drought risk management - practitioner's perspectives from africa and asia

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United Nations Development Programme

DROUGHT RISK MANAGEMENT:

PRACTITIONERS PERSPECTIVES

FROM AFRICA AND ASIA


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Disclaimer

The views expressed in this publication are those o the author and do not necessarily represent

those o the United Nations, including UNDP, or its Member States.

Copyright 2012 United Nations Development Programme,

One United Nations Plaza,

New York, NY, 10017, USA

All rights reserved

January 2012

Design

Jinita Shah/UNON

Layout

Cathrine Kimeu/UNON

PrintingUnited Nations Ofce at Nairobi, Publishing Services Section, ISO 14001:2004 certied.

Author

Paul Venton

This publication has been made possible by unding rom the Government o Japan. The views

expressed herein can in no way be taken to reect the ofcial opinion o the donor.


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DROUGHT RISKMANAGEMENT:

PRACTITIONERSPERSPECTIVESFROMAFRICAANDASIA


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UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme (UNDP)

UNDPpartnerswithpeopleatall levelsosocietytohelp buildnationsthat canwithstand

crisis,anddriveandsustainthekindogrowththatimprovesthe qualityolieoreveryone.

Onthegroundin 177 countriesandterritories,weoferglobal perspectiveand local insightto

helpempower livesand buildresilientnations.

The UNDP Drylands Development Centre is a unique global thematic centre that provides

technical expertise,practical policyadviceandprogrammesupportorpovertyreductionand

developmentinthedrylandsotheworld. The Centresworkbridges betweenglobal policy

issuesandon-the-groundactivities,andhelpsgovernmentstoestablishandinstitutionalize

the link between grassroots development activities and pro-poor policy reorm. The main

areasoocusaremainstreamingodrylandsissuesintonational developmentrameworks;

land governance; marking markets work or the poor; decentralized governance o naturalresources; anddroughtriskmanagement.

www.undp.org/drylands


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Acronyms

AADP Arica-AsiaDrought RiskManagementPeerAssistanceNetwork

ADAF AricaDroughtAdaptation ForumADDN AricanDrought RiskandDevelopmentNetwork

DDC DrylandsDevelopment Centre

DRM Drought RiskManagement

EWS Early WarningSystem

FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganisation

GIS Geographic InormationSystem

HFA Hyogo FrameworkorAction

IRIN Integrated Regional InormationNetworks

IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management

NGO Non-Governmental OrganizationSSC South-South Cooperation

TSN Trans-NzoiaSocio-Economic Network

UNCCD UnitedNations Conventionto CombatDesertication

UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNFCCC UnitedNations FrameworkConventionon Climate Change

UNISDR UnitedNations International StrategyorDisaster Reduction

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TableoContents

Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................iii

Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................................vi

Executive Summary .........................................................................................................................vii

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Drought Impacts and Causes......................................................................................................4

2.1 Drought Impacts.....................................................................................................................................4

2.2 Root CausesoDrought Impacts......................................................................................................6

2.3 TrendsinDrought Impactsand Their Causes............................................................................10

2.4 BarrierstoAddressing CausesoDrought Impacts................................................................. 11

3. Drought RiskManagement .......................................................................................................143.1 ApproachesandPractices................................................................................................................14

3.2 Progressand Gapsin CoreAreasoDrought RiskManagement.......................................17

3.2.1 Policy FrameworksandPlans.............................................................................................18

3.2.2 Drought RiskAssessmentandDisseminationoEarly Warning............................20

3.2.3 Awarenessand Knowledge.................................................................................................21

3.3 Proposalsor Replicable GoodPracticeDrought RiskManagement................................23

3.3.1 Introductionto GoodPractice...........................................................................................23

3.3.2 ExamplesoGoodPracticeDrought RiskManagement........................................... 25

4. Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................304.1 OpportunitiesorArica-AsiaDrought RiskManagementPeerAssistance....................30

4.1.1 RaisingAwarenessothe ValueoIndigenous Knowledge....................................31

4.1.2 Promotionoa MultiacetedApproachtoDeal withDriversoDrought Risk. 32

4.1.3 ExpandingAwarenessotheEconomic ImpactoDroughtand How This

InuencesPolitical Decision-Making...............................................................................33

4.1.4 Investigatingthe IntegrationintoEarly WarningSystemsoNon-climatic

IndicatorsoDrought............................................................................................................33

4.1.5 KeepingPacewiththeEmergenceoNewDrought RiskIssuesand Trends....34

4.2 Final Remarks........................................................................................................................................34

Reerence ...........................................................................................................................................35

Annex A Survey Response ...........................................................................................................36

Annex B Survey Questionnaire ...................................................................................................39


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Figures

Figure 1: Drought Impacts............................................................................................................................5

Figure 2: Relationship between Meteorological,Agricultural, Hydrological andSocio-Economic Drought........................................................................................................................6

Figure 3: Root CausesoDrought Impacts.............................................................................................7

Figure 4: BarrierstoAddressingthe CausesoDrought Impacts.................................................13

Figure 5: ApproachestoDrought RiskManagement.......................................................................16

Figure 6: Policy FrameworksandPlans..................................................................................................19

Figure 7: Drought RiskAssessmentandtheDisseminationoEarly Warning.........................21

Figure 8: Awarenessand Knowledge......................................................................................................23

Figure 9: Proposed MainElementsorDrought RiskReduction Framework...........................25

Figure 10: ApproachtoDrought RiskManagement............................................................................32

Figure A-1: Regional Response......................................................................................................................36

Figure A-2: FieldsoExpertise........................................................................................................................37

Figure A3: TypeoOrganization..................................................................................................................37

Tables

Table 1: Comparingthe Root CausesoDrought Impacts betweenAricaandAsia...................8

Table 2: PerceptionsontheEfectivenessoDrought RiskAssessmentandEarly Warning.......20

Table 3: ExamplesoReplicable GoodPracticeDrought RiskManagement................................27

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Acknowledgements

The United Nations Development Programme Drylands Development Centre (UNDP DDC)

grateully appreciates the generous contributions provided by the Government o Japan

throughthe Japan-UNDPPartnership FundortheimplementationotheArica-AsiaDrought

Risk ManagementPeerAssistanceNetwork (AADP) andtheorganizationothe FirstArica-

AsiaDroughtAdaptation Forum.

Special gratitudegoestoEric Patrick,Yuko KurauchiandAnne Juepner,UNDPDDC,ortheir

generous support and expert insights throughout the stocktaking exercise that orms the

basisothisreport.

Theauthorisgrateul ortheotherindividualswhohelpedinormthedesignothestocktaking

exerciseandprovidedvariousotherrecommendations.Withthanksto:AlainLambert,AseemAndrews, ClaraAriza, Cody Knutson,Douglas Merrey, Feng Min Kan, Kai Kim Chiang,Loy Rego,

Marcus Moench, Michael Ernst,NickMiddleton,PakSumLow, Rajib Shaw, RicardoBiancalani,

Sanny Jegillosand Ts Munkhjargal.

Weareverypleasedtohavereceived 400onlinesurveyresponsesandweare indebtedto

all otheindividualswho contributedinthisway,asthisinormationisthe backboneothe

report. Furthermore,thesurveywaskindlydistributedtothemembersotheAADP,theAsian

University Network o Environment and Disaster Risk Management and the Asian Disaster

Reductionand ResponseNetwork. ItwaspromotedthroughtheAADPnewsletterandonthe

UNDPDDC website,viathe Climate-LDigestandthroughtheAdaptationLearning Mechanism,

includingits TwitterProgramme. Wethankall oyouwhohelpedwiththisdistribution.

ThestocktakingexerciseandAADPmore broadly benetedromtheenthusiastic debateand

engagement o the participants at the Arica-Asia Drought Adaptation Forum, held on 14-

15 June 2011 inBangkok. Thisgroupwasengagedintheparticipatoryinterpretationothe

surveydataandpresentedimportantissues.


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ExecutiveSummary

The AricaAsia Drought Risk Management Peer Assistance Project seeks to acilitate the

sharing o knowledge and technical cooperation among drought-prone countries in

AricaandAsiaandthustopromote best practices indroughtriskmanagement (DRM) or

development in the two regions. In order to establish a baseline to guide this activity, the

United Nations Development Programme Drylands Development Centre (UNDP DDC)

undertookastocktakingexercise between Marchand June 2011 ondroughtimpacts, causes,

trendsandsolutionsinAricaandAsia.

Thisreport, baseduponthe ndingsothestocktakingexercise,goes beyondpresentinga

sense o the similarities and diferences among drought experiences in Arica and Asia, by

painting a more detailed picture. This was made possible through consultations with key

individuals in both continents, an online survey o some 400 people working in drought-related elds (collectively ofering about 3,000 years o experience), the First Arica-Asia

DroughtAdaptation Forumand literaturereview.

Drought Impactsand Causes

Thestocktakingexercise rst consideredand comparedtheimpactsodroughtonAricaand

Asia,whythereappearsto beanincreasingimpactodroughts (theroot causes) andhowthis

is likelyto changeoverthenext 10to 20years.

According to the practitioners surveyed, Arica and Asia share many common experiences

involvingdroughtimpacts, buttheimpactodroughtinAricaismoderatelymoreseverethan

inAsia.Adeclinein cropyields,ariseinoodinsecurityandadepletionowaterorhuman

use (e.g., or drinking, cooking and cleaning) most severely afect both regions. However,

divergenceodrought impacts betweentheregions ispronouncedwithrespectto amine

andimplicationsonnational economies,withAricasignicantlymoreadverselyafected.

Both regions overwhelmingly consider environmental degradation, poor water resource

management and poor governance to be either a very important or the most important

contributing causeodrought impacts. InArica,environmental degradationisthegreatestcauseand,inAsia,itisonlymarginally lessimportantthanpoorwaterresourcemanagement.

As anaggregate actor or bothregions,environmental degradation isthemost important

root causeodroughtimpact.Anadditional observationisthatgovernmentsregard climate

changeandpopulationgrowthpressuresmoreseriouslythanotherrespondents.

The current clear and overwhelming consensus is that drought impacts and their causes

will worsenoverthe coming 10to 20years. Thevastmajorityorespondentswhoholdthis

view cite climate changeas a majordrivero uturerisk.A lack opolitical will isstymying

anadequateresponseeventoexistingrisks.Sotheadditional threattoalreadystressedand

over-burdened contextsodroughtappearstointensiytheeelingthatDRM isill-equipped

toaceuturerisks,asthesearegreaterthanexistingones. The beliethatdroughtisinevitableD

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uels a tendency to ocus on devising better responses to drought rather than on taking

preventiveapproachessuchasimproved landandwatermanagement. Furthermore, because

government respondents consider climate change to be the top cause o drought impact,

thereisatendencytoshirknational ownershipodroughtmitigationmeasuresinavouro

demandingnewandadditional international adaptation nance.

Thereisaverysignicant lackopolitical will toengageinholistic DRM inAricaandAsia,even

thoughdroughtisperceived byrespondentsto constituteahigh (inArica) or quitehigh (in

Asia) risktonational economies.

AmongthedisincentivesorDRM areitsinherent complexity; itsgradual andelusiveefects;

and its non-structural nature, which together can create a political vacuum wheresuitable

interventions lose their lustre in comparison with other political priorities. Butthese issues

mask, or generate, persistent and even more challenging deterrents. Calls or action ondrought are irrelevant i they are not in step with political needs and desires. The classic

example o mere political expediency is the provision o ood aid or drought relie just in

orderto boostgovernmentpopularity.

In both Arica and Asia, insucient local capacity is cited as being a bigger barrier than

insucient national technical capacity. In tandem with this, poor local awareness is

consideredarelativelyimportant barrierin bothregions. Inthisregard,theunderminingo

local knowledgeandpracticeonDRM hasadoublynegativeefect:itpartially causesdrought

impactsandimpedesactiontoreducerisk.

Drought RiskManagement

Thestocktakingexercisealsohighlightedhowdrought impactsandtheir causesare being

addressedintheregionsandwhatefectthisishaving.

The lackointegrationothevariousapproachestoDRM,suchasthroughsustainable land

management, water resource management, ood security and so on, is highlighted as a

weakness,particularlyatthenational level,whichisseparatedalongsectoral lines. However,

theDRM approachatthe local level isgenerally consideredmoreintegrated (andassuchisthusalsorequentlyregardedasgoodpractice).Local approachestendto betteremphasize

vulnerabilityactorsinrelationto livelihoodstrategiesandefortstomanagenatural resources.

Furthermore,thereiswideagreementthatgreatertractionorDRM occursat lower levelsand

that eforts must go hand-in-hand with opportunities presented through democratization

anddecentralizationreorms. Thereisalsorecognitionotheenduringgap betweentopand

bottom levels:themeso-level isa crucial linkinthe chain,with boundaryorganizations (e.g.,

small- ormedium-sizedriver basinmanagement committees) playingapivotal roleasa basis

or smartpartnership (i.e., cooperationamongthepartnerswheretheyshare clearstrategic

roles,responsibilitiesand contributionstowardthemanagementocommonlyexperienced

issues).


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While there are various approaches to DRM, drought in Arica and Asia is dealt with

predominantly as a ood security and water resource issue and in relation to climate

changeandvariability.Although climate change can beusedasascapegoattomaskother

development challenges, it is largelyacknowledgedto beanopportunityto improveDRM.

This is because it illuminates climate variability and associated climatic disasters, includingdrought,while broadeningthe basisorresourcemobilization. Consequently,workrelatedto

adaptationto climate changeisrampedupwhile longer-established, butrelateddisciplines,

suchas climate-relateddisasterriskreduction,are bypassed (orre-branded). Itisinteresting

tonotethatdrought inAricaandAsia isalreadymore commonlydealtwith inrelationto

climate change and variability than as a disaster issue. Still, the main approaches seem to

be a response to the main impacts o drought (e.g., decreased crop yields, increased ood

insecurityanddepletioninwaterorhumanuse) ratherthananattempttoaddressthemain

causesodroughtitsel.

Toindicatehowefectivelythe combinationodeployedDRM approacheshasreducedrisko

droughtandespeciallythe causesoitsimpacts,inAricaandAsia,thestocktakingexercise

consideredspecic keyareaswhereprogressisrequired:policyrameworksandplans; drought

riskassessmentandthedisseminationoearlywarning; andawarenessandknowledge.

With respect to policy rameworks and plans, results indicate largely ad hoc, non-

institutionalized approaches to DRM in both regions: Attention to DRM evaporates soon

ater the rstrain dropshitthe parched ground.A small, butnot negligible, proportion o

respondents,however, believethattrendsindroughtimpactwill improve.Suchopinionsare

basedonrecentornewpolicyshitstowardDRM aswell asobservationolocal goodpractice.

Possibly indicatingapositivetrend,thegreatestprogressregardingpolicyrameworksand

plansrelates inAricatotheencouragementopublic andnon-governmental organization

(NGO) participationandinAsiatoimprovedincorporationwithinnational rameworksothe

local aspectsodrought.

Withrespecttodroughtriskassessmentandthedisseminationoearlywarning,thestrong

beliethatwell-establishedandhighlyregardedsystemsandprocessesareeithernon-existent

ornegligibleismostapparent.

A representative statement o the stocktaking is that more work is needed to bring short-

term weather orecasting and longer-term projections o climate change down to a local

level,wheremeaningul managementdecisions can betaken. Thisneedstohappenwitha

simultaneousrecognitionthat changingsocial,economic andenvironmental conditionsare

undermining local knowledge and awareness about what to do and when to do it. This is

especiallythe casein contextswhere local peoplearemoreheavilydependentonword-o-

mouthtoshareinormation,suchasinremotedryland communities.

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Additionally, the stocktaking highlighted that, i monitoring is not expanded to include all

importantindicatorsopendingdroughtrisk,includingnon-climatic ones,oriitisnot better

linkedwithdecision-makingprocesses,thenitshould benosurpriseiearlywarningdoesnot

resultintimelyaction.

With respect to awareness and knowledge, awareness-raising about efective approaches,

especially those highlighting cross-sectoral relationships, is commonly regarded as an

essential rststepinDRM. However,mostsurveyresponsespaintadiferentpictureowhat

isactually beingpracticed: Mostpeople inAricaandAsiaeel thatdroughtawarenessand

knowledgearerarelyshared.Ontheotherhand,theemergenceomany caseswheregood

practice, new issues and other important inormation are widely disseminated through

establishedinstitutionsandnetworksis challengingthispattern.

Despitethegeneral prevalenceosignicantdroughtimpacts,trendstowardgreaterimpactsandpoorprogresstoward comprehensiveDRM inkeyareas,therearereportsogoodpractice.

Themostsuccessul DRM practiceisthe cultivationoa community basisoraction. Withthis

ismind,anumberokey conceptsraisedwere:

r "OFFEGPSBOJOUFHSBUFEEFWFMPQNFOUBQQSPBDIDFOUSFEBSPVOETVTUBJOBCMFMBOEXBUFS

resource management practices (i.e., not a segregated drought project based upon a

distinctstand-aloneperspective,specialism,orsector)

r 5IFJNQPSUBODFPGJOEJHFOPVTLOPXMFEHFOPUPOMZBTBTQFDJDBSFBPGJNQPSUBODFCVU

asathreadrunningthroughoutall community-based considerations)r 5IFJNQPSUBODFPGOVNFSPVTNFUIPETPGMPDBMDPNNVOJUZBXBSFOFTTSBJTJOHPOESPVHIU

relatedissues

r 5IF JNQPSUBODF PG B DPNNVOJUZMFE QBSUJDJQBUPSZ BQQSPBDI BOE VTF PG DPNNVOJUZ

organizations (e.g.,armers groupsandwateruserassociations),especiallyinrelationto

sustainable local natural resourcemanagement

r "OFFEGPSBTUSPOHFSGPDVTPOEJWFSTJDBUJPOPGMJWFMJIPPETJODMVEJOHDSPQBOEMJWFTUPDL

varietiesandotherincome-generatingactivities

OpportunitiesorArica-AsiaDrought RiskManagementPeerAssistance

Thisstocktakingexercise concludes bypullingtheissuestogetherin lightotheaspirationo

theinterregional peerassistancenetworkandparticularlyin lightoitsdesireto bedemand-

driven. Opportunities exist where replicable good practice can ll gaps in key areas. The

specic topicsthatemergedasopportunitiesortheArica-AsiaDrought RiskManagement

PeerAssistanceNetwork(AADP) to contributeare:

t 3BJTJOHBXBSFOFTTBCPVUUIFWBMVFPGJOEJHFOPVTLOPXMFEHF Thestocktakingexercise

strongly emphasized that there must be a rm ocus on identiying, analysing and

documenting indigenous knowledge and techniques in particular locations to help


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raiseawarenessabouttheir contributionstoDRM. Thiswill likelyhingeuponsustainable

natural resourcemanagementand livelihoodresilience. Thereore,AADPshouldurther

extenditsreachto community-basedpractitionerstoidentiyandextracttheindigenous

knowledgeand locallyprovenpracticesmoreefectivelyandeciently.Atthesametime,

high-level decision-makersneedto bemoreawareothepotential ocommunity-baseddevelopmentprocessesandapproachesinDRM, justastheyneedgreater capacitytotap

thatpotential.

t 1SPNPUJOHBNVMUJGBDFUFEBQQSPBDIUPEFBMXJUIESJWFSTPGESPVHIUSJTLTomitigate

the root causes and impacts o drought, the stocktaking exercise showed the need to

strengthen links among environmental management, water resource management,

governance and adaptation to climate change. Applying a combination o these

approachestoaplace inparticulardangerodroughtwould beagoodentrypointor

leveragingpositive change.

t &YQBOEJOH BXBSFOFTT BCPVU UIF FDPOPNJD JNQBDU PG ESPVHIU BOE XIFUIFS UIJT

infuences political decision-making: AADP can promote the inclusion o economic

considerations in DRM planning and implementation while also exploring the

juxtaposition betweeneconomic argumentsorinvestmentinDRM,ontheonehandand

continuedwidespreadpolitical apathy,ontheother.

t *OWFTUJHBUJOHUIFJOUFHSBUJPOJOUPFBSMZXBSOJOHTZTUFNTPGOPODMJNBUJDJOEJDBUPSTPG

drought: AADP can considerhownon-climatic indicators can beintegratedwithexisting

earlywarningsystemstorenderthemmorepragmatic.

t ,FFQJOHQBDFXJUI UIFFNFSHFODFPGOFXJTTVFTBOEUSFOETJOUIFBSFBPGESPVHIU

risk: Examplesinclude casesourbandrought,inwhichperceptionsandissuesarevery

diferentromthoseinvolvingrural droughtandthe considerationoneworworsening

droughthotspots,suchasmonsoonanddeltaregionsoAsia.

Thestocktakingexercisewasarareopportunitytohearromavarietyoveryexperienced

practitioners working in drought-related elds across Arica, Asia and elsewhere. Overall,

there are many important similarities between DRM issues across the regions, which open

up areas where greater knowledge-sharing will be efective. Furthermore, the stocktaking

exerciseshowedspecic themesogoodpracticethat can beemphasizedasAADPworksto

strengthenDRM inthemoststrategic areas.

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Introduction

1Awealthoknowledge-basedresourcesondroughtriskmanagement (DRM) existsinArica

and Asia, yet the opportunities or sharing successul experiences, disseminating lessons

learntandscalingupinnovativepracticeswithinandespeciallyacrosstheregionsare limited.

InArica,theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeDrylandsDevelopment Centre (UNDP

DDC),with co-sponsorship bytheUN International StrategyorDisaster Reduction (UNISDR),

has been leading the Arican Drought Risk and Development Network (ADDN) since 2005.

ADDNaimsto bridgethegaps betweenknowledgeproducersandusers bypromotingapplied

discussionandimprovingstakeholders accesstoinormationthatwill helpthem betterreact

totheincreasedthreatsodroughtand climate changeinthedrylandsoArica.

Based on the benets o the implementation o ADDN, the Arica-Asia Drought Risk

Management Peer Assistance Project was developed with nancial support rom the

GovernmentoJapan in late 2010. Theprojectseeksto createanenablingenvironmentor

interregional knowledge-sharingandtechnical cooperationamongdrought-prone countriesinAricaandAsiaandisthusdesignedtoencourageandtoacilitatetheuseobestpractices

inDRM ordevelopmentinthetworegions.

Inter alia, the project is establishing an applied interregional Arica-Asia Drought Risk

Management Peer Assistance Network (AADP), building on the pool o experiences and

expertise o ADDN and drawing on its well-established capabilities. This broad-based

networkisintendedtoserveasa clearinghouseoridentiying,documentingandpromoting

the application o experiences, expertise and models o good practice in DRM among

regional,national and local developmentpractitioners in Arica and Asia. It also intends to

improve the capacity o decision makers and practitioners in their eforts involving policy-

making, development planning and programme/project implementation in both regions.D

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Theestablishmentoa baselineortheproject rstrequiredthegatheringoinormationon

theimpacts, causes,trends,solutionsandneedsoDRM in bothregions. Forthis,astocktaking

exercisewasrequired,theresultsowhichareinthisreport.

The stocktaking exercise was undertaken between March and June 2011. Findings wereestablished through consultationswith key individuals in Arica and Asia, an online survey

undertaken bysome 400people1working indrought-related elds (seeAnnex B),the First

Arica-Asia Drought Adaptation Forum2 (reerred to rom this point as the Forum) and

literaturereview.

The ocus o the stocktaking exercise was especially guided by the recommendations o

thepriorthreeAricaDroughtAdaptation Forums (ADAFs),especiallythemostrecent3,the

developmentotheDrought RiskReduction FrameworkandPracticespublication (UNISDR,

2009) andtheviewsoexpertsromvariousinstitutionsinAricaandAsiaand,tosomeextent,rominstitutionselsewherethathaverelevantregional experience.

Key themes that emerged as being pivotal to DRM and thus the target o the stocktaking

researchwere:

r 5IFSPPUDBVTFTPGWVMOFSBCJMJUZUPESPVHIU

r 5IF QSFTFODF PG OFDFTTBSZ QPMJDZ BOE HPWFSOBODF GSBNFXPSLT JODMVEJOH QPMJUJDBM

commitmentandresponsibilitiesromnational to local levelsordroughtriskreduction

r 5IFSFMFWBODFPGFYJTUJOHFBSMZXBSOJOHJOEJDBUPSTGPSESPVHIUNBOBHFNFOU

r *OOPWBUJWFBQQSPBDIFTUPESPVHIUSJTLSFEVDUJPOBOEBEBQUBUJPOUPDMJNBUFDIBOHFr $PPSEJOBUJPO BOE DPNNVOJDBUJPO PG ESPVHIU BXBSFOFTT BOE LOPXMFEHF XJUIJO

governmentandamongthegeneral public

The stocktaking exercise also needed to be mindul o socio-economic and environmental

trendssuchaspopulationgrowth,poverty,waterdemand (e.g.,duetoindustrializationand

growthinagribusiness),soil degradation, climatevariabilityand climate change.

Furthermore,inrecognitionotheaccumulatedinormationanddatainAricathroughADDN,

special attentionothestocktakingexercisewasorientedtotheAsiaregion. Itthusattempted

toensureahealthy coverageoperspectivesandexperiencesromdroughthotspot countries

in South and South-east Asia, especially Aghanistan, Pakistan, India, China, Myanmar,

Vietnam and Indonesia (Ehrhart, Thow, de Blois and Warhurst, 2008). The Near and Middle

East, MongoliaandAustraliaalsoreceivedattentionortheuniqueinsightstheyprovide. In

Arica,thesub-Saharanregionisa clearlyrecognizeddroughthotspotamongotherArican

high-risksubregions.

1 Othe 400participantsothesurvey, 324 were completedinentiretywithin-depthresponses.

2 The FirstArica-AsiaDroughtAdaptation Forum, 14-15 June 2011 inBangkok, Thailand.

3 The 3rdADAF, 17-19 September 2008 inAddisAbaba,Ethiopia.


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TherecentUnitedNations Global Assessment ReportonDisaster RiskReduction 2011 (UN,

2011) includeda chapterondrought becauseoitssignicantimplicationsordevelopment

andtherelative lackoemphasisandattentionthat itreceives comparedwithrapid-onset

natural hazards. The chapterexplainsthat,intheabsenceosystematic data,itisimpossible

toprovideaglobal assessmentopatternsandtrendsindroughtimpactsand loss. ThesameistrueregardinganacceptedunderstandingoDRM benets.Evidenceisthusmainlypresented

asvariousormsoobservation, casestudyand contextspecic research.Overall,thismasks

theseriousnessodrought.

Consequently, the ndings presented in this report are important because they provide

insightsregardingtheDRM landscapeinthetworegionsthatareotherwisehardto capture.

Similarly,itisunlikelythata comparisonoviewsonDRM betweenAricaandAsiahashitherto

beenassimilated,otherthanviaadhoc meetingsand correspondenceamongahandul o

individualsinterestedandengagedinnetworksandtheirestablishment.

Therobustnessothereportderivesromthedesignoitsocus (who,whatandwhere) andthe

collectionothe (subjective) opinionsomanyindividualsworkingondrought-relatedissues

orawiderangeo institutionsacrossArica,Asiaandelsewhere. Indeed,theaccumulated

number o years o experience o those individuals who participated in the online survey

amountstosome 3,000years. Thisreportisthereoreabletogo beyondgeneratinga senseo

whatthesimilaritiesanddiferencesmight be, bypaintingamoredetailedpicture.

Chapter 2 considersand comparestheimpactsdroughtishavinginAricaandAsia,whythis

ishappening (theroot causes) andhowthisis likelyto changeoverthenext 10to 20years.Italso considerswhat is impedingthereduction inrisk (i.e.,the barrierstoaddressingroot

causes).

Chapter 3 goes on to explain how various approaches being deployed in the regions are

addressingthissituationandtheefectthatthisishaving. Thestocktakingalsoexplainswhat

goodpracticeDRM is consideredto beandwhataspectsarereplicable.

Chapter 4 concludesthereport by consideringhowgoodpracticesmayactuallyhelp ll the

identiedgapsandareasogreatest concern. Thereore,thereport brings ndingstogether

with some suggestions regarding opportunities where AADP could ocus attention based

uponthestocktakingexercise. Inthisway,itattemptstosetthesceneorthepeerassistance

networkinawaythatisdemand-driven.

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4

Drought Impactsand Causes

2

2.1 Drought Impacts

Droughtmayhaveanumberodiferentandinterconnectedsocial,economic andenvironmental

impacts.Someotheseinclude: re; declinein cropyieldsandthusincreasedoodinsecurity;

livestocklosses; orcedsaleohouseholdassets; orcedsaleoland; increased crime; depletionowaterorhumanuse (e.g.,ordrinking, cookingand cleaning); declineinhealth (e.g.,through

malnutritionor lackosaedrinkingwater); displacement/migration; civil unrest/conict; amine;

depletioninwaterorusein business/industry (e.g.,hydropower); andnational economic impact.

As can beseenin Figure 1,theoverall patternillustratingtheseverityodroughtimpactsin

Arica isverysimilar in broadtermstothat inAsia, butwithAricaexperiencingmarginally

moresignicantimpacts. Thus,AricaandAsiasharemanyexperienceswithdroughtimpacts.

Comparingindividual typesopossibledroughtimpacts (i.e., re,declinein cropyieldsand

thusincreasedoodinsecurity, livestocklosses) betweentheregionsreinorcesthismessage.

It can beseenthattheperceivedsignicance (i.e., low,medium,highandveryhigh4) oeach

potential impactissimilarinAricaandAsia.

Both regions are impactedmostsignicantly by declines in cropyieldsandthus increased

oodinsecurityand bythedepletionowaterorhumanuse (e.g.,ordrinking, cookingand

cleaning).5 In Asia, no respondent elt that declines in crop yields and thus increased ood

insecuritywereunusual orunlikely.

4 Low: Itisunusual/unlikelyorthisimpacttooccur. Medium: Impactis limitedandrecoveryisswit. High: Impactiswidespreadand

long-lasting. Very High: Impactisverysevere,widespreadandhas long-lastingimplications.

5 Thereisnoevidentreasonwhy,inasmall numberocases,outlyingopinion consideredthesedroughtimpactsto beolow (or

medium) severity.


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A divergence between the regions is noticeable with respect to amine and the impact o

droughtonnational economies,asArica issignicantlymoreadverselyafectedthanAsia.

Civil unrest/conictandadeclineinhealth (e.g.,throughmalnutritionora lackosaedrinking

water) arealsomorewidespreadinAricathaninAsia.

Somerespondentsreportedthatviolenceagainstwomeninahouseholdisoten linkedwith

pressures broughtaboutthroughdrought.

Figure 1: Drought Impacts

Arica

Asia

VERY HIGH: Impactisverysevere,widespreadandhaslong lastingimplications

MEDIUM: Impactis limitedinscaleandrecoveryisswit

HIGH: Impactiswidespreadand long lasting LOW: Itisunusual/unlikelyorthisimpacttooccur

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0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Decline in crop yields/increase in ood insecurity

Depletion in water or human use

Decline in health

National economic impact

Livestock losses

Famine

Displacement/migration

Depletion in water or us in business/industry

Forced sale o household assets

Civil unrest/confict

Fire

Increase in crime

Forced sale o land

Decline in crop yields/increase in ood insecurity

Depletion in water or human use

Decline in health

National economic impact

Livestock losses

Famine

Displacement/migration

Depletion in water or us in business/industry

Forced sale o household assets

Civil unrest/confict

Fire

Increase in crime

Forced sale o land

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%


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6

2.2 Root CausesoDrought Impacts

Thedroughtimpactsstemroma combinationoactors,asillustratedin Figure 2.Anincrease

in rainall variability is one aspect, but how this afects communities and nations depends

uponhowwell people,theeconomyandtheenvironment can cope.

Figure 2: Relationship between Meteorological,Agricultural, Hydrological andSocio-Economic Drought

Source:UNISDR (2009)

Climate variability

Soil water deciency

Economic impacts Social impacts

Hydrological

drought

Agricultural

drought

Metrolog

ical

drough

t

Socioeconomicdrought

Environmental impacts

Precipitation deciency

(amount, intensity, timing)

Reduced inltration, runo,

deep percolation, and

ground water recharge

High temp., high winds, low

relative humidity, greater sunshine,

less cloud cover

Increased evaporation

and transpiration

Plant water stress, reduced biomass

and yield

Reduced streamfow, infow to

reservoirs, lakes, and ponds;

reduced wetlands, wildlie habitat

Time(duration)

Therearemanyissues,especiallywhenpoverty-related,thatunderminetheabilitytowithstand

reducedwateravailability (ameteorological drought) andtopreventitromdevelopinginto

agricultural and hydrological drought with social, economic and environmental impacts.

Thesedeep-rootedproblemsdriveandsustaindroughtrisk.As can beseenin Figure 3,this

stocktakingexerciseocusedona considerationo:

r 1PPSIFBMUIMJNJUJOHIPVTFIPMEQSPEVDUJWJUZFH)*7"*%4

r -BDLPGBDDFTTCZDPNNVOJUJFTUPJOGPSNBUJPOBCPVUIPXUPSFEVDFESPVHIUJNQBDUT

r %FUSJNFOUBMDVMUVSBMQSBDUJDFTFHPWFSHSB[JOH

r 4PDJBMJOFRVBMJUJFTFHCFUXFFOUIFSJDIBOEQPPSPSCFUXFFONFOBOEXPNFOr 1PPSXBUFSSFTPVSDFNBOBHFNFOU


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r &OWJSPONFOUBMEFHSBEBUJPOFHMPTTPGUPQTPJMEFGPSFTUBUJPO

r 1PPS HPWFSOBODF FH JOBCJMJUZ PG UIF WVMOFSBCMF UP JOVFODF HPWFSONFOU EFDJTJPO

making)

r 1PQVMBUJPOHSPXUIQSFTTVSFTPOOBUVSBMSFTPVSDFT

r $MJNBUFDIBOHFr $POJDU*OTFDVSJUZ

Figure 3: Root CausesoDrought Impacts

Arica

Asia

MOST IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissueisa/theundamental,deep-rootedproblem

SOME IMPORTANCE: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissueisrelativelyimportant

VERY IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissuehaswidespreadsignicanceor causingdrought losses

LEAST IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisisnotamajorissueoconcern

100%80%60%40%20%0%

Environmental degradation (e.g., loss o topsoil,deorastation)

Poor water resource management

Poor governance (e.g., the inability othe vulnerable toinfuence governement decision-making)

Climate change

Lakc o access by communities to inormation on howto reduce drought impacts

Population growth pressures on natural resources

Detrimental cultural practices (e.g., overgrazing)

Social inequalities (e.g., between the rich and poor orbetween men and women)

Confict/insecurity

Poor health limiting household productivity (e.g.,HIV/AIDS

10080%60%40%20%0%

Environmental degradation (e.g., loss o topsoil,deorastation)

Poor water resource management

Poor governance (e.g., the inability othe vulnerable toinfuence governement decision-making)

Climate change

Lakc o access by communities to inormation on howto reduce drought impacts

Population growth pressures on natural resources

Detrimental cultural practices (e.g., overgrazing)

Social inequalities (e.g., between the rich and poor orbetween men and women)

Confict/insecurity

Poor health limiting household productivity (e.g.,HIV/AIDS


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8

Table 1 summarizesa comparisonothe ndingsontheroot causes behinddroughtimpacts

betweenregionsoutlinedin Figure 3. Thehighlighted cellsindicatethemostimportantissues,

reectedin bothAricaandAsia, butwithslightlydiferingemphases.

Both regions overwhelmingly consider environmental degradation, poor water resourcemanagement and poor governance to be either a very important or the most important

contributing causeodrought impacts. InArica,environmental degradationisthehighest-

ranking root cause and, in Asia, it ranks only marginally lower than poor water resource

management. Combinedor bothregions,environmental degradationisthemostimportant

root causeodroughtimpact.

Table 1: Comparingthe Root CausesoDrought Impacts betweenAricaandAsia

Root causes Summary comparison o ndings between Aricaand Asia

Poor health limiting household productivity(e.g., HIV/AIDS)

Not considered to be particularly important in eitherregion (ranking the least important overall), with mostrespondents in Asia viewing it as least important

Lack o access by communities to inormationon how to reduce drought impacts

A relatively important issue overall, especially in Arica,where a greater proportion o respondents consider thisto be most important.

Detrimental cultural practices (e.g.,overgrazing)

Broadly similar

Social inequalities (e.g., between the rich andpoor or between men and women)

Broadly similar

Poor water resource management Broadly similar, with both regions overwhelminglyconsidering this to be very important or most importantoverall. In Asia, it is the highest-ranking root cause and, inArica, it is among the top three.

Environmental degradation (e.g., loss otopsoil, deorestation)

Broadly similar, with both regions overwhelminglyconsidering this to be very important or most importantoverall. In Arica, it is the highest-ranking root cause and,

in Asia, it ranks only marginally lower than poor waterresource management. Combined or both regions, this isthe most important root cause o drought impact.

Poor governance (e.g., the inability o thevulnerable to inuence government decision-making)

A top-three root cause in both regions, with slightlygreater emphasis in Arica.

Population growth pressures on naturalresources

Broadly similar and, overall, most consider this to be animportant issue.

Climate change Overall, among the most important o issues in bothregions, but especially in Arica

Conict/Insecurity The majority o respondents in both regions do notconsider this to be among the more important root causes.


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Climate changeisalsorecognizedasaveryimportantissue. Inact,governmentocialsrank

climate changeasthe leadingroot causeodroughtimpact. Thisissueisimportanttoanalyse

ingreaterdepthtogaugeitsmeaningandimplicationsorDRM.

The Forum debated the propensity to attribute drought impacts to climate change andwhetherthiswas justied, complimentarytourtherDRM progress,oractuallyobstructiveto

workonexistingdeep-rooted causesodroughtrisk. Forexample,the Forumdebatedwhether

itispossiblethat climate changeis beingusedasapolitical scapegoatindeveloping countries

to mask development shortcomings that should and could be better managed. This was

alsoatopic odiscussionata Water IntegrityNetworkmeeting. One case presentedduring

themeetingexplainedhowa countrys Ministryo Irrigationand Water Resourceshad been

sceptical oclimate change,whichwas laterusedto justiyproblemswithwaterprovision. The

ministrydidthisdespiteanearlierstudyhighlightingsiltingproblemsandarecommendation

toimproveriver owinordertohelpavertsuchwatershortage (Water IntegrityNetwork, 2010).

Inpractice,itisveryhardtoidentiy,organizeandexplainhowthevarious causesodrought

impactsinterrelate. Thispresentsasignicant challenge. Climate changeimpactsaresimilarly

complex. Thereore,ascertaininghowdroughtand climate changeare connectedinagiven

environmentisespeciallydicult,asthe combinedrelationship can be quiteambiguous.

Forexample,inreerencetothehumanitarian crisisinthe HornoAricain 2011, Integrated

Regional Inormation Networks (IRIN) stated that, as the subregion experiences its driest

periodsin 60years,asituationthatwill pushthenumbersneedingaidto beyond 10million,

somehave been quickto blame climate change.Butthe IRINreportneverthelessstatesthatnosingleevent can beattributedto climate change (IRIN, 2011).

While there have been concerted eforts to raise awareness about climate change and to

promoteadvocacy,ongoingdialoguesanddebatesocusmostlyonscientic andtechnical

inormation at the global and regional levels. Consequently, emphasis tends to be on

centralized broad-brushthinkingabouttheimplicationsandwhatshouldor could bedone.

Failure to integrate indigenous knowledge and practices into such discourse oten creates

the impression that an increasing risk o drought is inevitable. This may explain the great

concernamongsurveyparticipantsabout climate changeasaroot causeodroughtimpact,

despiteuncertaintyaboututure climateprojections. Inanyevent,the beliethatdroughtis

inevitableuelsatendencytoocusondevising betterresponsestodroughtratherthanon

takingpreventiveapproachessuchasimproved landandwatermanagement.

InAricaandAsia, local practiceasa basisorDRM isveryvaluable.Anyunderminingolocal

resiliencetomanagedrought isdetrimental and isaroot causeoanydrought impacts. In

particular the stocktaking highlights the loss o traditional knowledge about coping with

droughtasa critical impediment.Such loss could betheresultoorcedseasonal migration,

changesinaccessibilityto land,increasinglyunpredictableweatherpatternsassociatedwith

climate changeandanincreaseininvasivespeciesoplants.

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2.3 TrendsinDrought Impactsand Their Causes

The clearandoverwhelming consensusamongsurveyrespondentsandintervieweesisthat,

becausethere is insucientpolitical will to arrestexistingrisks, drought impacts andtheir

causeswill worseninthe coming 10to 20years. Thevastmajorityorespondentswhohold

thisview cite climate changeasamajordriverouturerisk. Thisadditional threattoalready

stressed and overburdened drought-stricken places appears to strengthen the belie that

existingdroughtmanagementrameworksandpracticesareill-equippedtoaceuturerisks,

whichwill beevengreaterthan currentones.

Theull listoissuesthatare consideredto bedriversodeteriorating conditionsareincluded

under:

r $MJNBUFDIBOHFJNQBDUTFHNPSFFYUSFNFFWFOUTFSSBUJDSBJOGBMMMFTTQSFEJDUBCJMJUZJOweather, shiting climate zones, rising sea levels and the spread o invasive species o

plant)

r *ODSFBTJOH XBUFS EFNBOE UP LFFQ QBDF XJUI QPQVMBUJPO FYQBOTJPO BOE FDPOPNJD

development, leading especially to withdrawal o groundwater (e.g., or irrigation,

livestock,humanandindustrial use) andoverall damagetothehydrological cycle

r *ODSFBTJOHQPWFSUZFTQFDJBMMZIPXJUJNQBDUTUIFTFBSDIGPSGVFMXPPEBOEBDPOTFRVFOU

accelerationodeorestation)

r &OWJSPONFOUBMEFHSBEBUJPOFHEFGPSFTUBUJPOFODSPBDINFOUPOQSPUFDUFEBSFBTBOE

poor landmanagement (e.g.,impoverishedsoil,salinization,industrial pollution)

Asmall, butnotnegligible,proportionorespondents believethattrendsindroughtimpact

will improve.Suchopinionsare basedona belieineventual benetsorecentandnewpolicy

shitstowardDRM andobservationolocal goodpractice.

Governmentrespondents citeastrengthenedpolicy landscapein Indiaasaprimeexample

owhydroughttrendswill improve inthat country,whereoverall oodproductionandthe

capacity to distribute ood rom areas o surplus to decit, combined with employment

guaranteeschemesandthedeploymentogroundwatermanagement basedtechnologies,

arethekeyapproachessupportingthisview. However,there isanunusuallyhighvariationbetween the government and non-government views regarding the status o DRM in the

country. Theormer believesthat considerableheadwayhas beenmadeandwill continue,

butevidenceonthegroundinvulnerable communitiesvia civil societyorganizationsis quite

diferent.Anotheractorthat canmaskthereasonorimprovingdroughtimpactdataorone

population isthepossiblemitigationooodsecurityrisks inone locationtothedetriment

o another through expanding agribusiness, which has local social and environmental

implications.


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2.4 BarrierstoAddressing CausesoDrought Impacts

Inadditiontoappreciatingthe conditionsthat createdroughtriskand leadtodroughtimpacts,

itisnecessarytounderstandwhatishinderingorpreventingtheirremoval. Theactors could

bea lacko:

r 5FDIOJDBMDBQBDJUZBUUIFMPDBMMFWFM

r 5FDIOJDBMDBQBDJUZBUUIFOBUJPOBMMFWFM

r 1PMJUJDBMXJMM

r 'VOEJOH

r -PDBMBXBSFOFTT

r 0UIFSQSJPSJUJFT

As has been reported or several decades and as Figure 4 illustrates, a lack o political willor DRM is still considered to be a very signicant actor in both Arica and Asia. Some o

thedisincentivesorDRM (thathavealso beenunderstoodorsometime) arethe inherent

complexityodroughtasamultiacetedphenomenonthatstretches beyondanunderstanding

ometeorological conditionsaloneanditsgradual,elusiveefects,theseriousnessowhich

takes a while to become apparent. The non-structural nature o drought can also create a

political vacuum in which suitable interventions lose their lustre in comparison to other

political priorities. But these issues may mask, or generate, persistent and even more

challengingdeterrents.Sothe Forumwentastepurtherintryingtoarticulatewhy lacko

political will issuchastubborn barrierandwhatitreallymeans.

Withrespecttodata,thereisno linearanddirectrelationship betweentheprovisionotimely

andaccuratescientic data (evenacrossmeteorological,hydrological,agricultural,social and

economic issues) predictingdroughtimpacts,ontheonehandandanincreaseinthepolitical

will tomobilizeresourcesandprevent losses,ontheother. Thisisimportantorthediscussion

on barrierstoriskmanagement.

Evenwhen benetsoariskmanagementapproachseem clearandeconomicallyandmorally

sound, callsoractionareirrelevantitheyarenotinstepwithpolitical needsanddesires. The

classic exampleomerepolitical expediencyistheprovisionooodaidordroughtreliejustinorderto boostgovernmentpopularity. Insome countries,therehave beenreportsthatthis

happensevenwhenthere isneithertheexistencenorthreatodrought. Consequently,the

Forumsuggestedthepossibilitythatdroughtwarningsystemsmaynot bemonitoringall o

therightthings:therearepoliticallyrelatedtriggersatworkthat caninuencedroughtrisk.

Theseneedto be betterunderstoodand circumvented (see Chapter 3.2.2).

Additional observationsregardingthe ndingsincludetheactthata lackotechnical capacity

atthe local level isagreater barrierinAricathaninAsia, but,in both cases, local capacityis

citedas beinga larger barrierthannational technical capacity.Linkedwiththisviewpoint,a

lackolocal awarenessis consideredto bearelativelyimportant barrierin bothregions. Inthissense,theunderminingolocal knowledgeandpracticeonDRM hasadoublynegativeefect:

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it causesdroughtimpacts (astheprevioussectiondiscusses) anditpreventsthedeployment

oefectivestrategiestoreducerisk(asthissectiondiscusses).

Inordertoensurethetranserocapacityromhigherto lower levels,efortsmustgohand-in-

handwithdemocratizationanddecentralizationreorms. The currentuprisingsinsomeArabStateswere citedasopeningnewopportunities. The Forumalsonotedhowgreatertraction

or DRM occursat lower levels, such as in theexperienceo UNDP Morocco. Decentralized

efortsare commonlyperceivedto bemoreefectiveinactually bearingresults. Thereisalso

recognitionthatthegap betweentopand bottom levelshasto be better bridged:themeso-

level isa crucial linkinthe chain.Assuch, boundaryorganizations thatoperateatthemeso-

level (e.g.,small- ormedium-sizedriver basinmanagement committeesasappliedinNamibia

undertheapproachothe Forumor Integrated Resource Management) canplayapivotal role

asa basisor smartpartnership (i.e., collaborationamongpartnerswhoshare clearstrategic

rolesandresponsibilitiesandwho contributetowardthemanagementocommonproblems).

In Arica, insucient unding is cited as a severe barrier to addressing causes o drought

impacts, even though government, donors, the private sector and the public mobilize

signicant unding during periods o drought-incurred severe ood insecurity, such as that

whichthe HornoArica is currentlyenduring. Thisposesa questionowhetherthe unds

raisedareusedefectivelyandecientlytoalsotackle causesandtomitigateutureriskso

droughtdisasters.

Finally,ageneral observationonthe ndings isthatthere isasensethatmany barriersare

slightlymoredeeplyentrenchedinAricathaninAsia.


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Figure 4:BarrierstoAddressingthe CausesoDrought Impacts

Arica

Asia

MOST IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissueisa/theundamental,deep-rootedproblem

SOME IMPORTANCE: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissueisrelativelyimportant

VERY IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisissuehaswidespreadsignicanceor causingdrought losses

LEAST IMPORTANT: Comparedwiththeothers,thisisnotamajorissueoconcern

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Lack o unding

Lack o technical capacity at the local level

Lack o political will

Lack o local awareness

Lack o technical capacity at the national level

Other priorities

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3.1 ApproachesandPractices

ThereiswideappreciationotheactthatamultiacetedapproachtoDRM isrequired. The

approachmustrecognizethewidescopeodroughtandthustheimplicationsor coherent

strategiesto manage itacrosssectors, levels and disciplines. Furthermore, theapplicabilityo a particular approach depends on the timing o interventions (beore, during and ater

impact). Box 1 contains an indicative list o DRM activities that may be necessary. During

theexercise,itwasunderscoredseveral timesthattherestorationothewholehydrological

cycleisa broadobjectivethat can be contextualizedandusedasa basisor connectingkey

approaches complimentarily.

In practice, the lack o integration o the various approaches, such as through sustainable

landmanagement,waterresourcemanagement,oodsecurityandsoon,ishighlightedasa

weakness,particularlyatthenational level,whichisseparatedalongsectoral lines. However,

the DRM approach at the local level is generally perceived more integrated (and, as such,

is also requently regarded as good practice). Local approaches tend to better emphasize

vulnerability actors in relation to livelihood strategies and natural resource management

eforts.

Withrespecttotheperceptionsohowdroughtisactuallymanagedinpracticeratherthanin

theory,observationinAricaandAsiaagainmakesit clearthatthe ndingsorthetworegions

are correlated,asisevidentin Figure 5. InAricaandAsia,droughtisdealtwithpredominantly

as a ood security issue and a water resource issue and in relation to climate change and

variability,whilethe least commonapproaches concerntheefectsodroughton businessandindustryandtheirrelationto local governanceand landdegradation.

Drought RiskManagement

3


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Box 1: IndicativeListoDRM Activities

Immediate saety net measures:r Supplying ood aid and other non-ood items to aected communitiesr Providing emergency livestock purchases and subsidies to transport animals to marketr Providing supplementary livestock eeding (odder, orage, hay distribution, water hauling, opening

o strategic grazing area, etc.)r Promoting emergency vaccination and de-worming

r Providing seed distribution, stockpiling cereals and low-interest agriculture loans and emergencyassistance programmes

r Facilitating borehole rehabilitation and water-truckingr Establishing a local coordinating body to ensure emergency response based upon priorities

Short-term measures:r Developing water use guidelines based on the types and duration o droughtr

Developing emergency water allocation strategiesr Increasing communication o climate-related inormation, with specic advisoriesr Increasing local drought monitoring capacity and inrastructurer Providing support to armers or purchase o drought and crop insurancer Establishing ood subsidy programmes or drought-aected individualsr Providing support to most vulnerable groups, such as women and youth

Mid-term measures:r Expanding eorts to promote rainwater harvesting

r Introducing improved soil management techniques that decrease soil erosion and increase water-holding capacity o soil

r Adopting alternative cultivars or crops that are more drought-resistant or heat-tolerantr Addressing bottlenecks in seed delivery systemsr Establishing a system or sharing o experience and capacity development or vulnerable groups in

their adaptation measures/responses

Long-term measures:

r Investigating business and arm/ranch diversication strategies (e.g., selecting drought-tolerantvarieties, implementing irrigation where easible and diversiying away rom rain-ed crops to lesswater-dependent products, such as honey rom bee-keeping)

r Addressing deorestation and desertication (land degradation in drylands)r Reviewing the eectiveness o mid-term measures and strengthening capacities as neededr Strengthening market access and rural inrastructurer

Reinorcing legal, policy and institutional rameworks or drought risk mitigation and drylanddevelopment

Source: UNDP (2011).

The predominant approaches appear to reect a response to the major drought impacts

observed (e.g.,declinein cropyieldsandincreasedoodinsecurityanddepletionowateror

humanuse) ratherthantotheirmain causes. Inparticular,althoughenvironmental degradation

andpoorgovernanceare consideredto beveryimportant causesodroughtimpacts,drought

isnot commonlyapproachedwiththese causesdirectlyinmind. However,these causesare

arguably cross-cuttingissuesthat can beapartothepredominantapproaches.Opossible

importance or the search or strong entry points, poor water resource management isD

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Figure 5:ApproachestoDrought RiskManagement

Arica

Asia

50% 60% 70% 80%30% 40%10% 20%0%

As ood security issue

As a water resource issue

In relation to climate change and variability

As a disaster/emergency/humanitaria concern

About land degradation

Predominantly about local governance

In terms o its implications on business/industry

50% 60% 70% 80%30% 40%10% 20%0%

As ood security issue

As a water resource issue

In relation to climate change and variability

As a disaster/emergency/humanitaria concern

About land degradation

Predominantly about local governance

In terms o its implications on business/industry

notedasaveryimportant causeodroughtrisk, butwaterresourcemanagementisalsoan

established common approach to deal with drought. As a cross-cutting theme, it is highly

appropriate. Integratedwaterresourcemanagement (IWRM) complementstherestorationo

thehydrological cycleprinciplealreadymentioned.

Although climate changeandvariabilityarenot currently consideredto beadominant cause

odroughtimpact,predictionsorthenext 10to 20yearsstronglyemphasizeits likelyharm.

Itappearsthatdrought-relatedpractitionersareresponsivetothis concernandarealreadyocusing considerable attention on this issue, despite uncertainty over uture implications.

Indeed, climate change is largely acknowledgedto beanopportunitytoenhanceDRM,as

it is seen to shed renewed light on the issues o climate variabilityand associated climatic

disasters,includingdrought,while broadeningthe basisorresourcemobilization. Thisresults

inanaccelerationoworkrelatedtoadaptationto climate changewhile longer-established

but related disciplines, such as climate-related disaster risk reduction, are bypassed (or re-

branded). Indeed,itisinterestingtonotethatdroughtisalreadydealtwithinAricaandAsia

more commonlyasanissueoclimate changeandvariabilityratherthanasadisasterissue.


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Forestry, orms o diversication o livelihood, the introduction o drought-resistant crops

andeducation/awarenesswerethemost commonexamplesoDRM amongmanyimportant

contributions.6

3.2 Progressand Gapsin CoreAreasoDrought Risk

Management

Thissectionindicateshowefectivethe combinationoDRM approacheshas beeninreducing

droughtriskinAricaandAsia. The Hyogo FrameworkorAction (HFA),auniqueinteraceor

paradigmson climate change,variabilityanddisasters,wasatemplateorthedesignothis

aspectothestocktakingexercise.Box 2 summarizesthe HFAinthe contextothiswork.

Box 2: Capturing ConceptsoDrought RiskManagementwithinthe Hyogo FrameworkorAction

According to a strong majority o views obtained through consultation with selected experts, thecommitment o nations to the HFA is suited to promote DRM.

There has been considerable progress toward better understanding the relation between drought riskreduction rameworks and the multi-hazard disaster risk reduction HFA. For example, an ad hoc groupon drought was convened in China in June 2006. At this meeting, the members discussed elements ordrought policies in line with the priorities o the HFA. In October 2006, ndings were presented at the2nd ADAF as part o the ADDN or deliberation and renement. There has since been urther review byexperts and organizations, including at the 3rd ADAF in Ethiopia in September 2008.

Meanwhile, awareness and understanding o adaptation to climate change has been rapidly growing.The relationship between climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction has receivedconsiderable attention and unding or the two issue areas has so ar been closely overlapping.7 Indeed,the negotiating text or the post-2012 agreement invites United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) Parties to support an Adaptation Framework by enhancing climate changerelated disaster risk reduction strategies, considering the HFA where appropriate (UNISDR, 2010).

Such processes have strengthened the relevance o the HFA as a conceptual basis or drought discourse.8Progress on the HFA, as presented in the Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2011, canoer insight into progress in DRM. However, some arguments claim that, drought, as a slow onset andmulti-aceted hazard with particularly subtle and complex impacts, can require some unique eorts

compared with other natural hazard types, such as oods or cyclones (UNDP, 2011). Mindul o this, thelatest thinking regarding the links between drought and the HFA has inormed the design o some coreelements o the stocktaking survey, especially those concerning the issues covered in this section.

6 Othersinclude:irrigationschemes; droughtasahealthissue; waterharvestingandsaving; oodreserves; mainstreamingecosystem

services; wastemanagement; biodiversityandresource conservation; index-basedinsuranceordroughtimpactsonagriculture;

andemergencyunds.

7 AsoOctober 2010,the KyotoProtocolsAdaptation Fundhadapprovedtwoprojectsandendorsedsix more all owhichare

undamentallydisasterriskreductioninitiativeswhose componentsoverlapwiththe HFApriorities (UNISDR, 2010).

8 Alternatives include rameworks under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertication (UNCCD), natural resource

managementand livelihoods-basedrameworks.D

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3.2.1 Policy FrameworksandPlans

EfectiveDRM thatdealswithdeep-rootedproblemsrequires broadsupportromnational to

local levels.Akeyarea isthe integrationoDRM conceptsandprinciples intodevelopment

planningandpractices. Withoutthisintegration,societywill nditdiculttodomorethan

respondtotheimpactsodroughtastheyareelt.

Establishment o national drought policies and plans is imperative to guide this agenda

across sectors and administrative levels and various tools have been produced to help

in this process (UNDP, 2011). In the words o Mr. Michel Jarraud, Secretary-General o the

World Meteorological Organization, Ourabilityto lessenormitigatetheimpactsassociated

with drought is contingent on putting in place comprehensive national drought policies.9

However,theestablishmentosuchpoliciesdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatthosepolicieswill

beimplementedorappropriatelyunded,assurveyrespondentsreport.

The propriety o key aspects o policy and planning or the needs o DRM depends upon

answersto questionsthatinclude:

r %PUIFZFNQIBTJ[FQSFWFOUJPOPGESPVHIUJNQBDUTPWFSSFTQPOTF

r %PUIFZEFBMXJUIOFXESPVHIUSJTLTFHCFDBVTFPGDMJNBUFDIBOHFJOVSCBOBSFBTJO

UIFDPOUFYUPGEFMUBSFHJPOT

r %PUIFZTVQQPSUMPOHUFSNJOWFTUNFOUUPPWFSDPNFEFFQSPPUFEQSPCMFNT

r %PUIFZFODPVSBHFQVCMJDBOEOPOHPWFSONFOUBMPSHBOJ[BUJPO/(0QBSUJDJQBUJPO

r %P UIFZ GBDJMJUBUF DPPSEJOBUJPO BNPOH OVNFSPVT HPWFSONFOU BOE OPOHPWFSONFOUTUBLFIPMEFST

r "SFUIFZCBTFEPOSFBMMPDBMJTTVFT

Findings basedonanswerstothese questionsareshownin Figure 6.

Overall,theresults indicatethat approaches to DRM areadhoc andnon-institutionalized in

bothregions:AttentiontoDRM evaporatessoonaterthe rstraindropshittheparchedground.

Most respondents stated that only occasional eforts were made to reect DRM principleswithin policy and planning rameworks. The topic o greatest concern in Arica involves

long-term investment to overcome deep-rooted problems. In this case, nearly 40 percent

orespondentseltthat long-term investment isnotrepresentedatall. InAsia,theweakest

aspectregardingtheintegrationoDRM inpoliciesandplansinvolvestheresponsetonew

droughtrisksassociatedwithrecentsocio-economic andenvironmental trends.

In bothregions,a core concernisthattheemphasisisonresponseratherthanonprevention.

Indeed,thisisa commonthemeotheentirestocktakingexerciseandismentionedinrelation

9 Anexpertmeetingwas convenedin Virginia,USA,in July 2011 orthepreparationoa CompendiumonNational DroughtPolicy.

See:http://www.wmo.int/pages/mediacentre/press_releases/pr_921_en.html


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Figure 6: Policy FrameworksandPlans

Arica

Asia

toall mannerodroughttopicsandissues,not justpoliciesandplans.Asreportedearlier,a

lackopreventionisusuallyattributedtodisincentives particularly comparedwithpolitically

popularrelieaid.

Thenumberorespondentswhoeel thatthere isasystematic incorporationo issues into

policyandplanningisveryslimin bothregions. Whereissuesareotenintegral topolicyand

planning,thegreatestprogressinAricahas beenintheencouragementopublic andNGOparticipation. InAsia,ithas beeninimprovedincorporationothereal local aspectsodrought

intonational-level rameworks.

NO: Thisisnotrepresentedatall OFTEN: Inmanywaysthisisgenuinelysupportedandresultsinsomepractical reductionsindroughtimpacts

OCCASSIONALLY: Insomeaspectsthisisincluded, butitisadhoc anddoesnotreallyinuencepractice

COMPLETELY: Thisissystematicallyincorporatedinpolicyandplanning, clearlyhelpingtoestablisha cultureodroughtprevention

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Do they emphasize prevention o droughtimpacts over response?

Are they supportive o long-term investmentto overcome deep rooted problems?

Based on real local issues?

Facilitating coordination among multiplegovernnment stakeholders?

Are they dealing with new drought risks(e.g., climate change)?

Encouraging o public and NGO participation?

60% 80% 100%40%20%0%

Do they emphasize prevention o droughtimpacts over response?

Are they supportive o long-term investmentto overcome deep rooted problems?

Based on real local issues?

Facilitating coordination among multiplegovernnment stakeholders?

Are they dealing with new drought risks(e.g., climate change)?

Encouraging o public and NGO participation?

80% 100%40% 60%20%0%


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3.2.2 Drought RiskAssessmentandDisseminationoEarly Warning

Anassessmentoriskisthe basisordecision-making. Itheriskisnotknown,thenitisnot

possibletomanageandreduceiteciently. Further,awarenessoriskshould leadtoaction.

Withtheseprinciplesinmind,thestocktakingexerciseinvestigatedthesekey questions:

r )PXFFDUJWFMZ EPFT BESPVHIUXBSOJOHHFOFSBUF GVOEJOH UIBU DBOCF VTFE UP BWPJE

MPTTFT

r )PXXFMMJTBOJEFOUJFEUISFBUPGESPVHIUDPNNVOJDBUFEUPWVMOFSBCMFDPNNVOJUJFT

r )PXXFMMEPFTUIJTMFBEUPMPDBMBDUJPOUIBUIFMQTSFEVDFBOZJNQBDUT

Overall,thepatternoresultsissimilarorthetworegions. Mostapparentisthestrongeeling

thatthereareveryewexamplesosystemsandprocessesordroughtriskassessmentand

thedisseminationoearlywarning beingwell establishedandhighlyregarded (see Table 2).

Table 2: PerceptionsontheEfectivenessoDrought RiskAssessmentandEarly Warning

Topic

Number o people who eel the topic is

well established and highly regarded

Arica Asia Elsewhere

Eectiveness o a drought warning to generate unding 0 2 0

Communication o drought to vulnerable communities 0 4 0

Likelihood o warning leading to local action 3 1 0

Notably, those institutions actually responsible or Early Warning Systems (EWSs) express

mostotheewpositiveviews. Thisisadivergence betweentheproducersandusersothe

monitoringinormationanddataandraisesa questionabouttheeasibilityandpracticalityo

theexistingdroughtassessmentandearlywarningsystemsandprocesses.

Arepresentativestatementothestocktakingoverall isthatmorework isneededto bring

short-term weather orecasting and longer-term projections o climate change down to a

local level, where meaningul management decisions can be taken. This needs to happen

along with a simultaneous recognition that changing social, economic and environmental

conditionsareundermining local knowledgeandawarenessaboutwhattodoandwhento

doit. This isespeciallythe casein contextswhere local peoplearemoreheavilydependent

onword-o-mouthtoshareinormation,suchasremotedryland communities. Furthermore,

recognitionthatsuchpeoplehavenouse or academic considerationothe linkageswith

climate changeneedstoinormefortsto linkwarningsystemswiththepeopleafected by

weatherevents (IRIN, 2011).

Lastly, it is noted that, even i good inormation exists, non-climatic pressures regularlyhamperaction. Inparticular,scienticallydeneddroughtisdeemedirrelevantiitdoesnot

suit political needs, agendas and desires. Consequently, i monitoring is not expanded to


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includeall importantindicatorsopendingdroughtrisk,includingnon-climatic ones,orisnot

better linkedwithdecision-makingprocesses,thenitshould benosurpriseiearlywarning

does not produce timely action. For example, the stocktaking exercise was inormed o an

experienceinwhich changesinsomeoodtarifsinone country ledtoincreaseddemandor

theneighbouring countrysoodreserves.This countrythenurtherdepletedoodreservestobolsteranelectioneering campaign. Consequently,therewasa lackooodwhenagricultural

productivity weakened and ailed on account o meteorological drought. This leaves the

question:ShouldthescopeoEWS beexpandedto bettermonitortrade,political cyclesand

PUIFSOPODMJNBUJDJTTVFTBOEJGTPIPX

Figure 7: Drought RiskAssessmentandtheDisseminationoEarly Warning

Arica

Asia

VERYPOORLY:Almostnothinghappens WELL: Manyexamplesexistandthereis condencethatthiswill continueandimprove

POORLY:Onlyveryewexamples can beoundanditisnotpossibletosayitheseindicatewhatwouldhappenintheuture

VERY WELL: Thesystemsandprocessesarewellestablishedandhighlyregarded

3.2.3 Awarenessand Knowledge

Periodic recurrence o drought disasters in many parts o Arica and Asia highlights the

importanceoreviewingandreormingdroughtmanagement comprehensively:romshort-

term emergency response to eforts to build longer-term resilience, rom narrowly-scoped

sectoral to comprehensive broad-basedsupportandromdominantscientic basestoopenparticipatoryprocesses. Topromotethese changes,raisingawarenessandsharingexperiences

aboutefectiveapproachesaswell asscalingupthoseapproachesandespeciallyhighlightingD

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How eectively does a drought warning generateunding that can be used to avoid losses?

How well is an identied threat o droughtcommunicated to vulnerable communities

How well does this lead to local action that helpsreduce any impacts?

60% 80% 100%40%20%0%

How eectively does a drought warning generateunding that can be used to avoid losses?

How well is an identied threat o droughtcommunicated to vulnerable communities

How well does this lead to local action that helpsreduce any impacts?

60% 80% 100%40%20%0%


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cross-sectoral relationships,is commonlyregardedasanessential rststep.The Forumstressed

thatitisstill a challengetopromotesynergyamongexistingglobal,national and lower-level

mechanismsandtoimplementthemappropriatelyorgiven localized contexts.Strengthened

partnershipatregional,interregional andglobal levelsis clearlynecessaryasthekeydriving

orcetoenhance collectiveresourcemobilizationand coordinatedimplementationoDRM.

Analysis o the accumulated consensus o opinion makes it apparent that the proportion

o survey respondents views is almost identical between the regions (see Figure 8). Most

people in Aricaand Asia eel that drought awareness and knowledgearerarelyshared. In

apositivedevelopment,theemergenceomany caseswheregoodpractice,newissuesand

other important inormation are widely disseminated through established institutions and

networksis challengingthisparadigm. Indeed,governmentrespondentsespeciallyeel that

sharingdroughtawarenessandknowledgeis quitewell establishedinseveral instances.Such

views, however, may indicate a greater amiliarity with national platorms and committees(seeBox 3) andsomepublicationsratherthanasenseohowsuchmechanisms and tools

supplementothersourcesoinormationto bestsupportdrought-afected communities.

Box 3: High-Level MechanismsandProcessesorAwarenessand KnowledgeSharingand

Coordination

Across national borders, south-south cooperation (SSC) has been gaining momentum.10 Indicative othis is the G20 report Boosting SSC in the Context o Aid Eectiveness, produced in 2010. Furthermore,middle-income countries are increasingly active in international development and have set up their

own modalities or development support and knowledge transer. These include Brazils Agency orCooperation, Indias Ministry o Exte

drought risk management - practitioner's perspectives from africa and asia

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