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Drain for Gain: A Rightful Role for Drainage in Meeting Future
Challenges in Agricultural Water Management
Henk Ritzema
Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
10th International Drainage SymposiumSeptember 6−9, 2016, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Trends that affect water management
Worlds’ population: is increasingly living and working in urban areas. No indications that this tendency will change land use
Land use: from monocultures to multi-functional: agriculture, fisheries, urban, industrial, recreation and nature
Improvement in agriculture: increase in value of crops, buildings, water management facilities, infrastructure
Value of property: buildings and infrastructure has significantly increased and will further increase
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DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL POPULATION
(Schultz, 2016)
GROWTH OF URBAN POPULATION
(Schultz, 2016)
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Cities with > 5 million residents
1950
2015
(Schultz, 2016)
Deltas: 3% of the earth’s surface 60% of the world population 80% in 2050
25% of the global agricultural production
Most cities are located in deltas
Changes in agricultural production Most food is produced within a range of 150-200km from
where it is consumed only 15 percent of the global food production enters the global market.
This explains why a small country as the Netherlands can become the 2nd or 3th food exporting country in the world.
(Ritzema & Diemont, 2016)
150 – 200 km
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Challenges in water management
Inadequate water management and flood protection Insufficient pollution control Increased damage and casualties due to flooding,
especially in relation to rapid urbanisation Operation, maintenance and management problems Negative environmental impacts Technical problems due to soil conditions: peat, acid
sulphate clay, saline soils and subsidence Long term problems: subsidence and sea level rise Socio-economic problems, especially in decision-making
and initial stage of development
Worldwide agricultural areas with/without irrigation and drainage
Nijland et al., 2005; Ritzema, 2009
Salt-affected: 10-16% of the irrigated lands
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Artificial drained areas
Feick et al, 2005; Ritzema, 2009
About 190 Mha, or 13% of the world’s arable land is drained
DRAINAGE: The forgotten factor in agricultural water management
Seven reasons why drainage is needed!
Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less far less attention than irrigation.
Seven challenges to make drainage work!
Scheumann, 1997
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Seven reasons why drainage is needed (1)
Drainage protects the resource base for food production
Ritzema et al,, 2007
Pearce and Denecke. 2001
Seven reasons why drainage is needed (2)
Drainage sustains and increases yields and rural incomes.
IDNP, 2003
Ali, et al., 2001
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Seven reasons why drainage is needed (3)
Drainage protects irrigation investments
Salts in irrigation water: 0.2 – 0.8 mg/l 2.5 – 10 ton/ha/year
Seven reasons why drainage is needed (4)
Drainage infrastructure serves rural and urban residents as well as industry
Scheumann, 1997
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Seven reasons why drainage is needed (5)
Drainage protects human lives
Waterlogging & Salinity, Rajasthan, India(IDNP,2003)
Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
Glastonbury festival, UK
Seven reasons why drainage is needed (6)
Drainage services improve health conditions by reducing or eliminating vector-borne diseases
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
fraction positive
controlsstart
controlsend
control measureschemicalengineeringmedical
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995year
Ritzema and Braun, 2006
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Seven reasons why drainage is needed (7)
Drainage and the protection of water quality
Leaching requirement10 – 40 %
depending on ECiand ECe
Seven reasons why drainage is needed
SUMMARY
1. Drainage protects the resource base for food production.
2. Drainage sustains and increases yields and rural incomes.
3. Drainage protects irrigation investment.
4. Drainage infrastructure serves rural and urban residents as well as industry.
5. Drainage projects human lives.
6. Drainage services improved health conditions.
7. Drainage and the protection of water quality.
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DRAINAGE: The forgotten factor in agricultural water management
• Seven reasons why drainage is needed!
• Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting far less attention than irrigation.
• Seven challenges to make drainage work!
Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (1)
Drainage is at the end of the pipeline
Madramootoo, 1997, IDNP, 2003
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Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (2)
With small farmers, drainage is always a joint-effort
Left: Andhrar Pradesh, India, 2003; Right: Red River Delta, 2005
Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (3)
Boundaries irrigation unit
≠
drainage unit
Bos, 2006
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Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (4)
Disposal of drainage water creates off-site externalities
Rossi et et al., 1991
250 100
0 0
500 200
750 300
volume of water
in m / ha3
nitrate loss
in kg NO / ha3
1986 1987 1988
figure 25.2
drainagenitrate loss
Annual rate of nitrate losses of 214 kg NO/ha
Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (5)
High initial investments versus long-term benefits
Ritzema et al., 2007
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Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (6)
Reuse of drainage water: only if the is a shortage of irrigation water
IDNP, 2003
Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation (7)
Enforcement of rules and regulations is difficult
http://www.telesurtv.net/english/news/
A protester demands water and drainage services from the governmentPeru, 26 October 2015
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Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting less attention than irrigation
SUMMARY:
1. Drainage is at the end of the pipeline
2. With small farmers, drainage is always a joint-effort
3. Boundaries irrigation unit ≠ drainage unit
4. Disposal of drainage water creates off-site externalities
5. High investment costs & benefits are long-term
6. Reuse of drainage water only if there is shortage
7. Enforcement of rules and regulations is difficult
DRAINAGE: The forgotten factor in agricultural water management
Seven reasons why drainage is needed!
Seven institutional aspects why drainage is getting far less attention than irrigation.
Seven challenges to make drainage work!
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Land consolidation
Nature development
Recreation
Urbanization
Industrialization
Transport
Challenge 1: Land use from mono multi-functional
(1) Changes in land use – The Netherlands
Land use Changes in water
management
approaches based
on
Expected change in land usea
Agriculture Nature Recreation
Clay & Sandy areas:
High-tech agriculture Resilience ++ -- +/-
Large-scale agricultural Resilience ++ - -
Peri-urban multi-functional
agriculture
Adaptation - ++ ++
Rural multi-functional
agriculture
Adaptation -- + +
Peat lands:
Peat lands, vulnerable to
subsidence
Adaptation - ++ +/-
Peat lands, not vulnerable
to subsidence
Resilience ++ - +
a ++ = increase in importance; -- = decrease in importance; +/- = no change in land use
Ritzema, and Stuyt, 2015
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(1) Changes in land use: diversification
Anna Paulowna Polder, North Holand, The Netherlands(Lu Xiong, 2014)
(1) Change in land use - Vietnam
From Agriculture (rice) other land use
Land use 1996 2005Agriculture 74% 71%Others (nature & waste lands) 14% 7%
Non-agricultural use 12% 22%
Example Phan Dong, Red River Delta, Vietnam:
Ritzema et al. 2008
Consequences: higher drain discharges !!
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(1) Multifunctional land use: crop diversification
Second crop in paddy fields: canola Controlled drainage needed
Mehdi, et al. 2016
Example Sanru, Iran
Challenge 2: Coping with climate change
Global sea level rise of the last 15 years: 2mm/y, expected to increase to 4 mm/y
Precipitation increase in Northern Europe 10-40%, but 20% decrease in Southern Europe
The Netherlands:
- Precipitation in winter: + 8 – 10 %
- Precipitation in summer: + 1 %, but 10-15% increase in extremes
- Evaporation: +3.5%
- Average deficit during growing season: +4%
Ritzema and Stuyt, 2015
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(2) Changes in irrigation & drainage needs
In summer: controlled drainage & supplementary irrigation to enhance crop production
In winter & spring: drainage to remove excess rainfall and to control the groundwater table: accessibility for farm operation
(2) Controlled drainage: three step approach
(Ritzema and Stuyt, 2015)
Instead of increasing drainage intensity reduce discharge by controlled drainage
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(2) Retain: Use of soil moisture
Marine clay
areas
Peat land
areas
Higher sandy soil
areas
Land use (%):
Grassland 15 100 65
Arable farming 80 15
Maize 5 20
Drainage base (m below GL):
Winter 1.45 0.45 1.20
Summer 1.20 0.45 1.00
Potential water storage in soil profile for three groundwater levels (mm):
0.50 m below GL 5-25 25-45 15-35
1.00 m below GL 45-55 75-140 105-115
1.50 m below GL 80-120 150-250 180-220
(Querner, 2003)
(2) Retain in the soil: reduction in drainage rate
Simulation with SIMGROgroundwatertable (m-GL)
available soil water storage(mm)
Sand Clay Peat0.5 15-35 5-25 25-451 105-115 45-55 75-1401.5 180-220 80-120 150-250
Required drainage rate (mm/d)*
Soil type 15 x per year 1 x per year1 x per 10 years
Higher sandy soils 3.0 11.4 13.8Marine clay polders 4.0 13.8 17.2Peat areas 6.9 10.7 14.0* meteo data 1951‐2000
(Querner, 2003)
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(2) Controlled drainage: Reduction of peak discharge
Field research 2007-2011:
Reduction in peak discharge rate: 5 -28%Depending on soil & hydrological conditions
(Kselik and Stuyt, 2013)
Precipitation controlled gravity
Drain discharges in Pilot Area Rilland
(2) Nitrogen disposal in drainage discharge
(Stuyt et al 2013)
Results Rusthoeve Pilot Area (1994-1996): • 75% of the N-gifts is used by the crop• 10-15% de-nitrification• 10-15% disposed via drainage water
Controlled drainage Gravity drainageDrain discharge CD
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(2) Controlled drainage: downstream benefits
Controlled Drainage on Grassland for Flood Control in the Czech Republic: drainage retention reduces flash floods and significantly mitigates negative impacts of floods
(Ritzema et al 2016)
Challenge 3: Integration irrigation and drainage
Brouwer et al, 1989
Leaching requirement10 – 40 % depending on ECi and ECe
Ayers and Westcot, 1994
Irrigation efficiency Leaching requirement
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(3) Integration irrigation and drainage
-100
0
100
200
300
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Irr
iga
tio
n (
mm
)
Scenario I - Summer Scenario II - Winterr E-P
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
ECe (dS/m
)
ECe - Scenario I - Summer ECe - Scenario II - Winter
Van Hoorn and Van Alphen, 2006
Example Tunisia: leaching in summer (Scenario 1) or in winter (Scenario II)
I
II
Matching irrigation and drainage needs in irrigated lands
(3) Integration irrigation and drainage
Treated waste water
• Enhance soil retention• Enhance groundwater
recharge• Reduce outflow• Reduce fertilizer losses
(Ritzema & Diemont, 2016)
Controlled drainage and sub-irrigation
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Challenge 4: Drainage infrastructure in arid regions
Hydroluis, 2016
Envelopes problematic:• Shallower drains: watertable most
of the time below the drains root growth
• Gravel expensive and synthetic envelopes need match with soil texture
(4) Drainage infrastructure in humid regions
(Staarink, 2014)
How to get controlled drainage working?
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Challenge 5: Organisation of drainage
The institutional set-up is complex and enforcement of rules and regulations is difficult.
Participatory management
Schultz, 2016
(5) Participatory management
Use of mobile phone for water data exchange within a Water Users Association
Masharipova, K., 2016
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Challenge 6: Reuse of drainage water
Reuse at farm level Reuse at project level Reuse at regional level
(6) Re-use of drainage water
Conjunctive use
El-Din El-Quosy, D., 1989
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(6) Re-use of Urban storm water
• Polluted• Inflow: 1 – 2 x
year• Constructed
wetland dries out
Ritzema and Diemont, 2016
(6) Constructed wetlands need irrigation
Ritzema and Diemont, 2016
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Challenge 7: Disposal options
Back in the irrigation system Evaporation ponds Back into the river Directly to saline lakes or sea Deep-well injection
Back into the river: disposal regulations Evaporation ponds: toxicity Directly to saline lakes or sea: separate outfall drains Deep-well injection: pollution of fresh water aquifers
Tanji & Kielen, 2003, Chapter 3
(7) Disposal options
Ref: californiaagriculture.ucanr.edu
at farm level
at project level
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(7) Disposal options: Evaporation ponds
South evaporation pond, Tulare Lake Drainage District, California
(7) Disposal options: Back in to the River:
Aswan
Suez
R E D S E A
200 km150100500
SINAI
Old landsReclaimed land since 1952Land proposed for future reclamationNile River
Cairo
Alexandria Port Said
M E D I T E R R A N E A N S E A
Asyut
QATTARADEPRESSION
El FayumSiwa Oasis
Farafra Oasis
Bahariya Oasis
Dakhla OasisKharga Oasis
NEW VALLEY
Pipe drainage projectsProvincial boundaryInternational boundary
ISLAMABAD
Mardan Swabi
Sutley RiverRavi River
Chanb River
Jhel
umR
iver
Indus Riv
er
PehurPeshawar
Kushab
FourthDrainage
Lahore
Quetta
Karachi
D.G. Khan
D.I. KhanCCADP
Punjab
Baluchistan
Fordwah EasternSadiqia (South)
EastKhair pur
Sindh
Northwest FrontierProvince
Mirpurkhas INDIA
AFGHANISTAN
ARABIAN SEA
CHINA
0 200 km
Drainage effluent back to the river or to the sea ?
Nile and Indus are the main irrigation and drainage canal !!!
Ritzema & Braun, 2007
Egypt Pakistan
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(7) Disposal: finally to the sea
IPTRID, Pakistan , FAO, 2002
IPTRID, Egypt , FAO, 2005
Seven challenges to make drainage work
SUMMARY:1. Design for multifunctional land use
2. Coping with climate change
3. Integration irrigation and drainage
4. Drainage infrastructure
5. Organisation of drainage/water management
6. Re-use of drainage water
7. Safe disposal
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The Way Forward
To give drainage its rightful role in meeting future challenges in Agricultural Water Management:
1) Balancing top‐down against bottom‐up
2) From standardization to flexibility
3) Focus on capacity development.
Ritzema, 2009
1) Balancing Top & Bottom
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2) From standardization to flexibility
Local requirements
Theory/modelsExpert
knowledge
Local knowledge
Land and water
development: an iterative
process
3) Focus on capacity development
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The Way Forward
1) Balancing top‐down against bottom‐up
2) From standardization to flexibility3) Focus on capacity development.
Ritzema, 2009
Drain for Gain: A Rightful Role
for Drainage in Meeting Future
Challenges in Agricultural
Water Management
Thank you for your attention
Henk Ritzema
Email: [email protected]
Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh, India, 2000 (pre) & 2004 (post)