drawing notes.pdf

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The DrawAMan Test, developed by Goodenough in 1926 was the first formal figure drawing test. It was used to estimate a child's cognitive and intellectual abilities reflected in the drawing's quality. The test was later revised by Harris in 1963 as the Goodenough Harris Drawing Test (GHDT), which included a detailed scoring system and allowed for drawings of men, women, and the self. The scoring system primarily reflected the way in which the child is maturing cognitively. The GHTD is appropriate for children between the ages of three and 17, although it has been found to be most useful for children between three and 10. The DrawAPerson test (DAP) was developed by Machover in 1948 and used figure drawings in a more projective way , focusing on how the drawings reflected the anxieties, impulses, selfesteem, and personality of the test taker. In this test, children are first asked to draw a picture of a person . Then, they are asked to draw a picture of a person of the sex opposite of the first drawing . Sometimes, children are also asked to draw a picture of the self and/or family members. Then, they are asked a series of questions about themselves and the drawings . These questions can be about the mood, the ambitions, and the good and bad qualities of the people in the drawings. The pictures and the questions on the DAP are meant to elicit information about the child's anxieties, impulses, and overall personality. The DAP is the most frequently used figure drawing test today. A scoring system appropriate for adults was developed in 1993 by Mitchel, Trent, and McArthur. In 1992, Naglieri and his colleagues created a more specific scoring system for figure drawing tests called the DrawAPerson: Screening Procedure of Emotional Disturbance (DAP:SPED), based on a large standardization sample. This scoring method includes 55 items rated by the test administrator and based on the child's drawings and responses to questions. The DAP:SPED is appropriate for children aged six to 17. It is often used as a screening method for children who may be having difficulties with regard to social adjustment and require further evaluation. The HouseTreePerson (HTP) test , created by Buck in 1948, provides a measure of a selfperception and attitudes by requiring the test taker to draw a house, a tree, and a person . The picture of the house is supposed to conjure the child's feelings toward his or her family. The picture of the tree is supposed to elicit feelings of strength or weakness . The picture of the person, as with other figure drawing tests, elicits information regarding the child's selfconcept. The HTP, though mostly given to children and adolescents, is appropriate for anyone over the age of three. The Kinetic Family Drawing technique (KFD), developed in 1970 by Burns and Kaufman, requires the test taker to draw a picture of his or her entire family. Children are asked to draw a picture of their family, including themselves, "doing something." This picture is meant to elicit the child's attitudes toward his or her family and the overall family dynamics. The KFD is some times interpreted as part of an evaluation of child abuse. The Kinetic School Drawing technique (KSD), developed in 1974 by Prout and Phillips, requires the child to draw a picture of himself or herself, a teacher, and one or more classmates. This picture is meant to elic it the child's attitudes toward people at school and his or her functioning in the school environment. For example, fiveyear old children are expected to make fairly basic drawings of people, consisting of a head, eyes, nose, mouth, body, arms, and legs. An 11yearold, on the other hand is expected to have more details in the picture, such as a more defined neck, clothes, and arms in a particular direction. figure drawings are assessed with regard to selfimage. Children often project themselves in the drawings. For example, females with body image concerns may reflect these concerns in their drawings. Victims of sexual abuse may stress sexual characteristics in their drawings. Psychological, neuropsychological, or emotional dysfunction can also be considered in figure drawing interpretation. This type of interpretation is often done with figure drawings made by adults. For example, a person who omits or distorts body parts may suffer from emotional impairment. Excessive detail with regard to the sexual nature of the drawing may indicate sexual maladjustment. Figure drawings are also interpreted with regard to child abuse. In 1994, Von Hutton developed a scoring system for both the HTP and DAP focusing on indicators of child abuse that may be present in drawings. The drawing of the family in the KFD test may also provide indicators of abuse. Colors are selected on whim and usually have no relationship with what is being drawn. Figures may be scattered all over the page, or the page turned in every direction as the figures fill the paper. Objects and figures may appear to float all over the page because children do not yet know how to express threedimensional objects on a two dimensional surface. Stages of creative development In 1975, Viktor Lowenfeld launched a theory of artistic development based on systematic creative and cognitive stages. Each stage demonstrated specific characteristics and had an age range. He encouraged the use of his artistic development stages in classrooms and as guides for parents. These stages are as dependent on a child's exposure to art and art media as they are on a child's innate artistic ability or fine motor skills . It should be noted that because a child does not seem to go beyond a specific developmental stage, it does not mean that the child has a cognitive or developmental problem. This apparent arrest of development may be due to limited exposure to art, lack of interest, or finemotor differences. Cultural values can also affect artistic expression and development, influencing content, art media, style, and symbolic meaning as represented in the child's view of the world. Children may overlap stages, making drawings with elements of one stage while progressing or regressing to another. Generally, boys and girls will develop similarly in the initial stages. Whether any child progresses to the latter stages usually requires instruction of some kind. SCRIBBLING STAGE The scribbling stage usually begins around two years old and lasts until the child is about four years of age. In some cases, it can begin as soon as a child can hold a fat crayon and make marks on paper, which is sometimes around 18 months old. At first, the child is interested only in watching the color flow on the paper. Some children are more interested in the marking itself and may even look away while scribbling. What results on the paper is accidental and often delights the child, even though it is indistinguishable to adults. With about six months of practice, the child will be more deliberate and may start drawing circles. Later, the child will name the drawing, saying, "This is a dog." The child may even look at the drawing of the dog the next day and say, "This is Daddy." The child will also start drawing people that resemble a tadpole or amoeba (a circle with arms and legs, and sometimes eyes). PRESCHEMATIC STAGE The preschematic, or presymbolic, stage begins around age four; however, it may start earlier or later, depending on the child's cultural and artistic experience. In this stage, the amoeba or tadpole people may have faces, hands, and even toes, but no bodies. These figures face front and often have big smiles. Omission of body details is not a sign that something is developmentally wrong. It just means that other things in the drawing of the person are more important. The child's selfportrait appears as an amoeba person, but it will usually be the biggest figure, appearing in the center of the page. The child may test different ways to draw a selfportrait before settling on one for a period of time. In this instance, art helps define a child's self image. SCHEMATIC STAGE The schematic stage usually begins around seven years old and extends through age nine. At this time, the child has developed specific schema, or symbols for people and objects in his or her environment, and will draw them consistently over and over. Human figures have all necessary body parts. Arms and legs also fill out, instead of being sticklike. This is usually due to more body awareness and recognition of what body parts do; e.g. parts of the body help the child run, catch a ball, jump, etc. Adults usually have very long legs because that is how children see them. Houses and people no longer float on the page. They are grounded by a baseline that acts as a horizon line. As the child continues to draw, there may be two or more baselines to show distance or topography. Children may also draw a series of pictures, like cartoon squares, to show action sequences over time. This seems to reflect a child's desire to tell stories with the drawings. By eight or nine years of age, children will often draw their favorite cartoon characters or superheroes.

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The  Draw-­‐A-­‐Man  Test,  developed  by  Goodenough  in  1926  was  the  first  formal  figure  drawing  test.  It  was  used  to  estimate  a  child's  cognitive  and  intellectual  abilities  reflected  in  the  drawing's  quality.  The  test  was  later  revised  by  Harris  in  1963  as  the  Goodenough  Harris  Drawing  Test  (GHDT),  which  included  a  detailed  scoring  system  and  allowed  for  drawings  of  men,  women,  and  the  self.  The  scoring  system  primarily  reflected  the  way  in  which  the  child  is  maturing  cognitively.  The  GHTD  is  appropriate  for  children  between  the  ages  of  three  and  17,  although  it  has  been  found  to  be  most  useful  for  children  between  three  and  10.

The  Draw-­‐A-­‐Person  test  (DAP)  was  developed  by  Machover  in  1948  and  used  figure  drawings  in  a  more  projective  way,  focusing  on  how  the  drawings  reflected  the  anxieties,  impulses,  self-­‐esteem,  and  personality  of  the  test  taker.  In  this  test,  children  are  first  asked  to  draw  a  picture  of  a  person.  Then,  they  are  asked  to  draw  a  picture  of  a  person  of  the  sex  opposite  of  the  first  drawing.  Sometimes,  children  are  also  asked  to  draw  a  picture  of  the  self  and/or  family  members.  Then,  they  are  asked  a  series  of  questions  about  themselves  and  the  drawings.  These  questions  can  be  about  the  mood,  the  ambitions,  and  the  good  and  bad  qualities  of  the  people  in  the  drawings.  The  pictures  and  the  questions  on  the  DAP  are  meant  to  elicit  information  about  the  child's  anxieties,  impulses,  and  overall  personality.  The  DAP  is  the  most  frequently  used  figure  drawing  test  today.  A  scoring  system  appropriate  for  adults  was  developed  in  1993  by  Mitchel,  Trent,  and  McArthur.

In  1992,  Naglieri  and  his  colleagues  created  a  more  specific  scoring  system  for  figure  drawing  tests  called  the  Draw-­‐A-­‐Person:  Screening  Procedure  of  Emotional  Disturbance  (DAP:SPED),  based  on  a  large  standardization  sample.  This  scoring  method  includes  55  items  rated  by  the  test  administrator  and  based  on  the  child's  drawings  and  responses  to  questions.  The  DAP:SPED  is  appropriate  for  children  aged  six  to  17.  It  is  often  used  as  a  screening  method  for  children  who  may  be  having  difficulties  with  regard  to  social  adjustment  and  require  further  evaluation.The  House-­‐Tree-­‐Person  (HTP)  test  ,  created  by  Buck  in  1948,  provides  a  measure  of  a  self-­‐perception  and  attitudes  by  requiring  the  test  taker  to  draw  a  house,  a  tree,  and  a  person.  The  picture  of  the  house  is  supposed  to  conjure  the  child's  feelings  toward  his  or  her  family.  The  picture  of  the  tree  is  supposed  to  elicit  feelings  of  strength  or  weakness.  The  picture  of  the  person,  as  with  other  figure  drawing  tests,  elicits  information  regarding  the  child's  self-­‐concept.  The  HTP,  though  mostly  given  to  children  and  adolescents,  is  appropriate  for  anyone  over  the  age  of  three.

The  Kinetic  Family  Drawing  technique  (KFD),  developed  in  1970  by  Burns  and  Kaufman,  requires  the  test  taker  to  draw  a  picture  of  his  or  her  entire  family.  Children  are  asked  to  draw  a  picture  of  their  family,  including  themselves,  "doing  something."  This  picture  is  meant  to  elicit  the  child's  attitudes  toward  his  or  her  family  and  the  overall  family  dynamics.  The  KFD  is  some  times  interpreted  as  part  of  an  evaluation  of  child  abuse.  The  Kinetic  School  Drawing  technique  (KSD),  developed  in  1974  by  Prout  and  Phillips,  requires  the  child  to  draw  a  picture  of  himself  or  herself,  a  teacher,  and  one  or  more  classmates.  This  picture  is  meant  to  elic  it  the  child's  attitudes  toward  people  at  school  and  his  or  her  functioning  in  the  school  environment.For  example,  five-­‐year  old  children  are  expected  to  make  fairly  basic  drawings  of  people,  consisting  of  a  head,  eyes,  nose,  mouth,  body,  arms,  and  legs.  An  11-­‐year-­‐old,  on  the  other  hand  is  expected  to  have  more  details  in  the  picture,  such  as  a  more  defined  neck,  clothes,  and  arms  in  a  particular  direction.figure  drawings  are  assessed  with  regard  to  self-­‐image.  Children  often  project  themselves  in  the  drawings.  For  example,  females  with  body  image  concerns  may  reflect  these  concerns  in  their  drawings.  Victims  of  sexual  abuse  may  stress  sexual  characteristics  in  their  drawings.

Psychological,  neuropsychological,  or  emotional  dysfunction  can  also  be  considered  in  figure  drawing  interpretation.  This  type  of  interpretation  is  often  done  with  figure  drawings  made  by  adults.  For  example,  a  person  who  omits  or  distorts  body  parts  may  suffer  from  emotional  impairment.  Excessive  detail  with  regard  to  the  sexual  nature  of  the  drawing  may  indicate  sexual  maladjustment.Figure  drawings  are  also  interpreted  with  regard  to  child  abuse.  In  1994,  Von  Hutton  developed  a  scoring  system  for  both  the  HTP  and  DAP  focusing  on  indicators  of  child  abuse  that  may  be  present  in  drawings.  The  drawing  of  the  family  in  the  KFD  test  may  also  provide  indicators  of  abuse.

Colors  are  selected  on  whim  and  usually  have  no  relationship  with  what  is  being  drawn.  Figures  may  be  scattered  all  over  the  page,  or  the  page  turned  in  every  direction  as  the  figures  fill  the  paper.  Objects  and  figures  may  appear  to  float  all  over  the  page  because  children  do  not  yet  know  how  to  express  three-­‐dimensional  objects  on  a  two-­‐dimensional  surface.

Stages  of  creative  developmentIn  1975,  Viktor  Lowenfeld  launched  a  theory  of  artistic  development  based  on  systematic  creative  and  cognitive  stages.  Each  stage  demonstrated  specific  characteristics  and  had  an  age  range.  He  encouraged  the  use  of  his  artistic  development  stages  in  classrooms  and  as  guides  for  parents.These  stages  are  as  dependent  on  a  child's  exposure  to  art  and  art  media  as  they  are  on  a  child's  innate  artistic  ability  or  fine  motor  skills  .  It  should  be  noted  that  because  a  child  does  not  seem  to  go  beyond  a  specific  developmental  stage,  it  does  not  mean  that  the  child  has  a  cognitive  or  developmental  problem.  This  apparent  arrest  of  development  may  be  due  to  limited  exposure  to  art,  lack  of  interest,  or  fine-­‐motor  differences.  Cultural  values  can  also  affect  artistic  expression  and  development,  influencing  content,  art  media,  style,  and  symbolic  meaning  as  represented  in  the  child's  view  of  the  world.

Children  may  overlap  stages,  making  drawings  with  elements  of  one  stage  while  progressing  or  regressing  to  another.  Generally,  boys  and  girls  will  develop  similarly  in  the  initial  stages.  Whether  any  child  progresses  to  the  latter  stages  usually  requires  instruction  of  some  kind.

SCRIBBLING  STAGE  The  scribbling  stage  usually  begins  around  two  years  old  and  lasts  until  the  child  is  about  four  years  of  age.  In  some  cases,  it  can  begin  as  soon  as  a  child  can  hold  a  fat  crayon  and  make  marks  on  paper,  which  is  sometimes  around  18  months  old.  At  first,  the  child  is  interested  only  in  watching  the  color  flow  on  the  paper.  Some  children  are  more  interested  in  the  marking  itself  and  may  even  look  away  while  scribbling.  What  results  on  the  paper  is  accidental  and  often  delights  the  child,  even  though  it  is  indistinguishable  to  adults.

With  about  six  months  of  practice,  the  child  will  be  more  deliberate  and  may  start  drawing  circles.  Later,  the  child  will  name  the  drawing,  saying,  "This  is  a  dog."  The  child  may  even  look  at  the  drawing  of  the  dog  the  next  day  and  say,  "This  is  Daddy."  The  child  will  also  start  drawing  people  that  resemble  a  tadpole  or  amoeba  (a  circle  with  arms  and  legs,  and  sometimes  eyes).

PRE-­‐SCHEMATIC  STAGE  The  pre-­‐schematic,  or  pre-­‐symbolic,  stage  begins  around  age  four;  however,  it  may  start  earlier  or  later,  depending  on  the  child's  cultural  and  artistic  experience.  In  this  stage,  the  amoeba  or  tadpole  people  may  have  faces,  hands,  and  even  toes,  but  no  bodies.  These  figures  face  front  and  often  have  big  smiles.  Omission  of  body  details  is  not  a  sign  that  something  is  developmentally  wrong.  It  just  means  that  other  things  in  the  drawing  of  the  person  are  more  important.

The  child's  self-­‐portrait  appears  as  an  amoeba  person,  but  it  will  usually  be  the  biggest  figure,  appearing  in  the  center  of  the  page.  The  child  may  test  different  ways  to  draw  a  self-­‐portrait  before  settling  on  one  for  a  period  of  time.  In  this  instance,  art  helps  define  a  child's  self  image.

SCHEMATIC  STAGE  The  schematic  stage  usually  begins  around  seven  years  old  and  extends  through  age  nine.  At  this  time,  the  child  has  developed  specific  schema,  or  symbols  for  people  and  objects  in  his  or  her  environment,  and  will  draw  them  consistently  over  and  over.  Human  figures  have  all  necessary  body  parts.  Arms  and  legs  also  fill  out,  instead  of  being  stick-­‐like.  This  is  usually  due  to  more  body  awareness  and  recognition  of  what  body  parts  do;  e.g.  parts  of  the  body  help  the  child  run,  catch  a  ball,  jump,  etc.  Adults  usually  have  very  long  legs  because  that  is  how  children  see  them.

Houses  and  people  no  longer  float  on  the  page.  They  are  grounded  by  a  baseline  that  acts  as  a  horizon  line.  As  the  child  continues  to  draw,  there  may  be  two  or  more  baselines  to  show  distance  or  topography.  Children  may  also  draw  a  series  of  pictures,  like  cartoon  squares,  to  show  action  sequences  over  time.  This  seems  to  reflect  a  child's  desire  to  tell  stories  with  the  drawings.  By  eight  or  nine  years  of  age,  children  will  often  draw  their  favorite  cartoon  characters  or  superheroes.