DRUGS ANDDRUG POLICYIN AMERICA

A Documentary History

Edited by STEVEN R. BELENKO

Primary Documents in American History and Contemporary Issues

GREENWOOD PRESSWestport, Connecticut • London

Contents

Series Foreword xxv

Acknowledgments xxvii

Introduction xxix

Significant Dates in the History of American Drug Policy xxxiii

PART I: American Drug Policy in the 19th Century 1

Document 1: Easy Availability of Opium (Edward M.Brecher, 1972) 1

Document 2: Spread of Opium Use (H. Wayne Morgan,1974) 2

Document 3: Opium Use in Massachusetts (F. E. Oliver,1872) 3

Document 4: Prescription of Opiates (Edward M.Brecher, 1972) 4

Document 5: Why People Used Opium (F. E. Oliver,1872) 5

Document 6: Characteristics of 19th Century Addicts(David T. Courtwright, 1982) 6

Document 7: Reasons for High Prevalence of OpiateUse (Edward M. Brecher, 1972) 6

viii Contents

DEVELOPMENT OF HYPODERMIC INJECTION 7

Document 8: History of Hypodermic Injection (CharlesE. Terry and Mildred Pellens, 1928) 7

Document 9: Hypodermic Injection and Addiction(Lawrence Kolb and A. G. Du Mez, 1924) 8

Document 10: Spread of Hypodermic Injection (CharlesE. Terry and Mildred Pellens, 1928) 9

Document 11: Risks of Hypodermic Method (S. F.

McFarland, 1877) 9

SPREAD OF OPIATE USE 10

Document 12: Increase in Opium Use (Virgil G. Eaton,1888) 10

Document 13: Role of Physicians in Spreading the

Opium Habit (Virgil G. Eaton, 1888) 12

OPIUM SMOKING 13

Document 14: Opium Smoking in the Late 1800s(H. Wayne Morgan, 1974) 13

Document 15: San Franciso Law against Opium Smoking,1875 (Charles E. Terry and MildredPellens, 1928) 14

Document 16: Federal Act Banning Opium Imports andExports to and from China (February 23,1887) 15

Document 17: Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury(C. S. Fairchild) to the Speaker of theHouse (Mr. Carlisle) (1888) 16

Document 18: Opium in Patent Medicines (Charles E.

Terry and Mildred Pellens, 1928) 17

COCAINE IN THE 19TH CENTURY 18

Document 19: Medical Uses of Cocaine (WilliamMartindale, 1892) 18

Document 20: Cocaine in Patent Medicines (JosephSpillane, 1994) 20

Document 21: Cocaine in Soft Drinks (Joseph Spillane,1994) 20

Contents

Document 22: Popularity of Coca Wine (Joseph Spillane,1994) 21

Document 23: Cocaine Abuse and Patent Medicines(Joseph Spillane, 1994) 22

Document 24: Cocaine Abuse in the Early 1900s (New

York Times, 1908) 23

DISCOVERY OF HEROIN 25

Document 25: Discovery of Heroin in 1898 (Charles E.Terry and Mildred Pellens, 1928) 25

Document 26: Therapeutic Uses of Heroin (Charles E.Terry and Mildred Pellens, 1928) 26

Document 27: Dangers of Heroin Addiction (LawrenceKolb and A. G. Du Mez, 1924) 27

PART II: The Early Expansion of Federal Drug Control 29

Document 28: Passage of Pure Food and Drug Act(Edward M. Brecher, 1972) 29

Document 29: Pure Food and Drug Act (June 30,1906) 30

Document 30: Impact of Federal Laws on Cocaine Use(Joseph Spillane, 1994) 32

Document 31: Opium in the Philippines (Arnold Taylor,1969) 32

Document 32: Hamilton Wright on the 1909 Anti-OpiumAct (1928) 34

Document 33: History of Federal Anti-Opium Laws

(Arnold Taylor, 1969) 34

Document 34: Hamilton Wright on Opium Use (1911) 35

Document 35: Spread of Opium Problem in the Early1900s (Arnold Taylor, 1969) 37

Document 36: Opium Smoking Act, 1909, as Amended

(1914) 38

Document 37: Federal Tax on Opium for Smoking (1914) 40

Document 38: Inadequacy of Federal Anti-Opium Laws(Arnold Taylor, 1969) 41

x Contents

Document 39: International Opium Conferences andFederal Legislation (New York Academyof Medicine, 1955) 41

Document 40: Emergence of Heroin Problem (New YorkTimes, 1913) 42

Document 41: Cocaine and Violence Joseph Spillane,1994) 44

Document 42: Hamilton Wright on Cocaine Violence(1911) 45

PART III: The Harrison Act 47

Document 43: Background to the Harrison Act (David F.Musto, 1987) 47

Document 44: International Pressures to Enact Legislation

(David F. Musto, 1987) 48

Document 45: The Harrison Act (1914) 49

EFFECTS OF THE HARRISON ACT ON ADDICTS 53

Document 46: Shortcomings of the Harrison Act (NewYork Times, 1915) 54

Document 47: Effect of Laws on Drug Supply (New YorkTimes, 1915) 56

Document 48: Effects of Harrison Act on Addicts(Lawrence Kolb and A. G. Du Mez, 1924) 57

Document 49: 1918 Treasury Department Study of DrugProblem (Arnold Taylor, 1969) 58

Document 50: Estimated Number of Addicts (Lawrence

Kolb and A. G. Du Mez, 1924) 60

ENFORCEMENT OF THE HARRISON ACT 61

Document 51: Report on Federal Crackdown on Drugs(New York Times, 1920) 61

Document 52: Harrison Act Curtailed Physicians'Prescriptions of Opiates (Lawrence Kolband A. G. Du Mez, 1924) 61

Document 53: Enforcement of the Harrison Act (CharlesE. Terry and Mildred Pellens, 1928) 63

Contents xi

Document 54: Prohibitions Against Prescribing Drugs toAddicts (New York Academy of Medicine,1955) 64

FART IV: SupiDocument 55:

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Document 66:

Document 67:

Document 68:

Document 69:

Document 70:

reme Court Decisions on the Harrison ActUnited States v. Jin Fuey Moy (1916)

Bureau of Internal Revenue Annual Report(1917)

United States v. Doremus (1919)

Webb et al. v. United States (1919)

Effects of Webb Decision on Physicians(David T. Courtwright, 1982) r

Jin Fuey Moy v. United States (1920)

United States v. Behrman (1922)

Dissenting Opinion by Justice Holmes etal., United States v. Behrman (1922)

Effects of Behrman Decision (Alfred R.Lindesmith, 1965)

Effects of Behrman Decision (Rufus King,1972)

hinder v. United States (1925)

Comment on Linder Decision (Alfred R.Lindesmith, 1965)

Federal Bureau of Narcotics Interpretationof Linder Decision (c. 1925)

Lack of Effect of Linder Decision (AlfredR. Lindesmith, 1965)

Nigro v. United States (1928)

Dissenting Opinions, Nigro v. United States(1928)

PART V: Overview of State Anti-Drug Laws

EARLY STATE ANTI-DRUG LAWS

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Document 71: Shortcomings of State Anti-Drug Laws(Martin Wilbert and Murray Motter, 1912) 100

xii Contents

Document 72: Nevada State Law (1881) 100

Document 73: West Virginia State Law (1909) 101

Document 74: New Hampshire State Law (1909) 102

Document 75: Indiana State Law (1908) 102

Document 76: Opiate and Cocaine Prohibitions (NewYork City Sanitary Code, 1910) 103

Document 77: Fear of Increasing Marijuana Use (NewYork Times, 1914) 104

Document 78: Boylan Anti-Drug Act, New York State(1914) 104

Document 79: Expected Impact of Boylan Act (New YorkTimes, 1914) 106

Document 80: Drug Problems Persist Despite New Laws(New York Times, 1916) 107

UNIFORM OR MODEL STATE DRUG LAWS 108

Document 81: Need for Uniform State Drug Laws (HarryJ. Anslinger and William F. Tompkins,1953) 109

Document 82: Recommendation for Uniform State DrugLaws (Committee on Narcotic Drugs ofthe Council on Health and PublicInstruction, American Medical Association,1921) 111

Document 83: Description of 1922 Meeting on UniformState Drug Laws (Charles E. Terry andMildred Pellens, 1928) 113

STATE MARIJUANA LAWS 113

Document 84: Federal Bureau of Narcotics and StateMarijuana Laws (Jerome Himmelstein,1983) 113

STATE LAWS IN THE 1950s 114

Document 85: Call for Stronger State Anti-Drug Laws(Harry J. Anslinger and William F.Tompkins, 1953) 115

Contents xiii

STATE LAWS SINCE THE 1970s 116

Document 86: Preface to Final Report, NationalConference of Commissioners on UniformState Laws (1970) 116

Document 87: Need for New Uniform State Drug Lawsin 1970 (Rufus King, 1972) 117

Document 88: Statement on New Drug Law (GovernorNelson Rockefeller, January 3, 1973) 118

Document 89: Goal Statement (President's Commissionon Model State Drug Laws, 1993) 119

Document 90: Emphasis on Treatment and Prevention(President's Commission on Model StateDrug Laws, 1993) 120

Document 91: Concluding Statement (President'sCommission on Model State Drug Laws,1993) 120

PART VI: Marijuana Policy: The Early Years 123

Document 92: Early History of Marijuana Use (EdwardM. Brecher, 1972) 123

Document 93: Early Marijuana History in the New

World (Edward M. Brecher, 1972) 125

MARIJUANA IN THE 19TH CENTURY 125

Document 94: Beginning of Marijuana Smoking(LaGuardia Committee Report, 1944) 126

Document 95: Extraction of Marijuana from Hemp(Robert Walton, 1938) 127

Document 96: Early Use of Marijuana as a Medicine(Edward M. Brecher, 1972) 127

Document 97: Medical Benefits of Marijuana in the 19thCentury (Richard J. Bonnie and Charles H.Whitebread, 1974) 128

Document 98: Early Report of Intoxication (The ScientificAmerican, 1869) 129

Document 99: Description of a Hashish House(H. H. Kane, 1883) 129

XIV Contents

THE EARLY 20TH CENTURY

Document 100:

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Document 113:

Settings of Marijuana Smoking (LaGuardiaCommittee Report, 1944)

Easy Availability of Marijuana (EdwardM. Brecher, 1972)

Spread of Marijuana Use Through the1920s (Richard J. Bonnie and Charles H.Whitebread, 1974)

Marijuana Problems in New Orleans(Robert Walton, 1938)

Louisiana Anti-Marijuana Law (1924)

Fears about Marijuana Use by Mexicans(LaGuardia Committee Report, 1944)

Quote from Texas Police Captain (1923)

News Report on New Marijuana Law (SanAntonio Light, 1931)

New Mexico Anti-Marijuana Law (1923)

Colorado Anti-Marijuana Law (1927)

Comments of Illinois Law EnforcementOfficial (1927)

Chicago Tribune Article on MarijuanaProblem (1929)

Report about Marijuana Tragedy (NewYork Times, 1927)

Federal Concern about Marijuana in the1920s Qerome Himmelstein, 1983)

FEDERAL OFFICIALS TAKE NOTICE: THE 1937MARIHUANA TAX ACT

Document 114:

Document 115:

Document 116:

U.S. Treasury Department Annual Report(1931)

Dangers of Marijuana (Harry Anslingerand Courtney Cooper, 1937)

Congressional Testimony by HarryAnslinger (1956)

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Contents xv

Document 117:

Document 118:

Document 119:

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Document 125:

Document 126:

From Hearings on Marihuana Tax Act(1937)

Dangers of Marijuana (Richmond Hobson,1936)

Bureau of Narcotics Emphasis ofMarijuana's Dangers (JeromeHimmelstein, 1983)

Editorial Against Federal Marijuana Law(Journal of the American Medical Association,1937)

Marijuana Is Not Addictive (AMACommittee on Legislative Activities, 1937)

Marihuana Tax Act (1937)

Dangers of Marijuana (Newsweek, 1937)

Dangers of Marijuana (Clarence Beck,1938)

Marijuana Problem Exaggerated(LaGuardia Committee Report, 1944)

United States v. Sanchez et al. (1950)

PART VII: American Drug Policy to World War II

Document 127: Genesis of Import-Export Act (David F.

Document 131:

Document 132:

Document 133:

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Musto, 1987)NARCOTIC DRUGS IMPORT AND EXPORT ACT

Document 128:

Document 129:

Document 130:

Overview of Import-Export Act (NewYork Academy of Medicine, 1955)

Narcotic Drugs Import and Export Act(1922)

News Report on Passage of Import-ExportAct (Literary Digest, 1922)

NARCOTIC FARMS

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Support for Narcotic Farms Law (AlbertSidney Gregg, 1928) 167

Congressional Support for Narcotic FarmsLaw (David F. Musto, 1987) 168

Act to Create Narcotic Farms (1929) 169

XVI Contents

Document 134: Opening of the Federal Narcotic Farms(New York Times, April 14, 1929)

THE FEDERAL BUREAU OF NARCOTICS

Document 135: Federal Drug Control Structure in the1920s (David F. Musto, 1987)

Document 136: Establishment of Bureau of Narcotics(New York Academy of Medicine, 1955)

Document 137: Act to Create Federal Bureau of Narcotics(1930)

CONTROLLING OPIUM PRODUCTION

Document 138: Opium Poppy Control Act (1942)

Document 139: Opium Poppy Control Act (Harry J.Anslinger and William F. Tompkins, 1953)

PART VIII: Drug Policy from World War II Through the1950s: The Escalation of Punishment

THE PROBLEMS OF DRUG SMUGGLING AND TEEN DRUG

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ABUSE

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Kefauver Committee Final Report (1952)

Drugs and the Mafia (Harry J. Anslingerand Will Oursler, 1961)

Drug Smuggling in the 1940s (New YorkTimes,, 1948)

China's Role in Drug Smuggling (NewYork Times, 1954)

Drug Smuggling from Mexico (PeterPacker, 1948)

Spread of Teenage Addiction (Harry J.Anslinger and Will Oursler, 1961)

Postwar Increase in Addiction (New YorkTimes, 1950)

Increased Drug Use among Students(Newsweek, 1951)

Fighting Teen Drug Addiction (HowardWhitman. 1951)

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Contents xvii

Document 149: Teenage Addiction Problem OverstatedQohn Gerrity, 1952) 193

Document 150: Teenage Addiction Problem Overstated

(Lawrence Kolb, 1956) 195

THE BOGGS ACT AND THE EISENHOWER COMMITTEE 195

Document 151: Boggs Act (1951) 195

Document 152: Announcement of New Presidential Study(New York Times, 1954) 197

Document 153: Eisenhower Committee Final Report (NewYork Times, 1956) 198

THE DEBATE OVER PUNITIVE DRUG LAWS AND THE 1956NARCOTIC CONTROL ACT 199

Document 154: Boggs Act Too Punitive (New York

Academy of Medicine, 1955) 200

Document 155: Statement by Senator Price Daniel (1955) 201

Document 156: Preliminary Report to the Senate JudiciaryCommittee (1956) 202

Document 157: Report on Daniel Committee Findings(Time, January 16, 1956) 202

Document 158: Preliminary Report to the Senate Judiciary

Committee (1956) 204

Document 159: Narcotic Control Act (1956) 204

Document 160: Call for More Balanced Policies (New YorkTimes, 1956) 206

Document 161: 1956 Narcotic Act Too Punitive (LawrenceKolb, 1956) 207

Document 162: 1956 Narcotic Act Too Punitive (New YorkAcademy of Medicine, 1955) 209

PART IX: The Medicalization of Addiction: Drug Treatmentand Anti-Drug Policy 211

ADDICTION "CURES" IN THE 19TH CENTURY 212

Document 163: "A Treatise on Therapeutics andPharmacology or Materia Medica"(George B. Wood, 1856) 212

Document 164: "The Opium Habit" (Horace Day, 1872) 213

XVIII Contents

Document 165:

Document 166:

Document 167:

"Therapeutics and Materia Medica"(A. Stille, 1874)

"Morbid Craving for Morphia"(E. Levinstein, 1878)

Use of Cocaine in Opiate Withdrawal(Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens,1928)

Document 168: Benefits of Gradual Withdrawal(R. Burkart, 1884)

Document 169: "Considerations on the Treatment ofMorphinism" (B. Ball and D. Jennings,1887)

DRUG TREATMENT FROM 1900 TO 1930

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Origins of the Towns-Lambert Cure(David F. Musto, 1987)

Announcement of Lambert Cure (New YorkTimes, 1908)

Chapter on Opium and Morphine in Osierand McCrae's Modern Medicine (AlexanderLambert, 1914)

Dangers of Lambert Cure (Herbert D.Kleber and Charles E. Riordan, 1982)

The Narcotic Drug Problem (ErnestBishop, 1920)

Early Description of Addiction as Disease(Paul Sollier, 1894)

Addiction as a Disease (Samuel HopkinsAdams, 1924)

Addiction as a Disease (Willis P. Butler,1922)

British Ministry of Health, DepartmentalCommittee on Morphin and HeroinAddiction (1926)

Importance of Psychosocial Factors(Lawrence Kolb, 1927)

Riverside Hospital Treatment Process(Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens,1928)

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Contents XIX

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Ambulatory Treatment a Bad Idea (AMACommittee on Narcotic Drugs, 1921)

Doctors Reluctant to Treat Addicts(Samuel Hopkins Adams, 1924)

Comments on Shreveport Narcotic Clinic(David F. Musto, 1987)

Methods Used in Shreveport Clinic (WillisP. Butler, 1922)

Statement by Willis Butler (1974)

Closing of the Shreveport Clinic (DanWaldorf, Martin Orlick, and CraigReinarman, 1974)

Enforcement of Harrison Act andPhysicians (New York Times, April 13, 1919)

Perspective of Judge William McAdoo(1923)

"Brain-Washing" Cure (New York Times,1932)

"Frozen Sleep" Cure (New York Times,1939)

Lack of Treatment Success to 1930 (DavidF. Musto, 1987)

Need for Aftercare Treatment (Willis P.Butler, 1922)

THE DISCOVERY OF METHADONE

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Document 194:

Document 195:

Early Description of Methadone Treatment(Life, 1948)

Benefits of Methadone (Edward M.Brecher, 1972)

Critique of Methadone (David F. Musto,1987)

EXPANSION OF DRUG TREATMENT SINCE THE 1950s

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Document 197:

Difficulties of Successful Treatment (NewYork Academy of Medicine, 1955)

Importance of Treatment (Roland H. Berg,1957)

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xx Contents

Document 198: Increased Importance of Mental HealthApproach (David F. Musto, 1987) 248

Document 199: Sections on Treatment and Prevention,Comprehensive Drug Abuse Preventionand Control Act (1970) 249

Document 200: Drug Abuse Office and Treatment Act(1972) 250

Document 201: Expansion of Treatment and Research(Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988) 252

PART X: Drug Policy in the 1960s and 1970s: A ChangingView 255

Document 202: California Law Against Being an Addict,

(Declared Unconstitutional in 1962) 256

Document 203: Robinson v. California (1962) 256

Document 204: Reference to Linder v. United States inRobinson v. California (1962) 259

Document 205: Recommendations of 1962 White HouseConference (New York Times, 1963) 260

Document 206: First Federal Law Against Depressants and

Stimulants (1965) 261

CIVIL COMMITMENT LAWS 262

Document 207: Metcalf-Volker Act (New York State, 1962) 262

Document 208: Statement by Senator Jacob Javits (1963) 263

Document 209a-c: Narcotic Addict Rehabilitation Act (1966) 264-267

Document 210: Criticism of Civil Commitment Laws

(Alfred R. Lindesmith, 1965) 269

LSD IN THE 1960s 270

Document 211: Use of LSD in Psychotherapy (Edward M.Brecher, 1972) 270

Document 212: Spread of LSD Use in 1960s (Edward M.Brecher, 1972) 271

Document 213: New State Laws Against LSD (Edward M.Brecher, 1972) 272

Document 214: Report on LSD Blindings (New York Times,1968) 273

Contents xxi

Document 215: Acknowledgment of LSD Hoax (New YorkTimes, 1968) 274

Document 216: Report on Use of Banana Peels as a Drug(New York Times, 1967) 275

THE NIXON ADMINISTRATION, THE VIETNAM WAR,AND THE 1970 DRUG CONTROL ACT 276

Document 217: Spread of Heroin Addiction to MiddleClass (Edward M. Brecher, 1972) 276

Document 218: Nixon Support for Prevention andTreatment (David F. Musto, 1987) 277

Document 219: Enactment of the 1970 Act (Alexander T.Shulgin, 1992) 278

Document 220: Comprehensive Drug Abuse Preventionand Control Act (1970) 279

Document 221: Drug Abuse Office and Treatment Act,

National Drug Abuse Strategy (1972) 284

THE FORD AND REAGAN ADMINISTRATIONS 284

Document 222: Ford Administration Policies (David F.Musto, 1987) 285

Document 223: President Reagan and Harsher PoliciesGames A. Inciardi, 1986) 286

PART XI: Marijuana Policy after the 1960s 287

REVISITING HARSH MARIJUANA LAWS 287

Document 224: Federal Official Calls for Lower Penaltiesfor Marijuana (New York Times, 1969) 287

Document 225: Reduced Marijuana Penalties Set in New

Jersey (New York Times, 1970) 289

NEW FEDERAL CRACKDOWNS ON MARIJUANA 290

Document 226: Leary v. United States (1969) 290

Document 227: Failure of Operation Intercept (Edward M.Brecher, 1972) 292

NATIONAL COMMISSION ON MARIHUANA AND DRUGABUSE 293

Document 228: Federal Review of Harsh MarijuanaPenalties (New York Times, 1969) 294

xxii Contents

Document 229: Report of the National Commission onMarihuana and Drug Abuse (March 1972) 295

MEDICAL MARIJUANA 299

Document 230: Support for Medical Marijuana Laws(Lester Grinspoon and James Bakalar,1993) 300

Document 231: California Medical Marijuana Law (1996) 300

Document 232: Arizona Medical Marijuana Law (1996) 301

PART XII: Crack Cocaine and Drug Policy from the 1980s 305

ANTI-DRUG ABUSE ACT OF 1986 306

Document 233a-e: Anti-Drug Abuse Act (1986) 307-313

Document 234a-b: White House Conference for a Drug-Free

America (1988) 314

ANTI-DRUG ABUSE ACT OF 1988 315

Document 235a-c: Anti-Drug Abuse Act (1988) 317-320

STATE ANTI-CRACK INITIATIVES 322

Document 236: Statement on New Crack Possession Law(Governor Mario M. Cuomo, 1988) 322

Document 237: Minnesota Anti-Crack Law (1989) 323

Document 238: Minnesota Supreme Court Decision

Overturning Crack Law (1991) 324

THE NATIONAL DRUG CONTROL STRATEGIES 325

Document 239: Introduction to National Drug ControlStrategy (1989) 325

Document 240: Introduction to National Drug Control

Strategy (1991) 329

SUPREME COURT DECISIONS ON "NO-KNOCK" LAWS 330

Document 241: Wilson v. Arkansas (1995) 331

Document 242: Richards v. Wisconsin (1997) 332

PART XIII: The Debate over Drug Legalization 335

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 335

Document 243: Overview of Legalization Proposals (ErichGoode, 1997) 336

Contents XXIII

Document 244: Common Legalization Terms (Herbert D.Kleber, Joseph A. Califano, Jr., and John C.

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Document 252:

Document 253:

Demers, 1997)

Early Opiate Maintenance Clinics (EdwardM. Brecher, 1972)

Proposal for Dispensing Drugs to Addicts(New York Academy of Medicine, 1955)

Recommendation to EstablishExperimental Narcotics Clinic (JointABA-AMA Committee, 1961)

"Make Dope Legal" (Alden Stevens, 1952)

Negative Effects of Drug Policies onAddicts (Alfred R. Lindesmith, 1957)

Need for a Medical Approach toAddiction (Lawrence Kolb, 1956)

State Decriminalization Laws (Richard J.Bonnie, 1981)

Oregon Marijuana Law (1973)

Overview of State Decriminalization of

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346

Marijuana (Erich Goode, 1997)

Document 254: President Carter's Policies (David F.Musto, 1987)

THE ARGUMENTS FOR LEGALIZATION

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Document 256:

Document 257:

Document 258:

Legalization Proposal Overview (EthanNadelmann, 1988)

Rationale for Legalization (EthanNadelmann, 1988)

Legalization Proposal (Arnold S. Trebach,1993)

Legalization Proposal (Mayor Kurt L.Schmoke, 1988)

THE HARM REDUCTION APPROACH

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Document 260:

Overview of Harm Reduction Approach(Erich Goode, 1997)

Argument for Harm Reduction (EthanNadelmann, 1996)

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xxiv Contents

THE ARGUMENTS AGAINST LEGALIZATION 356

Document 261: Overview of Arguments AgainstLegalization (Herbert D. Kleber, Joseph A.Califano, Jr., and John C. Demers, 1997) 357

Document 262: Official Reactions to Legalization Proposals(May 15, 1988) 358

Document 263: Risks of Legalization (James B. Jacobs,

1990) 359

WOULD LEGALIZATION INCREASE DRUG USE? 360

Document 264: Drug Use Would Not Increase (EthanNadelmann, 1988) 361

Document 265: Drug Use Would Increase (Herbert D.Kleber, Joseph A. Califano, Jr., andJohn C. Demers, 1997) 362

Document 266: Drug Use Would Increase (James B.Jacobs, 1990) 363

Document 267: Drug Use Would Increase (David T.

Courtwright, 1991) 363

A MIDDLE GROUND? 364

Document 268: Argument for a Balanced Policy (David T.Courtwright, 1991) 364

Document 269: Reform without Legalization (James A.Inciardi, 1993) 367

Document 270: Benefits of the Legalization Debate (ErichGoode, 1997) 368

Document 271: Statement Against Legalization (WhiteHouse Conference for a Drug-FreeAmerica, 1988) 369

Suggested Readings 371

Index 373