dr tufail khan
TRANSCRIPT
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UNDESCENDED TESTIS
BYDr. Tufail khan
Dr. Gowhar Nazir MuftiAsst. Professor Deptt. Of
Pediatric surgery
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OUTLINE Introduction Historical perspective Incidence Relevant Embryology /Anatomy Aetiopathogenesis Classification Pathology Presentation/Clinical feature Management Complications Conclusion
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INTRODUCTION
One of the commonest surgical problems in males at paediatric surgery clinic
Cause of cryptorchidism is multifactorial and it exhibit wide variation in phenotypic expression
Has delitarious effects on the testis overtime when left untreated
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Cryptorchidism: A greek word which means ‘hidden testis’.It is the absence of one or both testes in normal scrotal position and during initial clinical evaluation.• Normal scrotal position has been defined as positioning of
the midpoint of the testis at or below the midscrotum (Wohlfahrt-Vejeet al, 2009)
• Although “high scrotal testes” are not routinely considered undescended by most clinicians, they need observation and may need surgical correction.
Retractile- 60%Undescended- 35%Ectopic- 3%Ascending- <2%
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Undescended testis: is arrested along its normal path of descent
Ectopic testis : is located outside the normal path of descent
Ascended (acquired cryptochidism): previously descended, then “ascends” spontaneously
Testicular retraction (Secondry cryptochidism): suprascrotal testis after inguinal exploration
Vanishing testis: present initially in development but are lost owing to vascular accident or torsion, if it is unilateral (monorchia), bilateral (anorchia).
Agenesis : never present and therefore associated with ipsilateral mullerian duct persistence
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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
1786, John Hunter first drew attention to the mechanism of descent (called as FATHER OF TESTICULAR DESCENT) He found testes in belly at 7thmonths, and in scrotum at 9thmonth and Coined term gubernaculum–a ligament that guides the descent
1820, Rosenmerkal attempted the first surgical orchidopexy but
1877, Annandale performed the first successful orchiopexy
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INCIDENCE/EPIDEMIOLOGY
1 to 4 % in term boys; 1 to 45% preterm neonates: by 1 year incidence is 0.8%
Occurs on the right-50%, left-35%, bilateral-10-15% Approximately 40% of the nonpalpable testes are intra-
abdominal, 40% are inguinal, and 20% are atrophic or absent
No definite racial differences in incidence are reported. The familial cluster is 3.6-fold overall, 6.9-fold if a brother
is affected, and 4.6-fold if the father is affected. The precise molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying
cryptorchidism in humans remain unknown.
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INCIDENCE CONTD
Also more common in low-birth-weight newborns, IUGR, and twin gestation.
Birth weight alone is the principal determinant of cryptorchidism at birth and at 1 year of life, independent of the length of gestation.
( Hjertkvist et al, 1989 ; Mayr et al, 1999 ).
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ANATOMY
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VASCULAR SUPPLY The 3 arteries- testicular, cremasteric and artery to the vas, All anastomosed mainly at the head of epididymis hence ligation of
the testicular artery is not necessarily followed by testicular atrophy (principle of stephen fowler’s surgery).
veins form pampiniform plexuses : condense into four veins at the SIR and into two veins at the DIR ; later into single vein, they accompany testicular artery and drain into IVC on the right side and into Left RENAL vein on the left .
Lymphatic drainage: to the pre and para-aortic lymph nodes at the level of the renal vessels (L2). Right side of lymphatic cross over to opposite side and drain into contralateral lymph nodes.
NERVE SUPPLY T10 sympathetic fibres via the renal and aortic plexus. convey afferent (pain) fibres—hence referred pain from the testis to the loin. convey efferent (vasomotor) to the blood vesels.
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Spermatic cord 3 layers of fascia: external spermatic, cremasteric +cremaster
muscle & internal spermatic 3 arteries: testicular, cremasteric & artery to the vas 3 veins: pampiniform plexus of veins, cremasteric & vein of the
vas 3 nerves — nerve to the cremaster from the genito-femoral
nerve, sympathetic fibres (T10–11 spinal segments) , & ilio-inguinal nerve (on and not in the cord)
Scrotum The skin of the scrotum is thin, pigmented & rugose maintains a temperature 3-4⁰C lower than core body temperature Its development depends on the descent of testis Normally developed scrotum hang below on either side of midline
raphe
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Embryology
The testes develop in the retroperitoneum At 4 to 6 weeks' gestation, the genital ridges organize,
followed by migration of primordial germ cells testicular differentiation is initiated in the 7th week by
the SRY gene 8 week testis is hormonally active
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Development of the cranial mesonephric ligament(CML) and gonad (G) during embryonic regression of the mesonephros (M). Asterisks denote the anlage of the diaphragm;long arrows show the cranial mesonephric ligament.
CMLCML
M G MG
MG
5mm 19mm 55mm
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TWO STAGE DESCENT Normal testicular descent occurs in two separate stages that have
different anatomy and hormonal control [Hutson and Hasthorpe, 2005].
After the onset of sexual differentiation in humans at 7–8 weeks’ gestation, the developing testis in the male secretes testosterone and Müllerian inhibiting substance/anti-müllerian hormone (MIS/AMH).
MIS/AMH causes the Müllerian ducts to regress, so that the boy will not form fallopian tubes, uterus and upper vagina (2/3rd).
The androgen is secreted in a probably exocrine manner down the Wolffian duct and triggers its development into epididymis and vas deferens, as well as formation of a distal bud to become the seminal vesicle [Tong et al. 1996].
By contrast, in the female the lack of MIS/AMH allows Müllerian duct development to proceed, to complete development into female internal genitalia under the influence of maternal and fetal oestrogens. The Wolffian duct regresses in the absence of androgens.
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HUTSON AND HASTHORPE, 2005 TWO PHASES OF DESCENT
TRANSABDOMINAL PHASE : 8 TO 15 WKS OF GESTATION
Primitive gonad in urogenital ridge turns into testis by gene in short arm of Y chromosome (SRY) around 5th to 6th;
Early Testis 3 hormones 1. Testosterone from Leydig
cells (CSL/CML regression) 2. Mullerian inhibiting substance
from Sertolli cells (Mullerian duct regression)
Insulin- like3 hormone Thickening ofcaudal gubernaculum holds testis close to
inguinal abdominal wall Relative descend of testis
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INGUINOSCROTAL PHASE : 28 TO 35 WKS OF GESTATION
At 25 Wks Processus vaginalis elongates into gubernaculum
Distal end of gubernaculum elongates and reach scrotum between 30- 35 wks
Then testis descend through patent processus vaginalis
Testosterone GFN CGRP Migration of gubernaculum along with testis to scrotum
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EMBRYOLOGY CONTD By 28th weeks migrate through the inguinal
canal 32nd week – emerges from superficial inguinal
ring. 35-40th week –descends into the scrotum Left testis descends before the right About 96% of testes have descended at birth
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This descent occur as a result of a complex interaction of hormonal and mechanical factors
Hormonal factors: Testosterone Dihydrotestosterone Mullerian-inhibiting factor Maternal HCG Genital branch of genitofemoral nerve which
secret CGRP (elaborated by testosterone) Non androgen–insulin like factor 3
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Mechanical factors
Shortening and traction of the gubernaculum testis Enlargement/elongation of processus vaginalis Intra-abdominal pressure from increase visceral size Straightening of fetus Resolution of physiological hernia Enlargement of testes/growth of epididymis Propulsive force of the developing cremasteric
muscle
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Failure of any of these mechanisms may cause testicular non-descent or maldescent.
Hormonal (inguinoscrotal) phase is more commonly deranged
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GERM CELL MATURATION 8 wk: gonocytes (fetal stem cells) 15 wk: spermatogonia 3 months of age: adult dark spermatogonia
(adult stem cells) appear and remain Neonatal surge in LH, FSH 4-5years: primary spermatocytes Puberty: spermatogenesis
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AETIOLOGY Abnormal insertion of genital branch of
genitofemoral nerve Poor intra-abdominal pressure: As in
omphalocele, diaphragmatic hernia, gastrochisis, Eagle-Barrett syndrome, Beckwith-wiedeman’s syndrome, trisomies, Extrophy of bladder
Retroperitoneal adhesions Obstruction – adhesion at the deep ring Short testicular vessel
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AETIOLOGY CONTD
Hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction>deficient hormonal stimulation
Gubernaculum testis: abnormally inserted, poorly or absence of extra-abdominal part ->> ineficient pull
Defective folding Severe intrauterine hypotonia
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CLASSIFICATIONA. Based on palpation (Kaplan-1993)Impalpable:
High canalicular Deep inguinal ring Intra-abdominal Accounts for 20% of UDT.Palpable:
Neck of scrotum Superficial inguinal ring Low canalicular Accounts for 80% of UDT
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CLASSIFICATION CONTDB. Based on exploration findings: Intra-abdominal 34% Intracanalicular 27% Peeping testis (near DIR) 12% Extracanalicular 27% Ectopic. (Docimo et
al, 1995)
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PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES Often macroscopically normal in early childhood but
by puberty some degree of atrophy occur.. Microscopic evidence of tubular atrophy is evident by
5-6 years of age, & hyalinization is present by the time of puberty.
Loss of volume and progressive germ cell depletion starting at 6 months of age
Other histologic changes include: Decreased tubular diameter, and Decreased numbers of Leydig cells, Atrophy of Leydig cells Degeneration of Sertoli cells
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PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES CONTD
Abnormal germ cell development (Huff et al,1987) Delayed disappearance of Gonocytes Delayed appearance of Adult dark spermatogonia Failure of primary spermatocytes to develop, and Reduced total germ cell counts
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Retractile testis: Reduced androgens between 1-9yrs Hyperactive cremasteric reflex Often induced by cold, fear, pain Stimulation of cutaneous branch of genitofemoral nerve.Ascending testis:
Refers to testes that, having reached the scrotum, eventually rise up again
Two main theories • Ectopic but lax gubernaculum allow testes to drop into
scrotum, then pulls them out• Failure of spermatic cord to elongate in proportion to body
growth +/-cremaster spasticity .
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Ectopic testis: is located outside the normal path of descent. Most common site superficial inguinal pouch (anterior to rectus muscle)
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ECTOPIC TESTIS
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COMPARISON BETWEEN ECTOPIC & UNDESCENDED TESTIS
Undescended testis• The testis is arrested in its
normal path of descent• Usually undeveloped• Undeveloped & empty scrotum
on the affected side• Shorter length of spermatic
cord• Poor spermatogenesis after 6
yrs• Usually associated with indirect
inguinal hernia• Treatment: surgery & HT• Associated with a number of
complications
Ectopic testis• The testis deviates from its
normal path of descent• Fully developed testis• Empty but usually fully
developed scrotum• Longer length of spermatic
cord• Spermatogenesis is perfect• Never associated with
indirect inguinal hernia• Treatment: basically surgical• Complications: liability to
injury
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CLINICAL FEATURES Most patients presents in infancy and around
school age. A few present after puberty. Absence of one or both testes Swelling in the groin (may be the testis or a
hernia) Presence of hypospadias. More proximal it is
more are the chances of UDT. May present with attacks of pain in the groin due
either to recurrent torsion of the testis or strangulation of an associated hernia.
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CLINICAL FEATURES CONTD
Gestational age at birth- usually preterm Determining if the testis was palpable in the
scrotum at any time is important Past history of inguinal surgery should be
noted Family history of cryptorchidism and other
associated conditions.
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EXAMINATION It include documentation of testicular palpability,
position,, mobility, size, and possible associated findings such as hernia,hydrocele, penile size and urethral position.
Patient distraction, a warm room and hands, use of liquid soap on the examiner’s hands and repeated examinations also help to localise testis and to limit cremaster muscle activity
Abduction of the thighs contributes to inhibition of the cremaster reflex
Begin examination of the UDT at the anterior superior iliac spine and sweep the groin from lateral to medial with the nondominant hand.
Maintain the position of the testis in the scrotum for a minute, so that the cremaster muscle is fatigued.
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EXAMINATION CONTD. Release the testis and, if it remains in place, it is a retractile
testis. If it immediately pops back to a pre scrotal position, it is a UDT.
For the difficult-to-examine patient (chubby 6 month-olds or obese youths), the sitting cross-legged position can also help relax the cremaster muscle.
Marked variation from the norm for height, weight & fat distribution may suggest anorchia due to possible intersex or pituitary deficiency
± Signs of syndromic features Under developed scrotal skin with little or no rugae &
appears triangular in unilateral UDT or flat in bilateral UDTs ± hypertrophy of contralateral testis
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EXAMINATION CONTD Examination of potential ectopic sites- penile, femoral,
& perineal areas if the testicle cannot be felt. If there is hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction, the
patient is obese and the penis small for the age. Examination under anaesthesia is also done for
impalpable testis before exploration Clinical distinction between retractile and
undescended testis may be difficult, GOLD STANDARD is to carefully examine the child in several positions and confirmation of incomplete descent of the testis to a dependent scrotal position after induction of anaesthesia.
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CRYPTORCHIDISM IS ASSOCIATED WITH:
inguinal hernia and/or patent processus vaginalis : 90% hypospadias : 12 to 24% cerebral palsy: 41 to 54% mental retardation: Down syndrome Wilms tumor Prune belly syndrome, and Prader-Willi syndrome Prematurity Low birth weight Twin gestation Gestational diabetes mellitus Prenatal alcohol exposure Hormonal abnormalities (fetus) Toxic exposures in the mother Mother younger than 20 A family history of undescended testes
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Preterm and maternal history, including the use of gestational steroids
Perinatal history, including documentation of a scrotal examination at birth
The child's medical and previous surgical history Family history of cryptorchidism or syndromes All boys with nonpalpable testes and normal serum gonadotropin levels must undergo surgical exploration regardless of the results of the hCG stimulation test.
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The Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG) Stimulation Test
HCG stimulation allows the identification of functioning testicular tissue as well as biosynthetic defects in testosterone synthesis.
A weight-based single injection of hCG (100 IU/kg) is usually sufficient to detect a rise in serum testosterone 4–5 days later.
A testosterone response to hCG may be labelled as normal if absolute testosterone concentrations reach a level that is above the upper limit of the normal prepubertal range, or rise by more than twice the baseline value
A failure to see a measurable increase in testosterone in combination with elevated LH and FSH is consistent with the diagnosis of anorchia.
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INVESTIGATION Imaging Abdominal USS ( done in case of chubby/obese
patients or ones not allowing to examine MRA / MRV (for localisation of testicular vessels). MRI may be identification of an ectopic abdominal testis not localised by laproscopy
Because imaging has not been proved to be reliable in demonstrating whether the testis is present or absent, its routine use is discouraged ,and it did not influence the management decision.
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Laboratory Investigations Karyotyping: when DSD(Disorders of sexual differentiation ) is
suspected, like when neither testis is palpable and also in boys with associated hypospadias, especially proximal hypospadias chromosomal and endocrinologic evaluation should be carried out
↑ FSH- likely represent bilateral anorchia. HCG Stimulation tests- has clinical use where gonadothrophins
are normal The levels of harmones should be drawn during the newborn
gonadotropin surge or at 60–90 days of life.
Diagnostic Laparoscopy (GOLD STANDARD)
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COMPLICATIONS OF UNDESCENDED TESTIS Infertility Associated hernia
indirect inguinal hernia usually accompanies a congenital undescended testis in about 90% cases but rarely symptomatic.
Testicular atrophy: due to pressure effects and histological changes.
Trauma
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COMPLICATION CONTD Tumour:
10% of testicular cancer originate in cryptochid testis.
Torsion Epididymo-orchitis in a chryptochid right testis can mimic appendicitis
Psychologic effects of an empty scrotum Testicular-Epididymal fusion abnormality
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TREATMENT
A. Hormonal Indications Bilateral UDT Hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction Patients unfit for surgery When diagnosis of retractile testes is uncertain
LHRH and hCG are used with varying degrees of successMultiple dosage schedules have been proposedSuccess rate low
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HORMONAL REGIMINE
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HCG GNRH PLACEBO SURGERY0%
10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
Comparison of modalities
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ADVERSE EFFECTS OF HORMONAL THERAPY:
Increase in scrotal rugae, pigmentation Growth of pubic hair Increased penile size Priapism Premature closure of epiphyseal plate
(short stature) Increased appetite and weight gain
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SURGICAL TREATMENT
Surgery remains the gold standard Orchidopexy
Should be performed as early as 6months because rarity of spontaneous descent after 6 months
Possible improvement in fertility Interval of 6months in bilateral undescended
testes
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Principles of orchidopexy (originally described by Bevan in 1899)
Adequate exposure Herniotomy Mobilization of cord Fixation of testis
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STANDARD ORCHIOPEXY.The key steps in this procedure are --- complete mobilization of the testis and
spermatic cord, Repair of the patent processus vaginalis by
high ligation of the hernia sac, Skeletonization of the spermatic cord without
sacrificing vascular integrity to achieve tension-free placement of the testis within the dependent position of the scrotum, and
Creation of a superficial pouch within the hemiscrotum to receive the testis.
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ORCHIDOPEXY FOR THE PALPABLE UDT
General anesthesia; useful to re-examine the child previously nonpalpable testis may become palpable.
A transverse inguinal skin incision is made in the midinguinal canal, usually in a skin crease in children younger than 1 year
The dermis is opened with electrocautery, and subcutaneous tissue and Scarpa's fascia are opened sharply.
The skin and subcutaneous tissue are quite elastic in younger children and allow for a tremendous degree of mobility by retractor positioning for viewing the entire length of the inguinal canal.
Careful dissection to expose the external oblique aponeurosis and the external ring.
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The external ring is opened.
Cremasteric fibers are dissected from the cord
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High ligation of the processus vaginalis at the internal inguinal ring.
The ligated processus and the cord structures
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Separation of the internal spermatic fascia from the cord structures after ligation of the processus vaginalis
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Formation of a dartos pouch
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SUBDARTOS POUCH
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Formation of a passage to the scrotum.
B and C, Passage of the testis into the scrotal pouch
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COMPLICATIONS OF ORCHIOPEXY
Testicular retraction, Hematoma formation, Ilioinguinal nerve injury, Postoperative torsion (either iatrogenic or
spontaneous), Damage to the vas deferens, and Testicular atrophy Devascularization with atrophy of the testis can
result from skeletonization of the cord, from overzealous electrocautery
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IMPALPABLE UDTS laparoscopy -best means Size,position and length of the
spermatic vessels and vas ; testicular size ,position and quality; patency of internal inguinal ring, testicular-epididymal fusion abnormalities, associated anamolies,
If laparoscopy indicates blind-ending gonadal vessels and vas deferens, the patient is said to have vanishing testis syndrome and no further action is necessary
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IMPALPABLE UDTS CONTD If neither vas nor spermatic artery is found at the time of laproscopy ,
laproscopic or surgical dissection of the paravesical area and retroperitoneum upto the level of the kidney is required to exclude the presence of a testis
If intra-abdominal testis identified consider staged orchidopexy or microvascular transfer
If vas vessels seen entering inguinal canal, the groin should be explored.. The length of the gonadal vessels is the limiting factor to getting the
intra-abdominal testis into the scrotum. During laproscopy if length is found adequate ( means testis can be
taken upto the DIR on the other side) one stage lap. Orchidopexy can be proceeded.
If length is inadequate staged procedure ( FOWLER STEPHEN’S) is planned
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Manoeuvres to gain sufficient length include:
Dissection of retroperitoneal attachments of the cord Prentiss manoeuvre
Divide (or pass the testis under) the inferior epigastric vessels after opening the floor of the canal (transversalis fascia), allowing a more medial and thus direct route to the scrotum.
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A two-stage Fowler-Stephens orchidopexy (open or laparoscopy). The testicular artery is sacrificed. The rationale is that the testicular arterial
supply comes from three sources. At a 2nd stage (after around 6 months, when
collaterals have formed), the testis is brought down on a wide pedicle of peritoneum containing the remaining vessels.
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LAPAROSCOPIC FOWLER STEPHENS
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OPTIONS FOR INTRA-ABDOMINAL UDT CONTD
3.Microvascular testicular autotransplantation
Employs microsurgical techniques Reserved for older children with internal
spermatic artery large enough to be anastomosed to inferior epigastric artery.
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REFLUO TESTICULAR AUTOTRANSPLANTATION
Provides only venous drainage by microvascular anastomosis of testicular veins to inferior epigastric veins
Based on discovery that failure in Fowler-Stephens was due to testicular congestion
Reduced operating time and increased success
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JONES PREPERITONEAL APPROACH
Preperitoneal cavity accessed by splitting abdominal obliques
Testes mobilized transperitoneally and passed to the scrotum through the inguinal canal or posterior wall
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6. ORCHIDECTOMY :
Usually reserved for postpubertal men with a contralateral normally positioned testis.
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BILATERAL IMPALPABLE TESTIS
Raise suspicion of an intersex condition karyotype and hormonal profile should be
characterized Can involve measurement of MIS or an HCG
stimulation test to detect the presence or absence of functioning testicular tissue.
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OUTCOME
Early orchidopexy may improve fertility No evidence that it reduces risk of malignancy but allows
early identification. Even after surgery patients should be kept on follow up,
councelled regarding fertility issues and risk of malignancy Testicular self-examination: which requires education and
counseling of the patient, remains a mainstay of testicular cancer screening. It should be taught to all patients with a history of cryptorchidism after they reach puberty available on (http://www.cwpeds.com/pdfs/adolescents/TesticularExam.pdf)
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UDT IN ADULTS• Orchiedectomy is to be done in any patient presenting with
undescended testis after puberty (both palpable and non-palpable) as testicle had alredy atrophied and risk of malignancy increases which is around 1: 2500 (compared to 1:100000 in normal pop.)
• Both seminoma and non-seminomatous germ cell tumour develop from CIS (precursors are gonocytes) also called as Intra Tubular Germ Cell Neoplasia,Unclassified (ITGCNU)
• Seminoma is associated with persistently cryptorchid(abdominal) testes (74%) and nonseminoma is present in the majority of scrotal testes (63%) (Wood and Elder,2009).
• In non-palpable cases diagnostic lap followed by orchiedectomy is to be done even if testis seem to be of normal size
• Patienta should be councelled and prosthesis should be offered
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CONCLUSION
Undescended testis is relatively common and early surgical correction should be done to prevent complications
Awareness should be made among the masses so that they will not present in later life with complications and will get it corrected in the early life
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Thank you
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NEXT PRESENTATION
Dr. ROUF HASSANTopic: ENERGY SOURCES IN SURGERYMODERATOR: DR. RAUF AHMAD WANI