dubrovnik annals - ancient croatia

7/27/2019 Dubrovnik Annals - Ancient Croatia

1/22

105Dubrovnik Annals 9 (2005)

Reviews

Zdenka Janekovi-Rmer, Viegradski ugovortemelj Dubrovake Republike[Visegrd Privilege:Foundations of the Republic of Dubrovnik].Zagreb: Golden marketing, 2003. Pages 175.

Although focusing on the central theme ofthe Visegrd privilege and its significance forthe consolidation of the Dubrovnik state, thisvolume actually consists of two sections, distinctboth in nature and methodology.

The first part of the volume (pp. 10-48) wasconceived as a diplomatic analysis of the charterissued in Visegrd on 27 May 1358. The text ofthe privilege and its draft are presented in theoriginal and with a very good translation byVlado Rezar, accompanied by the text of thetransumpt from 1403 and information on othertranscripts. This is the first documentary editionof the Visegrd privilege based on both extantoriginals from the State Archives of Dubrovnik,although the authors decision to choose document89 for transcription instead of the better and more

complete 89/1 original (the so-called Ragusanoriginal) which had already been used in theproduction of the transumpt is somewhat puzzling.The edition is supplemented with excellent photo-graphs by Boidar Gjuki (it is a pity that theillustration on page 10 has been cut off in print).The diplomatic analysis is exhaustive, but isequally accessible to the specialist and the generalreader. In examining the charter elements, theauthor draws a welcome parallel with the carefullyselected diplomatic material of King Louis I and

his predecessors, thus providing a comprehensiveinterpretation of the privilege of Visegrd.

The second section of the book begins withthe chapter Prvi politiki dodiri dubrovakeopine i ugarskog kraljevstva (pp. 49-51) onthe first political contacts between the Ragusancommune and the Hungarian Kingdom. Aftera historiographical overview of the early traderelations between Dubrovnik and Hungary,Janekovi Rmer points to two major links throughwhich Dubrovnik established its political anddiplomatic relations with the House of Anjou in

the fourteenth century: the seaborne wheat route

with the Kingdom of Naples, and, after 1333,the Ston-Peljeac border and direct contactswith the Dalmatian area under King Louis I.The chapters Dubrovaka vlastela i mletakasignoria prije Zadarskog mira (pp. 52-60) andTeke godine rata i primirja 1346-1356 (pp.61-63) outline the evolution and oscillations inVeneto-Ragusan relations from the end of thethirteenth to the mid-fourteenth century. Theauthor traces numerous conflicts between therector and the Ragusan commune, open rebel-lions, revolts and civil disobedience directed

against the Venetian overlords, drawing a moredistinct articulation of the political interests ofthe Ragusan commune and the rise of its self-consciousness in contacts with the Venetianofficial representatives. The war between Veniceand Genoa in the mid-fourteenth century, alongwith Louiss siding with the latter, marked thebeginning of the Ragusan diplomatic trials andthe Ragusans position on the edge of an abyss.Uncertain of the outcome, the Ragusans struggledon all fronts: they pacified the Venetians but

also obstructed their rule and suzerainty. Thechapter Teke godine rata i primirja 1346-1356 (pp. 61-63) offers a convincing picture ofthe Dalmatian towns suffering the effects ofwars, plague and poverty, a period burdenedwith instability and crisis. In Trijumf Ludo-vika Anuvinca (pp. 64-68), Janekovi Rmerexamines the way in which Louiss triumph ledto the implementation of his formula of theclaim over Dalmatia and the reference to KingColomans heritage, but within the domain ofthe Venetian lands (from Istria to Durrs), a

formula which served as a foundation for theTreaty of Zadar in 1358. Attempting to achievea more advantageous position in the new politicalframework, Dubrovnik may have relied on thefact that never in its history had it been underthe Hungarian Crown, but its favourable positionin the negotiations rested primarily on itsvulnerable and significant geo-political position.The chapter Poetak dubrovakih pregovora skraljem (pp. 69-79) highlights the preparationsof the Ragusan ambassadors for the officialnegotiations with the king. The author sketches


2/22

106 Dubrovnik Annals 9 (2005)

the members of the diplomatic mission, describing

the atmosphere of suspense preceding the newsof their success. She then moves on to Louissresidence at Visegrd and unfolds the changingpositions and concessions during the negotiations,which the reader may follow by comparing thedraft and the final text of the Visegrd privilege.By highlighting similar administrative patternselsewhere in Dalmatia, in the chapter Spor okoizbora kneza (pp. 80-85) Janekovi Rmerexamines the election of the rector, which proveda most thorny issue on the missions agenda.The fact that the Ragusan negotiators succeeded

in winning this important concessionthechoice of the head of state being entirely in thehands of the Ragusan nobilityactually impliedthat the king would not have a governor as hisdeputy in the Dubrovnik Republic, and gave theRagusans all the more reason for satisfaction.It is interesting how political autonomy and thegranting of free trade nudged Dubrovnik towardsthe lords of Hungary and Croatia. Thoughinconveniently titled, the chapter Ugarska vlastu Dubrovniku i Dalmaciji (pp. 86-116) comprises

a lengthy description of the end of Venetianrule which, as far as Dubrovnik was concerned,proved more tactful and civilised than elsewherein Dalmatia. The author finds an explanationfor the problem of the continuity of Venetiandomination over the Adriatic in Louiss power-less position at sea and the shift of his sovereignand dynastic interests from the Italian domainsto those of central Europe. The new Anjou gov-ernment bolstered the Ragusan policy towardsthe Serbian and Bosnian lords, but also openedthe commercial doors to the western and eastern

Mediterranean. In return, the Ragusans oftenintervened in diplomatic conflicts on his behalf,and their merchant venturers, scattered throughoutthe continent, proved most useful informers.The relations based on protection and loyaltywere not immune from occasional border orterritorial tensions, but allegiance to the HungarianCrown was evident well after Louiss death.The author further reconstructs the circle of thekings men in Dubrovnik, showing the contro-versial attitude of Ragusan society towards them.They were respected but also suspected of

having abused Ragusan trust for personal gain.

In this respect, the interpretation of the well-known demand to prohibit the locals from holdingthe position of archbishop may seem curious.According to Janekovi Rmer, this may beviewed in the light of the struggle for the rightto investiture, or the question of the kings powerover the church. She again shifts her attentionto the situation in Dalmatia, discontented as itwas with the king, with the curtailment of oldliberties and the onerous burdens which causedthe towns to turn to King Ladislas of Naples. Inthe chapter entitled Osjeaj dalmatinske pri-

padnosti u 14. stoljeu (pp. 117-122), the authoraddresses the issue of Dalmatian identity,variously discussed in the previous chapters.She pinpoints the cohesive elements in theobscure reminiscence of antiquity, in the feelingof belonging to the Christian community, ineconomic and personal relations, and, occasion-ally, in the class solidarity of the urban nobility,though aware that identity with various politicalframeworks and the communal tradition underpatrician rule tended to impede political unity.

Even during the reign of King Louis I therewere open border disputes, while the dynasticfeuds and the struggle for power after his deathredrew the political map of Dalmatia and theposition of the towns. The author rightly arguesthat it would be wrong to assert that no feelingof a broader, Dalmatian identity was known toexist, but for a citizen of medieval Dalmatia hishomeland did not stretch beyond the urbanfringes of his local district. It was not until ...the tragic experience of the wars with theOttomans and disappointment with Christian

unity that the foundations for homogenisationwere laid in an effort to unite not only Dalmatiabut other Croatian and Slav lands under a newfeeling of common identity. But many yearswere to pass before an intellectual concept firstshared only by learned individuals and thepolitical elite became a genuine feeling adoptedby all.... (pp. 121-122). The question of histo-riography, already discussed in this chapter, isthe main focus of the following chapter entitledMletaki i ugarski suverenitet u Dubrovniku- injenice i tumaenja (pp. 123-131). Analysing


3/22


the picture of Venetian rule in fifteenth- to

seventeenth-century Ragusan chronicles, Jane-kovi Rmer reveals the overly dark or rosyaccounts of Dubrovniks past, created principallywith the intent to glorify the city and its freedom.The singling out of elements which emphasisedRagusan autonomy and the patriciates virtuesled to the construction of a powerful and resistantmyth of Ragusan independence which wasfirmly lodged in the minds of the public, butalso in earlier historiography. No doubt, theprivilege of Visegrd earned an exclusive positionin Ragusas self-image, while the diplomatic

manoeuvres preceding it were woven into legend.Commenting on the most established Croatianhistorians of the second half of the twentiethcentury (V. Foreti, B. Stulli, and J. Lui), theauthor asserts that they have depoliticised theinterpretations of the Ragusan Middle Ages,but their writings still bear a recognisable bias.Croatian historiography shows a pronouncedtendency to read the period after the Treaty ofZadar in the light of the consolidation of Dalmatianidentity and the integration of the Croatian lands.

By viewing the problem from the Ragusanperspective, the author strips the interpretationsof certain layers, but also adds a more solidbase to the others. In the chapter Novi poloajDubrovnika nakon Viegradskog ugovora (pp.132-141) she points to the generally strainedpolitical relations between the two AdriaticRepublics, although all other aspects of theirconnections based on mutual interests andsocial and cultural analogies flourished overthe centuries. In addition to the familiar aspectsof Ragusan autonomy under the Hungarian

Crown, in the minutes of the Ragusan councilsJanekovi Rmer anticipates a feeling of hopeand awakened political activism. Unlimited bythe Buda terms, the Ragusan patriciate no doubtentered a period marked by the most resourcefulinstitutional and legislative achievements. Therelationship towards the Hungarian Crown wasunreservedly moulded into state symbolismand ceremonial elements, but with two essentialmeanings: that of allegiance to the king (evenwhen there was no trace of the kingdom), and,above all, Dubrovniks autonomy.

The book is supplemented with a longer

summary in Croatian (pp. 142-146) and in English(pp. 147-152), an appendix comprising the mostimportant documentation on the recognition ofthe Hungarian Crown and excerpts from theRagusan chronicles depicting the Visegrdnegotiations (pp. 153-159), a list of illustrations,sources and literature (pp. 161-167), an author index(pp. 169-173), and notes on the author (p. 175).

The bearings and depth of Viegradski ugovortemelj Dubrovake Republike surpass the contentssuggested in the title. The charter has becomethe focus of a myriad of analyses which notonly concern the history of Dubrovnik, but amuch broader area of Dalmatia, Venice, Croatiaand Hungary, leaning towards the issues ofpolitical identity and historiographic interpre-tation. The author boldly follows all the themeswhich arise almost naturally from the study,keeping a steady course and leaving no gaps inthe coverage. Within the basic twofold structureof the book, the material is well organised inshorter chapters. A more experienced and experteditorial eye could have been of greater help to

the author in a final polishing of certain peripheralelements (from the obscure titles of the initialchapters to the question of the presentation ofappendixes and the general concept of the summaryin Croatian) which frame this outstanding text.Quibbles aside, the rich contents supported byextensive documentary evidence and literature,an accurate feeling for the essential and a talentfor pinpointing the problem, a well-devisedconstruction of the whole (especially of thesecond part) and flowing passages, along witha distinctive and elaborate style, place this bookamong the most excellent writings of the mostrecent Croatian historiography.

Nella Lonza


4/22


Robin Harris,Dubrovnik: A History. London:

SAQI, 2003. Pages 503.

Robin Harris studied at Oxford University,where he was awarded a D.Phil. in modernhistory. He has worked in various political andgovernmental capacities, including adviser tothe British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher.Now a journalist, he focuses mainly on foreignaffairs and politics, writing extensively onsouth-east Europe and on Croatia and Bosniaand Herzegovina in particular. His publicationsinclude Valois Guyenne: A Study of Politics,Government and Society in Late Medieval France(1994), an interesting study on the political andsocial changes in Gascony following the HundredYears War between France and England in thelatter half of the fifteenth century. His book onDubrovnik is the result of almost a decadesworth of continuous research into local andnational archives and libraries. In order to mastersuch a vast body of material mainly in Croatian,Harris applied himself to studying the language.The fruit of his labour is now published in the

book under review.The fact thatDubrovnik: A Historyrepresen-

ts the first comprehensive account of Ragusanhistory in English and, what is more, authoredby a British historian, deserves our full attention.1This extensive synthesis intended for the generalyet learned audience encapsulates virtually allaspects of the long history of the DubrovnikRepublic. The books 500 pages offer a modern

and interesting interpretation of the Ragusan

political, social, cultural and economic history,distinguished by an impressive range of referen-cing to both primary and secondary materials.

Following in the footsteps of the traditionalhistoriographic narration, Harris drew on ForetisPovijest Dubrovnika, by far the most compre-hensive and most excellent historical synthesisin Croatian. Similar to Foreti, Harris focuseshis attention on the political events, essentialfor the development and well-being of theRagusan commune, later Republic. The author is

fascinated by Dubrovnik as a historical phenom-enon, a city-state which, despite its hostileneighbourhood, developed into a unique political,financial and cultural centre of this part of Europe.However, unlike Foretis book in which the po-litical events are arranged chronologically andare seldom interspersed by passages on otheraspects of social life (class relations, trade, crafts,shipping, religious life, etc.), the structure ofHarriss synthesis is modern in its approach. Itis organised into 15 chapters, and further sub-

divided, which may equally function as separateunits. In Harriss concept of Ragusan history, anatural catastrophe, the Great Earthquake of1667, and not a political event, is the landmarkin periodisationand with justification. Thushe distinguishes a pre- and post-earthquake era.

In viewing Dubrovnik within the broaderpolitical perspective, the first six chapters exam-ine the rise of Dubrovnik within the context ofthe power struggle in the eastern Adriatic andin south-east Europe: from Byzantine protec-

tion (c. 800-1205), Venetian rule (1205-1358),autonomy under the Hungaro-Croatian rulers(1356-1526), to the specific relations with theOttoman Empire from the end of the fifteenthcentury, and a series of diplomatic and politicalconflicts between the Habsburgs, Venice andthe Porte during the seventeenth century. Byembracing available scholarship, markedly theresults published over the last twenty years, butfrom the position of a foreign historian, in thispart of the book Harris has produced very valuablematerial for the historiography of Dubrovnik.

1 Curiously, considerable internationalscholarly interest in the study of Dubrovnikspast has resulted in only one synthesis of Du-brovnik history, F. W. CartersDubrovnik (Ra-gusa): aClassic City State(1972). It focuses onthe economic significance of the city and theroots of its economic development as a Repub-lic. Among the best scholarship published inEnglish, one should mention a series of medi-evalist studies by Baria Kreki. More recentresearch articles, mainly authored by Croatianhistorians are published inDubrovnik Annals.


5/22


Following the initial chapters on the main

political processes is the chapter devoted to theclass structure, the development of governmentalinstitutions, law and the codification of Dubrov-niks laws, as well as the functioning of theseinstitutions in everyday life. Chapter 8 consistsof three subdivisions which discuss differentaspects of Ragusan overland trade (privileges,various types of merchandise, merchant colonies,etc.), maritime trade (shipping, maritime financeand insurance, the consular service, major traderoutes and goods, rivalry with other commercialcentres, etc.), and the Ragusan urban economy

and finance (the mint, financial business, crafts,confraternities, shipbuilding, export, etc.).Devoted to the social structure, the first part ofChapter 9 analyses the relations between theruling nobility and commoners, particularly therichest citizens, members of the confraternitiesof St Anthony and St Lazarus. Here, Harris alsoilluminates the Jewish community and its rolein the Ragusan mercantile life. The secondsubchapter highlights the family and householdstructure of the urban population (patricians

and citizens), social conditions (health and welfare,etc.), and the condition of the rural population.Ecclesiastical organisation and religious life arethe topics of Chapter 10, in which the authorprovides a survey of the Dubrovnik archbishopric,religious orders (the Benedictines, Franciscans,Dominicans and Jesuits), popular religion,particularly the Feast of St Blaise, the patronsaint of the city. Cultural life and the achieve-ments in literature, scholarship, painting andmusic are covered in Chapter 11. In addition tobiobibliographic data on the most prominent

Ragusan writers in Croatian and in Latin, themain focus of attention is placed on the develop-ment of the Croatian language in Dubrovnikand the place of Ragusan literature within thebroader Croatian context. The author alsotraces musical and artistic achievements, withspecial emphasis on the works of the Ragusanpainting school. Chapter 12 examines the urbandevelopment of Dubrovnik, that is, urban planningand the construction of private (houses andpalaces) as well as public buildings (the RectorsPalace, Sponza, etc.), and ecclesiastical and

military constructions in and outside the city.

Harris offers an insightful survey of the mostrecent discoveries on the city development andthe significance of the harbour for its urban life,underlining the continuous process of fortifi-cation, artillery development and defence. Healso examines the fortifications in the outlyingareas (Ston, Cavtat, Tumba, Molunat) and thearchitectural phenomenon of the country villas.

Chapter 13 introduces the second epoch ofRagusan history, bearing a symbolic titleDeathand Resurrection. The event described here is

the Great Earthquake and the disastrous economic,political and demographic effects that thiscatastrophe had upon Ragusan society. In de-scribing the event, Harris resorts to a methodol-ogically interesting device. The earthquake andits aftermath are reflected through the accountsof contemporary observers of different socialpositions: a visiting foreigner, the clergy, thepoorest classes and the patriciate. He has analysedall the relevant data on the losses and destruction,as well as the patrician and civic heroic struggleto restore order and to reconstruct the city.

Politically, the citys restoration was closely con-nected with the successful diplomatic activitiesof the Republic and its relations with the Porte(Nikolica Bona and Marojica Caboga) and Rome(Stjepan Gradi).

Chapter 14 explores the political, economic,social and cultural life in the period 1669-1792,erroneously designated as the sunset years.Namely, the latter could only apply to the lastthird of the seventeenth century, as the begin-ning of the next century saw a revival of the

Ragusan shipping and political reaffirmationof Dubrovnik. The diplomatic manoeuvres of the1670s and 1680s marked much of Dubrovnikspolitical history of the period. The ability tomaintain independence under the threats of theGrand Vizier Kara Mustafa, and balance betweenVienna, Istanbul and Venice during the LongWar (1683-1699) and the Turkish War (1715-1718) is rightly interpreted as the Republicsgreatest diplomatic achievement. On establishingmore friendly terms with the Ottoman Empireand Venice, powers in decline, the eighteenth


6/22


century witnessed Dubrovniks redefined position

in relation to Austria, France and Russia. Thechanges in the European political scene rever-berated in Dubrovnik, tending to define itseconomic, political and cultural life. The rise ofshipping was characterised by a gradual decayof the social structure and factions among thepatricians, growing discontent of the rural popu-lation, but also by the prominent French in-fluence upon the citizen class. In addition to theFranco-Ragusan influence in literature and thetheatre (franezarije), Harris sheds speciallight on the works of the Ragusan Latinists, poetsand polyhistors of the eighteenth century.

The final chapter explores the fall of theRepublic. By analysing the complex power conflictduring the Napoleonic campaigns at the turn ofthe eighteenth century, Harris highlights all theessential events on the foreign and domesticpolitical scene which were to determine the fateof the Ragusan Republic. Due to the Frenchoccupation and the Russo-Montenegrin attackand siege, Dubrovnik suffered heavy life andmaterial losses. The abolishment of the Republic

in 1808 represented the inevitable political con-sequence of these events.

Postscript, a separate section comprisingfour subdivisions, outlines the main processeswhich characterised Ragusan history of thenineteenth and twentieth century. Within a shortsurvey of the period under French rule and thepower struggle in the eastern Adriatic, Harrisfocuses attention on the position of a group ofnobles and citizens who advocated the restorationof the Republic. Like most historians, Harris

describes the period under Austrian rule, fromthe Vienna Congress in 1815 to 1918, as a periodof stagnation and economic decline of the citywhich found itself amidst a completely alteredgeopolitical constellation, at the margins of thegreat empire. Harris further emphasises theunique and distinctive role of Dubrovnik and itshistorical heritage in the shaping of the Croatiannational identity during the integration processesof the nineteenth century. A specific phenomenonof the Serb-Catholic ideology also caught hisattention, whose roots he traces in the limited

linguistically-based national identity, a thesis

rejected by Frano Supilo at the end of thenineteenth century. The closing part ofPostscriptaffords an objective picture of the most recentattack on Dubrovnik, the atrocities of the JNA(Yugoslav National Army) and the members ofthe paramilitary forces from Serbia, Montenegroand east Herzegovina, as well as the defence ofthe city in 1991/2. As a historian, Harris locatesthe origins of the aggression in the long-established historicistic understanding of theSerbian-ness (Srpstvo) of Dubrovnik or its Serbidentity. It is in the historiographically inducedSerbian-ness that one should seek the roots ofthe greater Serbian expansionism and its policytowards Dubrovnik. Namely, the Croatian identityof Dubrovnik was a fact, while a cultural pro-gramme which stressed the Serbian-ness ofDubrovnik was sponsored from Belgrade. Un-fortunately, this ideological programme wasespoused by some historians as well. As anillustration, Harris points to the quasi-academiccharacter of certain contributions, as well as tothe misinterpretation of the conflict within

the international public.The book contains 52 illustrations of the city,

monuments, artefacts and archival documentsof various dates, in addition to two appendixes.The first contains a note on Dubrovniks inde-pendence, contributing to a clearer understand-ing of the concepts of independence or sov-ereignty of the state of Dubrovnik. Harrispoints to different views on the Republicsstatus, from Inalciks notion of the OttomanCommonwealth to current modern criteria for

independence as an effective category. A noteon money, weights and measures is in AppendixTwo. The text is supplemented with endnotes, achronology, a list of primary and secondarysources, and an index.

The two-volumePovijest Dubrovnikaby VinkoForeti was published in 1980, while PovijestDubrovake Republike, a short synthesis authoredby Bernard Stulli, in 1989. An impressive numberof publications which contribute to the histori-ography of Dubrovnik has seen the light since.Harriss synthesis, however, embraces almost


7/22


all of the recent findings on the subject, making

it an invaluable addition to Croatian historicalscholarship. Thanks to this carefully researched,firmly grounded and well-written work, wenow have an insightful account of the history ofDubrovnik, particularly its republic period, butalso of its more recent history, including anobjective presentation of Dubrovniks trialsduring the aggression by Serbia and Montenegroin 1991/2.

Stjepan osi

Bernard Stulli, Studije iz povijesti Dubrovnika[The Studies from Dubrovniks History].Zagreb: Konzor, 2001. Pages 407.

Bernard Stulli (1915-1985), a passionate res-earcher of Dubrovnik and its history, publishedmany works and addressed an array of diversetopics in a meticulous, authoritative and firmlygrounded manner. His contributions stand outas milestones in the writings on Dubrovniks

past. Thus, this volume of collected studies,some of which unpublished to date or dispersedamong various journals, should be welcomedwarmly by the historians of Dubrovnik, andparticularly by those specialised in the historyof the Republic of Dubrovnik.

The collection is arranged in two sections.The first contains two longer essays, DubrovakaRepublika u XV. i XVI. stoljeu and DubrovakaRepublika u XVI, XVII. i XVIII. stoljeu,which offer a historical survey of the Dubrovnik

Republic from the fifteenth century until itsfall. Providing a general insight into the eventsand processes of the period, the essays featurea dazzling display of detail, quotations andillustrations from source materials which animatethe past and allow the reader to make an in-dependent judgement on the respective issues.Stullis sense of balance between fine-grainedarchival material and his leaning towards synthesishas led to unique quality, involving both amyriad of facts and comprehensive appraisalsof particular historical periods or phenomena.

Both essays focus on the currently under-

studied and neglected issues in the economichistory of Dubrovnik. Stulli tended to view thisproblem from a broader Balkan and Mediter-ranean perspective, placing it within the po-litical framework of economic processes. Hestressed the significance of certain economicactivities for the society of the day and especiallyfor the Ragusan population, irrespective ofrank or trade. He traced individual histories,his attention being captured by efforts to copewith the economic changes and efforts toinfluence them, and by attempts to survive and

climb in the Mediterranean conjuncture of theMiddle Ages and in the complex conditions ofearly modern mercantilism. Individual careersand venture travels are laid before us, helpingus to reconstruct the picture of Ragusan shippingand commerce of the time. He underlines theimportance of the economy as a permanentbasis of communication in a period marked bydeteriorating political relations, particularlywith the Ragusan hinterland under Ottomanrule. Trade in salt and ore, the textile industry,

money lending, and concessions on customsduties on ore and shipping were to become, inStullis view, a powerful instrument of theeconomic prosperity of not only the Republicof Dubrovnik, but also of the neighbouringareas, primarily Herzegovina and Bosnia. Inaddition, Stulli places the development of theRagusan trade and shipping squarely within thelarger geographical and social context: theAdriatic, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean.His studies illuminate the broad Mediterraneanregion, the patterns of economic and legal organ-

isation on its shores, customs and lifestyles, andmost of all the centuries-old links betweenthe nations which were economically interde-pendent despite considerable differences. Itseems that the Ragusans participated in such aunity of differences in that they adopted muchfrom the Mediterranean sources, but at the sametime remained faithful to their own tradition,legal and other. In his explanation of the economicand social development, Bernard Stulli was knownto link a series of factors, refreshing some ofthe former historiographic theses, such as, for


8/22


example, in the case of the decline of the Ragusan

overland trade in the early modern period. Heapplied a similar approach in order to integratecertain cultural issues into his interpretation.They were not understood as mere tags or separatecompartments, but contributed to the overallinterpretation of the historical phenomenon. Itwas not rare that Stulli resorted to literary worksas historical sources, which helped him completethe social and cultural picture of a historicalmoment or period.

These two syntheses of the history of the

Republic of Dubrovnik clearly demonstrate Stullisinterest in demographic and social issues, andsocial differentiation, including that of thenobility, the aristocratic political system, agri-cultural relations, labourers, seamen, and relationsbetween the Church and state. A separate chapteris devoted to the Jewish community, prosperousand integrated, religiously tolerated, yet sociallyisolated. One of the problems that receivedStullis exclusive attention was the long-lastingsocial consensus among the nobles and non-nobles. He was puzzled by the way in which the

Ragusan patricians, by means of minimumrepression, managed to maintain the sameorder and harmony over the centuries. Stullisenthusiasm for the topic of continuity did notdistract him from appreciating voices, even ifisolated and rare, which mouthed words that thegovernments ears did not want to hear. He thusdiscussed the protests of Marin Dri, MarioCaboga and the attitudes of the Ragusan menof letters towards equality among men, but alsothe peasants insurrections in Konavle and on

the Island of Lastovo. He gave undivided attentionto Dubrovniks independence and autonomy,but also to the universitasof Lastovo and thestrivings of this small island community tomaintain its land and self-government in viewof Ragusan political aspirations. The essay onthe Golden age, the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies, rounds off with his assessment of theactual novelties that emerged in the sixteenthcentury. In his view, they found expression inthe extent, technology, attainments and prosper-ity of the Republics economy, in the urban

development and the citys new image, as well

as in the culture of living and artistic achieve-ments.

The essay entitled Dubrovaka Republikau XVI, XVII. i XVIII. stoljeu is an offshoot ofan all-embracing history of Croatia, an ambitious,yet never completed project directed by theInstitute for Croatian History of the University ofZagreb. This brief synthesis of the early modernhistory of the Republic of Dubrovnik beginswith the stirring sixteenth century, the period ofeconomic prosperity that gave way to decline and

consequential social changes. New spiritualityand Catholic devotion gained in significance ineveryday life, in that the distinction betweenreligious life and state domination over theChurch had become more rigid than ever. TheCatholic Republic adopted the new ecclesiasticalspirit and the principles of the Catholic reform,but not that of the Council of Trent on state-Church relations and the authority of the pope.On these issues, the government remained re-served. This period was to witness a variety ofcontrasts. While the Ragusan vessels sailed

throughout the world and contributed to individualas well as common wealth, the position of thepeasantry and contract labourers worsened dueto an increase in prices. Stulli attached equalimportance to the magnificent chapters of theRagusan Golden age and early modern period,its shipping, freedom, and outstanding scholarlyand cultural achievements, but also to the lessappealing parts of the narrative. He addresses,for example, the inability of the Ragusan govern-ment to adapt to the mercantilist strategy of the

turn of the sixteenth century, rigid and inefficientstate protectionism, the contraband of forgedmoney from Italy to Turkey, and other forms ofabuse of office that were known to occur despitethe guiding motto Obliti privatorum publicacurate.

This essay offers an excellent insight intothe vicissitudes of the Ragusan economy, theclimb in the fifteenth century, the climax in thesixteenth, bare survival in the seventeenth andthe signs of upturn in the eighteenth century.The period of growing prosperity based on


9/22


commerce, independent status and brilliant

achievements in artistic and literary culture wasbrought to an end in the seventeenth century bya great economic recession, the patriciates declinein size, political aggression from the outside,and the final straw - the disastrous earthquake.Unexpectedly, the eighteenth century witnessedan upturn in the economy and social relations.Severe blows in the seventeenth century gaveway to a period of vigorous economic expansionand a rapid growth in commerce which generatedsignificant social changes. But relative externalpeace was accompanied by intensive political

ferment at home and growing tensions amongthe patricians. In such circumstances the business-minded commoners found themselves in theleading position of economic development. Thepatricians still dominated in money lendingand land ownership, but three quarters of theentire maritime commerce and shipping lay inthe hands of the wealthy citizens. By the end ofthe century, Dubrovnik was to face yet anotherchallenge: the conditions of the internationalmercantile world required greater freedom in

economic dealings, adequate protectionist meas-ures and no limitations in terms of entrepre-neurship. The traditional aristocratic systemwas unable to adapt to the economic innovations,since the increasing influence of politics uponthe economy further deepened the crisis of theeconomic system and society as a whole, makingthe Ragusan economy uncompetitive. The tensionsbetween the old and new nobility, the dispro-portion between the citizens participation inthe economy and political power, the populardiscontent of the peasantry and workers, as well

as the mounting tensions on the internationalscene between Russia, the Kingdom of Naplesand France marked the last years of the freeRepublic. Speaking about these processes, Stulliscrutinises Ragusan relations with Venice andthe Ottoman Empire, the declining relationswith Spain, problems with the papacy, newdiplomatic ties with Austria, intensive diplomaticactivity in winning international support andprotection following the fall of the independentHungarian Kingdom, Ragusan diplomacy as awhole, and the fate of Ragusan shipping, trade,

charter transport and economic depression. He

showed particular sensitivity to social issues,and his studies often address the position of thosewho had nothing to offer but their labour andwho were the greatest victims of the depression.

The second section of the book, subdividedinto three chapters, covers the topics from thehistory of law, a miscellany of themes pertainingto the outlying Ragusan estates and culturaland political history.

The essay O knjizi statuta grada Dubrovnikaiz godine 1272 (from:Arhivski vjesnik15 (1972):

pp. 7-15) marked the 700th anniversary of theRagusan statute, among the first in the Adriaticregion. Stulli places the Ragusan legislationwithin a broader perspective or within what hehimself considered to have been of vital import-ance, his examination going further than oneof a mere interpretation of the law. The evolutionof the statutory norms of the Dalmatian townstended to follow a similar pattern: without anyintent to legally embrace all the possibilities. Itdid not develop from above, but emerged fromlife itself, from real economic and social situ-

ations. The fact that Dubrovnik was underVenetian domination at the time of the codi-fication had no direct impact on the framing ofthe statute, with the exception of certain provisionsconcerning the jurisdiction of the Venetian countand the function of the city councils. That iswhy the Statute Book, with some minor alterations,remained the fundamental law well after 1358,until the very last days of the Republic and evenafter its fall, until 1816, irrespective of theemergence of additional collections of law.

The essay which follows, Prilozi pitanju oredakcijama knjige statuta grada Dubrovnika,also addresses issues related to the statute. Stullisprincipal interest here is in its different versions,from the oldest one preserved from 1342 to thedraft consulted by Ivan Lucius (from: AnaliHistorijskog instituta JAZU u Dubrovniku 3(1954): pp. 85-118). The analysis of the preservedmanuscripts confirms that the Statute Bookrepresented a widely used manual and existed invarious versions. Namely, changes to the textwere not entered according to an established


10/22


rule but according to the whims, needs and the

judgement of the codex owner. In an approachso Stulli-like, the actual scope of the essay ismuch wider than the title suggests, for headdresses the great legal reforms of the secondhalf of the fourteenth and the fifteenth century,along with the law collections posterior to theStatute. Stullis practice of giving a modest titleto what may subsequently prove a broad subjectmatter reminds me of the advice given to me bymy colleague Nella Lonza in the early days ofmy research into the Dubrovnik themes: Payno attention to Stullis titles. You should readeach article throughout, for you never knowwhat may lie hidden in it.

Selected for this volume is yet another essay,the contents of which are striking both for theirerudition and breadth, first published in AnaliHistorijskog instituta JAZU uDubrovniku in1952 under the title Ordines artis nauticaesecundum consuetudinem civitatis Ragusii.The article traces the maritime legislation ofthe Republic of Dubrovnik from 1557, but alsoexamines the overall development of Ragusan

maritime legislation, including all the precedingand succeeding collections of law and separateprovisions. Stulli places it in the context ofRagusan shipping and its oscillation over thecenturies, and even in the wider context of theeconomic and social conditions of the fifteenthand sixteenth centuries. Further, the analysis ofmaritime legislation tends to shift to an enquiryof the Ragusan legal system in which the authorexamines the meaning of the statutory regulations,contracts and common law, the reception of

foreign law and the problem of judicial juris-diction in maritime commerce, but in othersegments as well. While on the topic, Ragusanmaritime prosperity was one of Stullis much-researched themes, since it was the citys leadingeconomic branch and the generator of otheractivities that largely determined the lives of allthe social strata.

The article Iz historije pomorskog sudstvau starom Dubrovniku, published in 1952 inDubrovako pomorstvo, represents a specificsupplement to the earlier mentioned study as it

highlights the problem of maritime legal actions

outside Dubrovnik, that is, the conflict of differentlaws and customs of certain towns and statesand diverse municipal regulations that had to beobserved abroad. By the twelfth century, theMediterranean had witnessed the establishmentof the maritime courts of law which, throughtheir considerable practice, were to constructcertain common norms of maritime law. It wasnot until the sixteenth century that such a courtwas established in Dubrovnik. It was soon abol-ished since the institution of specialised courtsdid not comply with the state policy of the central-isation of the judiciary. Although sea-oriented,Dubrovnik accepted the implementation of foreignlaws with considerable reservations.

A series of essays devoted to the history oflaw rounds off with Pregled dravnopravnehistorije Dubrovake Republike (from:Dubrov-nik2/2-3 (1956): pp. 1-12) in which the authordiscusses the legal features of the communalperiod and those of the aristocratic republic, theinterrelatedness of the legal and the politicalbranches, economic and class processes, legal

relations between the secular government andthe church, along with day-to-day legal practiceand provisions, and the legal education of thepatricians and commoners. This essay thus pro-vides a most excellent comprehensive survey ofthe development of the Ragusan legal system.

The following three articles examine issuesrelated to some of Dubrovniks outlying estates:Dubrovake odredbe o Konavlima (I) (from:Konavoski zbornik1 (1982): pp. 29-43); Zbirkadubrovakih propisa za otok Mljet iz godine

1791 (from:Zbornik za narodni ivot iobiaje45 (1971): pp. 663-678); Jedan plan o privrednojeksploataciji otoka Lastova iz godine 1808 (from:Beritiev zbornik, ed. Vjekoslav Cvitanovi.Dubrovnik: Drutvo prijatelja dubrovake starine,1960: pp. 257-269). In all of them, particularlythe last two, Stulli examines the social structureof the Republic of Dubrovnik, the lives of itssubject farmers marked by hard labour and thestruggle for survival, and discontent with theRagusan government, especially evident on theIsland of Lastovo. The last article clears up one


11/22


of the episodes in a series of tensions and con-

flicts between Dubrovnik and Lastovo, herecaused by a plan of exploitation of the island,proposed to General Marmont in 1808 by oneof the distinguished citizens of Dubrovnik. Theplan was based on the idea of return to the landand the agricultural development of uncultivatedportions of land, the opening of factories andthe revival of traditional activities such as fishingand the sale of salted fish. Such a project reliedprimarily on the workforce of the Lastovopeasantry and in-migrating labour. A likely causefor yet another rebellion, this plan was rejected,but remained as a document of a particular timeand social relations in the decayed Republic.

In the final section O kulturnoj i politikojpovijesti Dubrovnika, Stullis attention is drawnby another vain attempt, this time the failure ofMarin Dris plan to reform social relations inthe Republic at its peak, dealt with in the articleOko politikih planova Marina Dria - Vidre(from:Mogunosti6 (1959): pp. 498-113). Drisletters to Cosimo de Medici, Duke of Tuscany,continue to puzzle historians and literary experts.

Stulli elaborates a variety of different perspec-tives as well as his own, pointing to the profoundeffect of the Ragusan reality upon Dris literarywork, his social sensibility and engagement. InStullis view, the reasoning of Marin Dri wasfar from unsound and unrealistic. He was avisionary ahead of his time, with ideas thatanticipated the era to come. It is within thiscontext that his analysis of the nature of thecurious long-term consensus among the noblesand non-nobles, the hallmark of the Dubrovnik

Republic, continues to draw historians attention.The volume concludes with an essay on theearly days of the Croatian politician Frano Supilo(Dubrovnik 13/4 (1970)). By highlighting thehardship of the youthful Supilo and his family,Stulli shifts the focus to one of his much-likedthemesthe life of the common people ofDubrovnikhere presented in the depressionyears of the late nineteenth century. In Stullisview this economic crisis had a major effect onthe reception of new ideas and movements,primarily those of the national revival. Stulli

concludes that Supilos political views stemmed

from his life experience, the economic, socialand political circumstances of an era that formeda whole generation of young men who werenurtured by the spirit of national revival, andwho, instead of striving for the traditional,outdated idea of Dalmatian autonomy, soughtunion with Croatia and Slavonia.

Comprehensive and well-grounded in bothcontents and style, these studies reveal Stulli asan established historian, both erudite and in-quisitive, who approaches problems free of bias

and with an open mind, and who recognisesonly one frame - that of historical sources andhistorical research methods. Insightfulness, clarityand a well-argued position in the choice oftopics, documents, and final assessments arebut some of the defining features of his work.Stullis research is firmly grounded in primarymaterials, but is also well-balanced in terms ofabundance of data. Archival work stirs thehistorians creativity, tends to re-open new possi-bilities, fresh perspectives of life in the past,particularly in the archives which abound in

documentation and continuity, such as those ofDubrovnik. However, work in the archives canbe a challenge, especially to those who approachthe sources with no questions of their own.They may get lost in a maze of minutiae, unableto reach a synthesis and clearly summarise aparticular problem. Stullis approach was quitethe reverse. His work should be valued for itsexcellent sense of balance between the micro-and macro-perspective. Though marshalling amyriad of facts and concentrating on the

smallest of details, his studies never lose sightof the big picture. On the other hand, he goesbeyond the descriptive layer, and interrogateshis data from diverse and wide-ranging per-spectives. His work is characterised by livelycuriosity for a broad range of topics, from theeconomy, maritime issues, social and culturalhistory, even political history which he neitherignores nor emphasises but tends to understandas part of the historical fabric. Stulli immersedhimself in the materials guided by his owninterests and questions, put his assumptions and


12/22


theses to the test against historical documents and

vice versa, with the result that his contributionsare thus useful, especially to those who decideto follow his path. The subject matter is alwaysincorporated in the wider social as well as legalcontext. This Stulli does most skilfully becausehe does not confine himself to the legal frame-work of the documents but collates them withthe documentary evidence on all domains ofcity life. Contrary to the positivistic approach,the sources are not referred to in succession butare used in a creative and purposeful manner,placed within a comprehensive structure.

Many of the points raised by Stulli are stillfrequently raised in current research, such ashis thesis on the existence of an oligarchy amongthe Ragusan patriciate from the fifteenth centuryonward, on the interaction between culture andother spheres of the Republics social life, onTurco- and Veneto-Ragusan relations, on therole of the Jesuits in the cultural and politicallife of Dubrovnik, on the significance of Latinin the seventeenth century, etc. Not only is suchdiscussion needed, but it is inherent in histori-

ography which, by its very nature, is an inter-pretative discipline. No doubt, many historianswill criticise Bernard Stullis assessments andtheses, but no one will be able to dispute thatthey are well supported and seriously argued.In other words, his works, the ones selected inthis book and others, will continue to live theirown historiographic lives, and that is a greatcompliment for any historian. Stullis ownwords are the best illustration of his approachto the history of Dubrovnik in that one should

dispose of the ballast of idyllic misrepresentationof Ragusan history which had stirred pettyminds to lead a crusade for the protection ofRagusan history and tradition from those whowrite against the Republic, in other words,those, like Stulli himself, who refuse to sur-render to myths, but paddle through the past,sine ira et studio, and bring conclusions in thesame manner. Lastly, the principal value of Stulliswork on the whole resides in his profoundfeeling for man, for the people of the past andtheir lives. The themes that weave through his

works are never separated from the people

themselves and that, among other things, is oneof the essential qualities of his research thatadds to the historiographic vividness of his lifework.

Zdenka Janekovi Rmer

Josip Bersa, Dubrovake slike i prilike [TheGleanings from Dubrovnik]. Dubrovnik: Maticahrvatska, 2002. Pages 309.

Matica hrvatska of Dubrovnik has publishedthe second edition of the legendary historicaland literary work of Josip Bersa Dubrovakeslike i prilike. Apart from rendering nostalgicand profound affection for the ancient Dubrovnik,the author (1862-1932) has produced a valuablecultural insight into the life of the City and itspeople. The first edition was published in Zagrebin 1941, ten years after the authors death. Thereaderships equally keen interest in the work

over the years has encouraged the publisher tolaunch a new edition.

The first edition was produced by TiasMortigjija, a Dubrovnik-born writer and news-paper editor. To the advice of notable reviewers,literary historian Vinko Lozovina and Mate Tentor,a linguist, the editor decided to shorten thework by omitting certain citations, repetitionsand superfluous meditations, and to change someof Bersas lexical solutions which were considerednon-standard and described as provincialisms,

localisms and Balkanic. However, Mortigjijapointed to the editions faithfulness in terms ofthe memoir-anecdotal fabric of the accountwhere no abridgements had been made.

In view of the narrative, the new edition makesno departure from its predecessor since theoriginal has not yet been located. Stjepan osi,editor of this edition, has made no attempt toamend or expand Bersas citations for, in hisopinion, the literary aspect of the text wouldlose in fluency and animation. Instead, the editorhas provided a more detailed preface containing


13/22


Bersas portrayal, reconstruction of the literature

and historical sources the author had consulted,as well as the editors aim to locate Bersa in theframework of Dubrovnik historiography. Despitea lack of documentary references, the editor doesnot harbour any doubts about Bersas scientificcredibility. Moreover, he confirms it through thereconstruction of authors sources and literature.

The illustrations contained in the first editionhave been replaced by old photographs of Du-brovnik from the collection of the DubrovnikMuseum, State Archives of Dubrovnik and anumber of the local private collections. Lackingin the first edition, author index is a most welcomeaddition to the book.

Slavica Stojan

Tomislav Kulji, Mleci na Lapadu. LjetnikovacPaska Frana Sorkoevia [Mleci in Lapad.The Summer Residence of Pasko Franov Sor-koevi]. Dubrovnik, Matica hrvatska, 2002.Pages 91.

Tomas Kuljis monograph on Mleci naLapaduhighlights one of the patrician summerresidences of Dubrovnik, dating from the closeof the sixteenth century, its construction, lateradditions and rebuilding, environmental endow-ments, the distribution of space, proportions, aswell as its owners and their life stories. Thetime frame of the study covers a period of fourcenturies in which the author chronologicallytraces its alterations.

The monograph is based upon documentarysources from the State Archives of Dubrovnik,available mainly in the series containing chan-cellery and notary records. The author points toa somewhat lesser value of the records he hasbeen able to find mainly relating to diversebusiness pursuits of its founder Pasko FranovSorkoevi. Despite most meticulous research,no information has been obtained on the architect,constructors, commissions or the expendituresof this magnificent building. Indirectly, the authorwas able to reconstruct the course of the con-

struction (fabrica), the golden period of the

summer residence (domus magna), the periodof decay, along with the changes of ownership.

In the first chapter Kulji explains the villasname, which tended to vary over the centuries(Mnezi, Mlezi, Mletki, etc.) but always in themeaning of Little Venice as it is also commonlyreferred to today. He offers a detailed descriptionof its unique position (the villa was originallysurrounded by the sea). The book is illustratedthroughout by old graphic representations anddrawings, nineteenth-century photographs, plans,and numerous sketches and drawings done byKulji himself. Thus one may experience theresidence in its full perspective, together withall of its facilities and topography. In additionto architecture, Kulji also focusses on the stone-work, while the general picture is supplementedwith a series of graphs and illustrations, gen-ealogical tables of the owners, their photographs,perspectives of Gru, drawings of the door andwindow consoles and bifores. In order to providea better insight into the actual size of thebuilding and its proportions, the author brings

a comparative table of the old anthropomorphicand modern measures.

Having analysed all the architectural andenvironmental aspects, the author strongly arguesfor the restitution of this outstanding building.In this respect, he differentiates seven principalelements: the residential islet with the villa andthe chapel, marina, garden walls, stairways andthe bridge over the marina, the communal streetand the arch above it, storehouses and the garden.Unfortunately, no trace of some of the mentioned

features of this extravagant historic buildingremains.

Slavica Stojan


14/22


Ivan Lozica, Poganska batina [The Pagan

Heritage]. Zagreb: Golden Marketing, 2002.Pages 221.

The title of Lozicas new book somewhatresembles the famous portrait of Turica, whichis probably why it is being displayed on thecovers. Similar to the reaction likely to becaused by the sight of this Ragusan mask, thetitle Poganska batina may at first intimidatebut then again arouse ridicule. It is intimidatingbecause the reader is led to believe that betweenthe covers of the book lies a passionate quest forthe reconstruction of the ancientthe scepticswill say the genuine meaning of the folkloreperformances and phenomena. It is ridicule atthe same time because Lozica argues that anactivity in which, striving towards the recon-struction of some long-lost marshland pantheon,we draw on our present-day prejudiced views onthe European Mediterranean, Slav or Croatianself, and then from the general human (pre-Indo-European, pre-Slav and pre-national, that is,natural and non-historic) basis, as the foundation

of all similarities, build a historical narrative,create a new myth, draw new maps in the his-torical atlas is the pagan heritage itself, whichagain diverges little from the lore, accordingto which ancient customs and rites have forcenturies been locally interpreted as a memoryof the struggle against the Turks and Moors, oras a reminiscence of the beggarly cavalry ofKing Matthias. Continuously reminding ofthis aspect of the research of the historicallyand geographically scattered, but morphologically

and genealogically seemingly close-relatedphenomena, such as weapon dances and the pro-cessions of koledari (carol singers), in this bookLozica focuses his attention on the interpretationof their continuity within the historical process.

This volume contains seven essays originallypublished in journals and collected papers, herepresented with some minor alterations and mainlyin the chronological order of their production.Therefore their arrangement in the book tendsto reflect the shifts of Lozicas interests andapproaches during the 1990s: the book starts

with the study of folklore performances as

cultural practices with specific implications uponthe social order, and proceeds with the researchof the connections between these performancesand often poorly evidenced ancient practices, tobe rounded off with a questioning of the validityof scientific interpretation itself.

In this respect, an insightful and humoroustitle of the first chapter Gesunkenes getrunkeneskulturgut: vinski tatuti pod starimi krovovidoes not imply Lozicas interest for the eventualpre-Christian origins of the wine associations.Lozica views wine statutes and wine associationsprimarily as historical phenomena which provethat popular culture and the culture of the nobilitydid not become closely interwoven only on thebroad horizon of the Renaissance Dubrovnikor of even smaller communities (like the communeof Hvar) on the Croatian coast of the Adriatic,but also in the continental parts of Croatia, itsnorth-west region in particular. On the basis ofwine statutes and literary texts, the authorquestions the achievements of the theoreticalconceptions of the gesunkenes Kulturgut and

the invention of tradition, and problematisesexclusively class-determined conceptions oftraditional culture.

In the second chapter,Dva demona: orko imaci, Lozica shifts the focus of his attentionfrom the worldly and imbibingor as the his-torians would put itmicro-historical topictowards two imaginary beings from the oraltradition, frequently seen along the easternAdriatic: orkoand maci. Lozica examines theirancient origin, as well as the problems related

to the classification of these and similar imaginarybeings. He looks for them in the manuscriptsand published materials, showing equal interestfor macisclose relative, the benignant tintilinfrom the Dubrovnik region.

The third chapter (Izum dudijate) tracesyet another imaginary being of the Dubrovnikarea, but this time it is the fruit of unconscientiousscholarly writing. It concerns the festive figureof Jew the martyr which, as recurrently assertedby Slobodan Prosperov Novak, paraded thestreets of medieval Dubrovnik mounted on the


15/22


oxen-drawn cart. Having analysed the literature

and the sources, Lozica shows that dudijatahad been introduced into the literary historysome thirty years ago by Miroslav Panti whoassociated the Jew whom the multitude ofRome tortured during the carnival season as hepassed on the oxen cart with the Jew, or morelikely the Jews-masks worn by the Ragusans onEaster Eve and on Easter Sunday. The Jewwhom Panti had transferred from the festiveRome to Easter Dubrovnik of the fourteenthcentury was adopted and further antedated byNovak. In this chapter Lozica not only unfoldsthese scientific mispresentations, but also offersa reinterpretation of the available sources,primarily Ragusan government decisions thatregulated the practice of Easter masking intoJews during the fourteenth century. Since thesedecrees concerned the period before the massdeparture of Jews from the Pyrenean Peninsulaand their settlement in Dubrovnik, along withthe fact that some of the provisions mentionguise into armedJews and karbonosiequippedwith wooden and stone bats, Lozica opts for the

interpretation in which the evidence on theguise into a Jew or Jews should not be associatedwith anti-Semitism but with the later transform-ations of the pagan New Year feast, customs ofkoleda, or even custom of the electing of theking into folklore performances of the themesfrom the New Testament. This interpretativeroad takes him as far as Metkovi and Vodicein Dalmatia, where even today people dressedup as armed Roman legionnaires who, duringthe Holy Week, guard the Holy grave are called

udije(the Jews).The fourth chapter, Turiinim tragom,alsoexamines the Ragusan practice of masking outsidethe regular festive calendar. After an insightinto the graphic representations of the Turicamask published in Appendinis book and thepreserved water-colour drawings in the albumof the Ragusan printer and miniature painter ofthe nineteenth century, Pietro F. Martecchini,Lozica gives a summary of masking into tur.Turica is then, together with Vila and oroje(the two masks which most often accompanied

Turica) approached within the context of the

widespread Mediterranean sword dances, assumingthat these three masks may have taken part insome form of a weapon dance during the Republic.Lozica also adds that in no way does the partici-pation of these three masks in the sword danceinterfere with their ritual and mythological char-acter, nor their remote origin. On the contrary,they could be recognised as a ritual core which,under the influence of various dance and literaryforms over the centuries, served as a starting-point of the professional dance and drama theatre.

In the fifth chapter Lozica analyses arskakumpanijaof Korula. The notion of kumpani-ja,or better kumpanjijaas commonly referredto by the locals of ara, once denoted male so-cieties which were to assume an importanteconomic and military role. Today the notionprimarily denotes the performance of a chainsword dance. Utilising the published studies,records of the ara parish and ethnographicmanuscript collections, Lozica provides thechronology of kumpanijasperformances, alongwith a detailed description of the custom and

dance. Given the fact that in the past kumpanijaorganised a mock government throughout theisland of Korula, Lozica concludes that thiscustom might be associated with the ancientpractice of electing the kingand the processionsof koledari. Commenting on the scholarly specu-lations on diverse ritual roots of Korulas kum-panija, he assumes that, although they mayhave been established as peasant military com-panies for the protection against the pirates,kumpanijas dance custom retains much older,

pre-Christian r itual roots.The chapterDoli smo vam kolendati beginswith a list of the lexical definitions of the wordkoleda, among which is the one given by PeroBudmani. According to him, kolendais a songwhich groups of young Ragusans sing in theevening hours as they go about from house tohouse, but also a merry company gathered tooccasion ones name day by singing a song underhis window. By drawing parallels betweenkoledaand kolenda, Lozica, unlike his prede-cessors, rejects the causal explanation of the


16/22


connection between these two phenomena and

submits a thesis according to which the wordkoledastems from the accounts of the Christianmissionaries who, instead of employing the localidiom, identified the New Year processions withthe notorious Roman calends. After a criticalinquiry into the various mythologically driveninterpretations of koleda, the author calls forthe research in which practice would not functionas a mere device for the reconstruction of theSlav or any other pantheon. In this respect,he discusses the influence of Christianizationupon the dramatic aspect of koleda, and throughnumerous questions comes forward with anassumption that an inquiry into the relationshipbetween weapon dances, masking and koledecould illuminate the starting positions of theCroatian theatre.

The final chapter,Kraljice u akademiji, addres-ses the origin of a custom known as ljelje-kraljice(ljelje-queens). The chapter does not open withthe description of the custom as may have beenexpected, but with the problems related to itsstaging on the occasion of the 100thanniversary

of the foundation of the Yugoslav Academy ofSciences and Arts (todays Croatian Academyof Sciences and Arts). Lozica draws a clearparallel between the groups of young girlswearing mens hats, who go from house to housein the north-eastern rural regions of Croatia,dance and sing songs with similar customs insouthern Dalmatia, eastern Serbia, northernBulgaria, Slovakia and Romania. The compari-son uncovers the residues, poor yet traceable, ofthe pre-Slav or even more ancient festive masking

and the local customs within Christian feastdays. Such a bold assumption leads him to re-examine the difficulties of reconstruction andinterpretation mentioned earlier in relation tothe staging of the custom. By drawing new pathsbut also by pointing to some of the obscure shortcuts in more recent interpretations of kraljice,Lozica places his attention on the problem ofscientific interpretation of the folklore phenom-ena. Interpretative impediments are being ac-counted by the difference between the historiansand folklorists agenda. According to Lozica, a

historian examines a single event, he draws out a

fragment in time and space in an aim to grasp thehistoric context by interpreting it from the present-day perspective, while we [folklorists, ethno-theatrologists, ethnologists] deal with the long-lasting repetitive events in broader space, witha diachronic sequence of performances in whicheach tends to modify the meaning of the pre-cedents. This distinction, which, in view of themore or less recent disciplinary trends, could betheorised at length, does not exclude, however, theinteractions between the mentioned disciplines.This interaction is, after all, manifest throughout

all seven chapters of the volume, for even whendeeply concentrated on the interpretation of theancient origins, it does not fail to ignore thelocal and historical specifics of the phenomena.Even in the chapter Turiinim tragom, despiteemphasis on the mythological strata of the problem,or rather thanks to it, Lozica brings a new andfor the understanding of the social relations ofthe old Dubrovnik a valuable interpretation ofthree famous old Dubrovnik masks, known fromliterature as Turica,Bembelj, oroje andVila.

Marijana Hamerak


17/22


Marianna D. Birnbaum, The Long Journey of

Gracia Mendes. Budapest - New York: CentralEuropean University Press, 2003. Pages 147.

The fascinating and eventful life story ofGracia Mendes (c. 1510-1568), also known asBeatrix de Luna, has drawn much scholarly at-tention over the years. There exist a number ofstudies illuminating Gracias personality, careerand her place within the historical context ofthe time. With this monograph, Marianna Birn-baum makes a welcome and valuable contri-bution to a better understanding not only of

Gracia herself, but of the wealthy, distinguishedand powerful Mendes family. Having amassedimpressive bibliographical materials, the authoroffers a detailed description of her life and work,but at the same time manages to synthesise vol-uminous data on the life of Jews and conversosof sixteenth-century Europe.

The book comprises seven chapters and aconclusion, two appendices, bibliography andindexes. The first chapter contains a briefhistory of de Luna family in Portugal and their

subsequent renaming into Mendes. The secondchapter is devoted to the history of the conversos,the institution of the Inquisition in Spain and inPortugal, and the effects this event had upon theJews and the converts from Judaism. One of theresults was the migration of the wealthy Mendesfamily from Portugal to Antwerp, a leading Euro-pean commercial and financial centre of theday, where they resumed their lucrative businessactivities. The author describes the life andcontribution of Jews and conversosto the pros-perity of sixteenth-century Antwerp, with spe-

cial focus on the Mendes family. It was herethat Francisco Mendes, banker and Graciashusband, died, leaving the young widow to takehis place and manage the business of the largeand powerful Mendes house.

However, Antwerp soon proved an unsafeplace for the Christianised Mendes. When thefamilys wealth gave rise to Emperor CharlesVs suspicions and even extortion, Gracia decidedto move to Venice with her daughter Reyna andsister Brianda, also a widow, and the lattersdaughter Gracia Junior. In 1546 she settled in

Serenissima which harboured a less hostile attitude

towards Jews and converts, although under theinfluence of the Inquisition they were still oc-casionally persecuted, especially in the periodafter 1550. Venice became the scene of a seriousconflict between Gracia and Brianda, who accusedher sister of secret Jewish observances and ofplans to leave for Turkey. Gracia was imprisoned,but thanks to her immense wealth and numer-ous connections with high-positioned officialsthroughout Europe and Turkey, she was soonreleased.

By the end of 1549 Gracia and her daughterleft for Ferrara, which enjoyed the reputation ofbeing the most liberal place in Europe (in Italymost certainly) as far as Jews and converts wereconcerned. There is ground to believe that inFerrara Gracia was already known under thesurname Nasi which became famous thanks toher nephew and later son-in-law (husband ofher daughter Reyna) Joseph Nasi and his role inthe public affairs of the Ottoman Empire. InFerrara Gracia proved to be not only a successfulbusiness-woman, but also a patron of the arts,

literature in particular. However, the Inquisitionwas to reach the walls of Ferrara in 1553. Havingforeseen the menace, Gracia decided to acceptthe invitation of the Ottoman government andin 1552 she moved to Istanbul.

On her way from Ferrara to Istanbul, Graciamade a stopover in Dubrovnik where she receiveda warm welcome. The Mendes family had long-standing business relations with Dubrovnik, theiragents being stationed in this Adriatic Republic.Marianna Birnabum examines the position and

activity of Jews and converts in Dubrovnik andpoints to the importance of Gracias visit to thecity, her role in the relations between Ragusa andthe Ottoman Empire, as well as to the mutuallybeneficial trade privileges which Gracia managedto acquire from Dubrovnik in 1554.

In the seventh chapter the author casts lighton some of the interesting moments in the lifeof the Jews and converts in the Ottoman Empire,Gracias arrival in Istanbul in 1553, and her rolein the conflict between the Jews and the localgovernment of Ancona. She became a resident


18/22


of the splendid villa Belvedere overlooking the

Bosporus. Holding an influential position inthe circles close to the court of Sultan Sleymanthe Magnificent, Gracia continued to controlher financial realm which spread from the westernshores of Europe, across the Mediterranean tothe powerful Ottoman Empire. Her nephew andson-in-law Joseph Nasi was highly positionedin the Turkish administration, but after the deathof the sultans Sleyman (1566) and Selim II(1574), he no longer played an active role inpublic affairs. Gracia died in 1568 in her villain Istanbul. Birnbaum offers an extensive survey

of her business activities in Istanbul, alongsideher engagement in the literary and educationalwork among the Jewish population of the Ottomancapital, in which Joseph Nasi played a prominentrole as well.

In her conclusion, among other things, theauthor refers to very flattering appraisals of Graciawritten by the Jewish rabbis and intellectualson the occasion of her death, rightly underliningthat Gracias case was far from typical for theJews or converts of the time. Gracia was aunique figure for her excellent abilities as wellas for the size of her accumulated wealth whichoffered her security throughout life. Despiteall, Gracias power and role in the eventualimprovement of the position of Jews and convertsin Europe was limited.

Two appendices, one on the money and prices,and the other on the journey from Dubrovnikto Istanbul in the sixteenth century contributeto a better comprehension of the text.

Birnbaums book is not without f laws. How-ever, many typographical and some other errors

should not detract from a positive appreciationof this valuable book. By placing Gracia Mendesin the focus of her attention, Marianna Birn-baum has produced an insightful and vividpicture not only of Gracias life, but of the lives,sufferings, hardships and success of the Jewsand conversos of sixteenth-century Europe.Overall, then, this book certainly deserves to sit onthe shelves of any research library and anyoneinterested in this subject matter will benefitfrom reading it.

Baria Kreki

Guilio Fenicia, Il Regno di Napoli e la difesa

del Mediterraneo nellet di Filippo II (1556-1598): Organizzazione e finanziamento [TheKingdom of Naples and the Defence of theMediterranean During the Reign of King PhilipII (1556-1598): Organisation and Financing].Bari: Cacucci Editore, 2003. Pages 326.

The latest book by Professor Giulio Feniciaof the Department of European Studies, Uni-versity of Bari, examines the economic andmilitary history of the Kingdom of Naples overa short period of half a century, when an effort torestore social peace, centralised economy andsovereignty in the Italo-Spanish Mediterraneanconstantly menaced by the Ottomans placedNaples in the spotlight of international politics.Through Philips policy of militarisation Naplesplayed a leading role in the coordinated actionof government centralisation and tax increasesfor the purpose of organising and maintaininga well-structured army and the navy. The inclusionof Naples into the military defence project andconsolidation of the Spanish monarchy in the

Mediterranean triggered off a process of theindustrial and social change which awakenedthe continental south from a fifty-year lethargyunder the Spanish domination.

An introductory essay provides ideologicaland institutional bases of the new defence strategyelaborated by Giulio Cesare Caracciolo andAlfonso Piscicelli in the mid-sixteenth century.In Discorso sopra il Regno di Napoli [Dis-cussion on the Kingdom of Naples] Caracciolodiscusses the problem of defence and advocates

the restoration of the noble privileges revokedby King Charles V, while Piscicelli in his Dis-corso intorno alla Milizia che si potrebbeintrodurre nel Regno di Napoli[Discussion onthe possibilities of introducing militia in theKingdom of Naples] anticipates the defencepolicy of King Philip II.

The first chapter, La difesa del territorio[Territorial defence], casts light on the construc-tion of fortifications and an elaborate networkof watchtowers, but also on the organisation ofthe national army for the purpose of terr itorial


19/22


defence, prepared to intervene in international

conflicts as well. The maintenance of the nationalarmy and tercio, Spanish infantry regiments,together with the construction of the fortifica-tions and more than 300 watchtowers werefinanced from the taxes, the maintenance of theconstructions representing an extra budgetexpenditure. A substantial annual budget ofseveral hundred ducats was distributed formilitary purposes.

The second chapter,La realizzazione di unanuova flotta[The making of a new fleet], affords

a systematic overview of all the aspects oforganising a new fleet, shipbuilding expendituresand those of the construction of a new arsenal.The process of the naval organisation could inno way compare to that of the army. In a shortperiod from 1560 to 1573, the Naples fleetincreased from the initial six galleys to fifty. Anew arsenal was constructed for the repair andreconstruction of the Spanish galleys but alsoTurkish vessels seized at sea, resulting in anadditional rise in the expenditures for the pro-curement of wood, weapons, cannon and gun

powder. Bearing in mind that 164 oarsmen,about 50 officers, sailors and other members ofthe crew manned the vessel in addition to just asmany soldiers, the expenditures for food rationsand clothing must have been considerable.

Apart from the important financial aspectwhen food supply was concerned, there alsoexisted a problem of organisation, because theadministration of food resources required control-led and channelled production. Huge amountsof wheat, wine, meat, salted fish, vegetables etc.

were to be transformed into capital, and as theirexport was forbidden for a longer period, theKingdom suffered substantial income losses.

In the third chapter entitled Lamministra-zione delle galereFenicia explores two distinctapproaches to galley administration, maintenanceexpenditures, and embezzlement. As for theadministration of the fleet, direct managementwas replaced by the so-called asientoadminis-tration of lesser cost. In the former case theauthority was bureaucratically delegated to thecaptain of each galley, whereas in the asiento

administration a contract was signed with the

general captain of the escadrille, who receiveda fixed annual budget expected to meet all theexpenditures. Although direct administration leftroom for abuse, the asientas,however, tendedto neglect the royal galleys, and in 1590 PhilipII called for the restoration of direct fleetadministration.

Under the titleIl finanziamento della spesamilitare[The financing of military expenses],chapter 4 traces the financing of the heavilyincreased military expenses. The problem was

resolved through an increase in tax and publicdebt. Fenicia points to the most general elementof such a policystriving for rationality andflexibility. When, due to a cut in budget thenumber of galleys was reduced, the reconstruc-tion of the wooden hulls and a more rationalsupply contributed to a greater efficiency of theremaining vessels. Functionality was alwaysthe priority. A decision to build an arsenal wasnot made only because of the expansion of thenavy, but also to support the growing operativerequirements of smaller fleet formations.

An increase in the military expenditures inthe latter half of the sixteenth century seriouslyburdened the viceroys budget. This resulted ina systematisation of the state income from extrataxes and a substantial increase in public debt.On the other hand, budget deficit and a searchfor new financial resources gave way to disordercharacterised by corruption and abuse.

Lastly, the book is amply illustrated andsupplemented with tables, graphs, indexes ofthe viceroys and galley captains, a chronological

survey and a table of measures as well as abibliography and index of names.

Mihaela Vekari


20/22


Plurilingvizem v Evropi 18. stoletja, [Multi-

lingualism in Eighteenth-Century Europe], ed.Fedora Ferluga Petronio. Maribor: Slavistikodrutvo, 2002. Pages 348.

This collection of 22 essays is an outgrowthof the conferences held at the Inter-UniversityCentre of Dubrovnik in 1999 and 2000 on diverseaspects of multilingualism in eighteenth-centuryEurope, concentrating on the regions from thenorth-west border of Slovenia, Zagreb, Bosnia,Dubrovnik to Bulgaria. The volume containscontributions of a mixture of 18 historians, lin-

guists, literary historians and sociologists fromItaly, Slovenia and Croatia. Sixteen essays havebeen published in English, 5 in Italian, and one inGerman, each being accompanied by a summaryin Slovene.

The first of the three Italian scholars tocontribute to the topic is Vincenzo Orioles fromthe University of Udine in his opening essayentitled Plurilinguismo: modelli interpretativi,terminologia e ricadute istituzionali,in whichhe provides insight into multilinguistic patterns,particularly from U. Weinreich onward.

Fedora Ferluga Petronio, editor and authorof a short introduction (in Slovenian and Italian),arrives from the same Italian University. HeressayLe traduzioni in croato dei classicilatinidi Marko Bruerovi Desrivauxtraces Croatiantranslations of the Latin classics by MarkoBruerovi (1770-1823), son of a French consulto Dubrovnik, who, at the turn of the eighteenthcentury, proved a versed poet in several languages:Croatian, Latin, Italian, and French.

InLa lingua franca a Venezia nel SettecentoGuido Cifoletti, also from the University ofUdine, examines the Maghrib documents whichoriginate from eighteenth-century Venice andwere written in a widely used Mediterraneanidiom - lingua franca.

Vladimir Osolnik, Slovene scholar fromLjubljana, contributes two essays. The firstaddresses the multilingualism and bilingualismof the Slovene Enlightenment circle of igaZois, while the other casts light upon some ofthe multilungual aspects in the works of theSlovene polyhistor, Valentin Vodnik, whowrote in Slovene, French and German.

Marko Jesenek from Maribor also contrib-

utes two essays. In Greek, Latin and GermanSyntatic Influence on Slovene Gospel Transla-tions in the 18th Century he analyses the use ofthe - and -i participle endings in eighteenth-century Slovene literary works and the influenceof the Latin, German, Old Church Slavonic andGreek syntactic patterns upon participle con-structions. Multilingualism of the Capuchinfriar Bernard of Maribor is the subject of hisother essay (Mehrsprachigkeit bei BernardusMarburgenis), the focus of Jeseneks attentionbeing placed on the bi- and multilingualism of

Bernards German-Slovene dictionary.The contribution of Irena Orel from Ljubljana

(Lexical Interference in German-SlovenianTextbooks in the Late 18th Century) illuminatescertain aspects of bi- and multilingualism inthe history of the Slovenian language, focusingon the translations of three bilingual textbooks,Reading Exercises by B. Kumerdej, The GreatCatechism by J. Japelj, and M. Zagajeksgrammar book, along with J. Edlings transla-tion of the General School Order from 1774.

The essay of ura Strsoglavec from Ljublja-na (Marko Pohlin, Slovene Revival LanguageNovus) examines Pohlins poetics elaborated inhis Kraynska Grammatika (Kraynska Gram-matika oder die Kunst die crainerische Spracheregelrichtig zu reden und zu schreben), writtenin German in 1768.

The remaining contributors are from Croatia.Ljiljana Marks from the Institute of Ethnologyand Folklore Research in Zagreb in her essayentitledBaltazar Adam Kreli - Chronicler of

Everday Life discusses Krelis Annuae andthe oral tradition of Croatia.

Sanja Vuli, member of the LinguisticResearch Institute of the Croatian Academy ofSciences and Arts, Zagreb, contributes twopapers. In Latteggiamento nei riguardi delplurilinguismo nelle opere di Stjepan MarkovacMargiti, Tomo Babi, Jerolim Filipovi, FilipLastri e Nikola Lukovi she addresses themultilingualism in the works of several BosnianFranciscans from the eighteenth century. Thefocus of her scholarly attention then shifts to


21/22

the Bulgarian writer, Krsto Pejki, and the multi-

lingualism in his literary-theological writings.Testimonium BilabiumWritten by the Friar

Filip Lastri (Philippus ab Ochevia), an essayby Pavao Knezovi from the Croatian Studiesin Zagreb, focuses on a collection of sermonswritten by one of the most prominent figuresamong the Bosnian Franciscans of the eighteenthcentury and the first historian of Bosnia, friarFilip Lastri (1700-1783). Testimoniumbilabiumhas earned its position in the history of theCroatian sermonic literature for the fact that it

is bilingual, written in Croatian and Latin.Antun Pavekovi of the Department for the

History of Croatian Literature of the CroatianAcademy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb, analysesthe first and most extensive critical account ofAlberto Fortiss travelogue Viaggio in DalmaziainIvan Lovri: The Review of Fortis or Croato-centrism in the ItalianLanguage. In 1776, inthe early days of his career, Ivan Lovridiscussed Fortiss views from the standpointsof empiricism and rationalism.

Lelija Soanac from the Linguistic ResearchInstitute of the Croatian Academy of Sciencesand Arts, Zagreb, contributes two papers. Code-switching in 18th Century Ragusan Comediesexamines the sociolinguistic and syntactic inter-ference between Croatian and Italian as displayedin eighteenth-century Ragusan comedies, whileMultilingualism in 18thCenturyRagusan Playsdeals with the Ragusan idiom of the eighteenthcentury, characterised by an interplay betweenthe Slavic (Croatian) linguistic elements andthose of the Romance language, so typical ofthe Ragusan plays.

In Zamanjas Translation of Hesiods EpicWorks and DaysMarina Bricko of the Facultyof Philosophy, Zagreb, provides an insightfulanalysis of Hesiods epic Opera et dies ac Scu-tum Herculis, carmina Hesiodi Ascraei Latinisversibus expressa a Bernardo ZamagnaRagusino,translated into Latin and published in 1780 byBernard Zamagna, a Ragusan poet.

In her article entitled Natural-HistoricalTerminology in Joakim Stullis Lexicon (1801)

Snjeana Pauek-Badar of the Institute for the

History and the Philosophy of Science of theCroatian Academy, Zagreb, discusses the termi-nology related to natural history in StullisLexiconlatino-italico-illyricum , published in Budim in1801.

arko Muljai, the Emeritus Professor ofthe Freie Universitt of Berlin and a renownCroatian Romanist, contributes an essay onTomo Baselji of Dubrovnik (Tomo Baselji -Bassegli, oratore e scrittore in sei lingue), oneof the greatest figures of the Croatian Enlight-

enment, who was equally versed in Latin, Italian,French, German and English, though most ofhis works were written in French.

In this volume, Slavica Stojan of the Institutefor Historical Sciences of the Croatian Academyof Sciences and Arts in Dubrovnik affords astudy on the abusive language and slander regis-tered in the records of the Ragusan CriminalCourt at the turn of the seventeenth century(Verbal Attacks on Womens Honour in BilingualRecord-books of the Criminal Court of Du-brovnik in the 17th and 18th Century).

Vesna ui of the State Archives of Du-brovnik contributes an essay entitled PolyglotDamjan Braevi of Dubrovnik: Diplomat andInterpreter in the Service of the French, inwhich she traces the life and career of theRagusan diplomat Damjan Braevi who, amongother interesting details, studied in Turkey andspoke several languages. The author alsohighlights his lively correspondence with theRagusan Senate.

Lastly, in her essayMiho ZariniDragoman(Interpreter for the Turkish Language) of theRepublic of Dubrovnik, Vesna Miovi-Peri,member of the Institute for Historical Sciencesof the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts,illuminates an eventful career of Miho Zarini,who had acquired a reputation as one of the bestRagusan interpreters for Turkish.

All of the essays cited have worthwhile thingsto say and will certainly draw the attention ofthose specialised in the problems of bi- andmultilingualism but also of the scholars who

Dubrovnik Annals 9 (2005) 125


22/22


approach the subject of multilingualism from a

variety of perspectives, including the culturo-historical aspect of the studied regions in itsbroadest sense.

The editor, contribut

dubrovnik annals - ancient croatia

Documents