al Qaeda in Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)
According to the US Congress Research Services Report (CRS) (2011), Al Qaeda established
an affiliate group in Yemen in 2009 called Al Qaeda in Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)
composed of Saudi Arabia and Yemen militants. Most of these militants were veterans of the
Afghan war. AQAP covers: Bahrain, Quarta, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, United Arab Emirates
and Oman. The Arab Peninsula has become a threat to the West particularly in Yemen. This
is one of the richest regions in the Arab world. AQAP‟s main objectives are to attack US
targets anywhere in the world and in Yemen. AQAP attacked the Sana‟a US Embassy in
2010 and attempted to assassinate the British Ambassador. AQAP also targets members of
Saudi Royal Family.
Adamson (2011:44) argues that, „„AQAP has become a crucial player in conducting
international attacks.‟‟ AQAP has been very active over the years in attacking western
targets. It has claimed responsibility for the 2009 Christmas Day Bombing and the 2010
attempted bombing of two US airplanes as well as the attempted Chicago Synagogue
bombing. AQAP has a strong force of more than a thousand hard core veterans of the Afghan
war.
AQAP in Yemen has managed to mobilize relative support because of the outrage of
Muslims against the West presents in Arab soils. Yemen has no strong government to control
the vast sparsely populated rural areas, leaving them to the control of tribes who are
sympathetic to Al Qaeda. Yemen has been reliant on US aid for years and in 2010 the aid
amounted to $1.2 Billion. Yemen also has a major naval base for the US 5th
Fleet which has
been a cause for concern by the local population. AQAP was reported in the New York
Times, 6 July 2010, in an article, „„Is Yemen the next Afghanistan,” to have planned to
assassinate President Saleh, which led the President to change his perception of AQAP and
increased his security measures while also ensuring the monitoring of all AQAP activities. Al
Qaeda has been able to main a hold in this region because of the West influence in most of
these countries.
According to CRS (2011:17) Abdula Saleh the Chief of Counter Terrorism in Yemen
commented that, „„the US and its allies are not welcome in Yemen.‟‟ AQAP in Yemen is
believed to be harboring Anwar al- Awlaki and Saudi Ibrahim al-Asiri, a specialist in bomb
making. After the 9/11 attacks smaller cell groups were motivated to carry out attacks on
Western targets. AQAP was also responsible for the 2004 Madrid bombing which led to
Spain withdrawing from Iraq and the 2005 London bombing which killed 52 and wounded
770 people. Yemen was also caught up in the wave of the Arab Springs unfortunately chaos
and bloodshed has continued ever since. AQAP has been very active in instigating the revolt
although they seem to have failed to bring down the Saleh regime, but they have done untold
damage and caused a lot of suffering.
4.2.3 Al Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and the Sahel
Singer cited in Frisch and Inbar (2007177) posits that, Al Qaeda has an affiliate group in the
Maghreb and Sahel region AQIM. The Maghreb region covers: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
Mauritania and Western Sahara. AQIM is a threat to North Africa and the Sahel and was
formed in Algeria between 1990 and 1992 after the security forces staged a coup to prevent
an Islamic party from winning national elections in Algeria. AQIM united with Al Qaeda in
2006 and since that time it has increased its activities against the US. The group has been
closely monitored by the Algerian Security Forces forcing it to confine its activities outside
the capital Algiers (Edwards 2000:125).
Map 2: The Maghreb Region
Algeria and its surrounding states have vast rural areas which are sparsely populated with
little or no government control, giving AQIM vast areas for training. Tunisia and Morocco
have also prevented AQIM from establishing strong cells in their states. AQIM has managed
to attack government structures as well as the UN offices in Yemen. The group also tried to
assassinate Algerian President Bouteflika. Since the Arab Springs the region has not been
stable as AQIM continues to wage an insurgence in most of these countries.
4.2.4 The Sahel
Map 3: The Sahel Region
AQIM is also active in the Sahel which is a belt of 1,000 kilometers that spans the 5,400
kilometers in Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea, covering: Gambia, Senegal,
South Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Algeria, Niger, north Nigeria, Cameroon, Central
Chad and South Sudan. AQIM‟s main objective in the Sahel like in all other regions is to
attack US targets. AQIM has utilised the large sparsely populated rural areas of the Sahel as
training and base areas. Of interest is that, AQIM has used mobile training bases along the
Algeria – Mali border instead of the conventional static bases. AQIM has been active in the
region by waging insurgence warfare in most of the countries in the region. In 2007 AQIM
kidnapped and eventually murdered four French tourists. In 2008 AQIM killed 12
Mauritanian soldiers and kidnapped the UN envoy to Niger. The same year AQIM beheaded
a British tourist after Britain refused to release a Muslim cleric linked to Al Qaeda. France
joined the US in declaring war on AQIM after the killing of French hostages (CRS: 2011).
4.2.5 Al Qaeda in East Africa
East Africa usually a peaceful region has become a vulnerable point over the years.
Unfortunately, most African governments do not have the capacity to install state of the art
equipment and measures to detect and intercept terrorists in most sensitive areas. The security
forces are also not adequately equipped and trained to counter the dynamic and diverse
asymmetric war by Al Qaeda. As poor countries they rely on support from countries like the
US, which has put them on a collision course with radical groups like Al Qaeda. In East
Africa, Kenya and Tanzania have been high profile targets of Al Qaeda. The highlights of Al
Qaeda activities in East Africa are the attempted assassination of the then Egyptian President
Hosni Mubarak in 1995 by Gama Islamia in Ethiopia, and the bombing of the US Embassies
in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 which killed 229 people including 12 US citizens and
wounded more than 5,000.The 2005 bombing of the Israeli owned Paradise Hotel in
Mombasa killing 10 Kenyans and 3 Israelis sent clear signals to US and its allies that their
support for Israel is one of the causes of conflict between Muslims and the West (Frisch and
Inbar 2008:199).
4.2.5.1 Al Qaeda in the Horn of Africa
The spread of Islamic fundamentalism in Africa saw the creation of Al Shabaab in Somalia
from the militant Al Ittihad Al Islami an extremist group which was formed in the 1980‟s.
The absence of a government in Somalia has created a conducive environment for the
sprouting of radicalism. This extremist group together with others has been declared a
terrorist organisation by the US government in terms of Executive Order 13224 of September
2001. On 11 July 2010 Al Shabaab suicide bombers attacked Kampala and killed 76 people
and wounded more than 80 people including US citizens. The generality of the international
community including the UN and African Union (AU) strongly condemned this callous
bombing and killing of innocent civilians. Al Shabaab spokesman Ali Mohammed Regi
warned that if Uganda and Burundi do not remove their soldiers from the UN Mission in
Somalia (UNISOM) the bombings will continue in these two countries (Edwards 2000).
Al Shabaab also carried out the 2013 attack on the Kenyan West Gate Shopping Mall also
primarily because of Kenya‟s involvement in Somalia where it has deployed its army to help
destroy Al Shabaab. Somalia has been without a central government for a long time, and the
situation in the country has remained volatile because of the proliferation of militant groups
fighting the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). The spread of fundamentalism in Africa
has also seen the creation of the Nigerian extremist group Boko Haram which is also
affiliated to Al Qaeda. Boko Haram in basic Arabic means, „all western education is
dangerous‟. The group has been killing innocent civilians, school children and has also been
destroying Christian churches and mosques of those Muslims who do not support them
(Interviews Islamic Education Centre Officials). The actions of Al Shabaab in Somalia have
caused the country not to have a government for more than a decade. In Nigeria Boko Haram
kills more than 1000 people every year. Economic and social infrastructure like schools,
churches and hospitals have become major targets consequently this retards development
(Interviews, Embassy Officials).
4.2.6 Sudan (National Islamic Front)(NIF)
Al Qaeda came to Africa when the National Islamic Front (NIF) came into power in Sudan in
1989. When Bin Laden was exiled from Saudi Arabia in 1992 he was offered asylum by
Sudan. It is while Bin Laden was in Sudan that he formulated and planned all future
operations of Al Qaeda. NIF supported terrorist organisations and their leaders like Bin
Laden because they were also sympathetic to the Muslim cause for antagonism against the
west. This facilitated the growth and eventual penetration by Al Qaeda into East Africa. The
region is also home to a sizeable population of Muslims some of whom naturally have tended
to support radicalism (Frisch and Inbar 2008:180).
4.3 Al Qaeda and the Arab Springs
Al Qaeda was not involved at the beginning of the Arab Springs which was an indication that
they were not home grown but a brain child of a hidden hand. In Tunisia where it all started,
the country managed to hold democratic elections which saw a moderate Islamist Party get
into power. The party has managed to institute a successful transition to democracy. However
in other areas Al Qaeda influence has ensured that the same will not happen in Bahrain,
Syria, Libya and Egypt. Since the Arab springs there has never been sustainable peace in
these countries and the region in general. Al Qaeda continues to cause havoc, confusion and
bloodshed in the region (Interview, Embassy Official). Globally Al Qaeda has managed to
evolve into four operational configurations: the Central or Core, Affiliate Groups (regional),
Affiliate Cells and Informal networks. These groups were infiltrated into Arab countries were
any upheaval had started, their objective was to overthrow moderate Muslim states with
leaders who had aligned themselves with the West as was with most of the countries that
were affected (UN Association of Canada Report 2012).
4.4. Other Areas
Al Qaeda has also spread its dangerous tentacles to other areas of the globe particularly in the
South East Asia. The threat of fundamentalism has evolved over the years in such countries
like Indonesia. However the government in Indonesia is secular and the generality of the
population are moderate Muslims. Terrorist activities in the country have not been limited to
attacking predominantly Western targets but they also attempted to assassinate President
Yudhoyono in 2010. The local Al Qaeda affiliated group Jemaah Islamiya (JI) carried out the
Bali bombing in 2002 which killed more than 200 people. In 2003 they bombed the Marriot
hotel in Jakarta, in 2004 they bombed the Australian Embassy and in 2009 they bombed
several Western hotels in Jakarta. Indonesia has made significant efforts although its police
and military have not fared well in support of government efforts. A new initiative to counter
terrorism was launched in 2010.
4.5 Conclusion
Al Qaeda activities in the regions of the globe have had security implications by causing
instability and chaos. Although Al Qaeda did not instigate the Arab springs it then took
advantage of the confusion to cause instability in the Arab Peninsula, the Maghreb and Sahel
regions. The chaos and bloodshed caused by the Arab springs is still being felt in the region
today. Very few countries like Tunisia have managed to transit to democracy with a
semblance of order. All the other countries are still struggling. Most countries in the region
are supported by the US, France and the UN in trying to put in place adequate security
measures. The global reach of the affiliate groups has enabled them to attack targets even in
Europe creating a global sense of insecurity.
Al Qaeda activities in all regions of the globe have impacted on international security. The
instability in the regions has affected development of the countries. Al Qaeda and its affiliates
are motivated by their strong conviction of ending all non Muslim interference in Muslim
countries and aim at reinventing Islam as the dominant global religion.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS, OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is primarily to present the conclusions and requisite
recommendations from the study. These are invaluable as they will assist in dealing with the
challenge of fundamentalism. An understanding of the thinking of fundamentalists is
imperative as it may assist in realizing other interventions that may solve the problem.
Terrorism is a formidable threat to international security and requires concerted effort to deal
with. Islam as a religion has done a lot in the establishment of peace in the contemporary
world. Al Qaeda on the other hand has become a dynamic terrorist organisation posing global
insecurity. Its adoption of the 4GW as a doctrine of asymmetric war has ushered in a complex
dimension in fighting fundamentalism. Fundamentalism is no longer a fringe phenomenon
but had developed into a dangerous ideology that has replaced communism. The conviction
and self sacrifice of radical groups in reimaging Islam based on the Quran and inspiration
from scholars and activists like Qutb, Khomeini and Mawdudi who inform fundamentalism
form the cornerstone of Jihad.
5.2 Conclusions
The main objective of the study was to analyse the dynamics of fundamentalism and its
impact on global security particularly basing on Al Qaeda activities. To understand
fundamentalism there was a requirement to also understand Islam, the religion. The study
reveals that the major causes of fundamentalism are the differences in interpretation of the
Quran between the difference groups of Islam, defeat of the Arabs by Israel in the 1967 Six
Days War which ended Arabism and ushered in fundamentalism, occupation of the Holy
Land, US foreign policy and underdevelopment in Arab states as some of the causes of
fundamentalism.
The research also brought out that the objectives of Islam and fundamentalism are almost the
same and their departure point is the use of violence. They both believe the crisis bedeviling
the world are as a result of secular system and appeal to Islam as a complete alternative to
Westernization, secularism and materialism. What this means then is that for all purposes and
intents, fundamentalism is a subset of Islam and all actions attributed to it are carried in the
name of Islam.
The study also brought out the origins of Al Qaeda which can be traced back to the Afghan
war. The organisation was formed by Osama bin Laden in Peshawar in 1989 and over the
years it has evolved into a virtual organisation. Its global reach and adoption of 4GW as
fighting doctrine has made the organisation diverse, as was evidenced by the 9/11 attack
which created a global sense of insecurity. The organisation continues to influence situations
in many states through its affiliate groups deployed in many parts of the globe. Together they
constitute a transnational community (Umma) and reimaging of Islam serves as a rallying
point.
Economically the cost of war has had negative effects on most states. The 9/11 attacks cost
US more than $3 trillion and the world economy was affected.
Although Bin Laden is dead, Al Qaeda is believed to be still capable of launching high
profile operations in the magnitude of 9/11. The extensive use of media by both the US and
its allies in portraying Islam as an evil religion linked to violence, and whipping the emotions
of the US population to support the war on terror has been fruitful. On the other hand, Al
Qaeda has used the media and opportunities offered by technology to their advantage. Al
Qaeda has also justified their war against the West.
5.3 Recommendations
In order for the International community especially the US and the west to get to the bottom
of fundamentalism, it is imperative to understand the thinking behind fundamentalism. There
are numerous interventions that can be used to solve the challenge of fundamentalism.
Because Islam says it does not support fundamentalism, the West can find common ground as
well as establish a combined US-Islam forum to solve the conflict.
It can also be invaluable to educate the young Muslim generation in the proper way in order
to dissuade them from joining fundamentalism. The West should look at other means of
fighting fundamentalism instead of the conventional counter–terrorism strategies. Issues of
religion are invaluable and understanding culture and ideology can help fight fundamentalism
than the counter-terrorism war. US foreign policy can be realigned to be benevolent and
sensitive to cultural dynamics of all states in the Middle East and avoid antagonism between
the West and the Muslim world. Concerted effort should be made to solve the Palestinian
crisis.
5.4 Implications for Further Research
This study has mainly concentrated on the dynamics of fundamentalism and its impact on
global security. Further studies may focus on the impact of religion and faith on causes and
resolution of conflicts.
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APPENDIX 1
List of People Interviewed
1. Ambassador of Algeria
2. Ambassador of Pakistan
3. Deputy Ambassador of Algeria
4. Defence Attaché of Tanzania
5. Information Officer Egypt Embassy
6. Head of Islamic Education Centre Harare
7. 4 Lecturers Islamic Education Centre
8. 12 Members Muslim community in Zimbabwe
Dear Sir/Madam November 2013
REF: REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE ON MASTERS DEGREE IN
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
1. My name is lieutenant Colonel Jericho Geza and I am currently employed by the
Zimbabwe Defence Forces (ZDF) as a Directing Staff at the Zimbabwe Staff College.
I am currently studying for a Masters Degree in International Relations with the
University 0f Zimbabwe Department of Political and Administrative studies.
2. I am conducting a research on „Fundamentalism and its Impact on Global Security‟
for my dissertation which should be submitted at the end of March 2014. This is a
very difficult topic and I am kindly requesting for your assistance in answering the
attached questionnaire.
3. The information provided will be used strictly for academic purposes only and will be
treated in the utmost confidence.
4. For any clarification please contact the University of Zimbabwe Department of
Politics and Administrative Studies on details provided on attached letter.
5. Your assistance will be greatly appreciated.
Yours sincerely
Jericho Geza DDSS (UZ) HPOS (UZ)
Lieutenant Colonel
QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Personal Details
a. Age
A. Below 30
B. 30-50
C. Above 50
b. Employment………………………………………………………..A. Diplomat
B.
Teacher/lecturer
C.
Other…………….
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c. Time in current post………………………………………..................years
2. Religious fundamentalism has been topical over the years, with a lot of differing
views and perspectives being proffered, some based on biases and some on prejudices, in
your own perspective what is fundamentalism, its origins and the relationship with
Islam?
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3. Radical Muslim groups have proclaimed a „Global Jihad‟ against the US and its allies
and have in the process mentioned various issues as causes for taking up arms against the
West. What are these major issues?
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4. Conventional religions like Christianity have managed to separate religious
institutions from state institutions. However in Arab States there seems to be no division
between religion and state leading to religionisation of politics and politicisation of
religion and the perceived use of religion as a tool to achieve political objectives. What is
your comment?
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5. Islam is believed to be the second largest religion with about 1.2 billion followers in
the world and still growing. What can you attribute this phenomenal growth to?
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6. According to Al Qaeda and other radical Muslim groups Osama Bin Laden was a
fearless and charismatic military commander, who molded his organization into a
dynamic and lethal organization with a capacity to launch high profile attacks like 9/11
attacks. Do you think the death of Osama Bin Laden will have any effect on the
operations of Al Qaeda?
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7. Islam as a religion is founded on unique tenets, beliefs and values some which are
very strict by nature and are articulated by religious controlled institutions. What is the
disposition of Islam on economic development in Arab states?
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8. Al Qaeda has targeted western interests in most regions across the globe; in Europe,
Asia and Africa. What has been the effect of these attacks on the economies of affected
countries (especially developing countries)?
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9. The media has proved to be a powerful tool in the battle of minds and the Western
media has used it extensively to portray Islam and Al Qaeda as enemies of democracy.
What has the Muslim world and Al Qaeda done in response to this media onslaught by
the West?
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10. The Arab world is diverse and made up of various branches of Islam, the major ones
being the Sunni and Shiite. What are the dynamics between radical and moderate
Muslims within these major branches and others?
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11. One of the main objectives of radical Islam is to reimage the religion to become an
international religion and in the process create an Islamic Caliphate. Is this the focus
Islam since the same objective is also the objective of
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12. Al Qaeda is one of the major non state actors at the forefront of spreading
fundamentalism, how deep is its support in the Arab world on these efforts of spreading
fundamentalism?……………………………………………………………………………
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13. The global reach of Al Qaeda activities and the adoption of fourth generation
asymmetric warfare doctrine are said in other circles to have created a global
environment of insecurity as no state across the globe, is any longer safe from terrorist
attack. What is your comment on this assertion?
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14. The Arab springs brought out a lot of intended and unintended out comes. What was
Al Qaeda‟s involvement in the Arab Springs?
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15. The US war on terror has been criticized by others and supported by its allies, is this
approach by the US justified?
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16. What are your suggestions on the way forward in dealing with the challenge posed
by
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17. The return to basic tenets of Islam as required by radical groups in Islam entail strict
adherence to issues like culture and values how has Muslim culture impacted on
economic growth in Arab states?
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