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ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY DIVISION
RESEARCH PROPOSAL FOR
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL SCALE SYSTEMS FOR IRON REMOVAL FROM GROUNDWATERS
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
KUMASI.GHANA
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ENVIRONSNTAL QUALITY DIVISION (Civil Engineering Department)
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
FOR
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL SCALE SYSTEM FOR
IRON REMOVAL ROM GROUNDWATER
-00O00"
Submitted to
THE INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH CENTRE, OTTAWA, CANADA
By <<-.~ > "I
THE CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
KUMASI, GHANA
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A RESEARCH PROPOSAL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL SCALE SYSTEM FOR IRON REMOVAL FROM
GROUNDWATERS
1. BACKGROUND
1.1 Groundwater Source
Groundwater constitutes a major source of cheap
water supply for domestic and industrial purposes. A
recent study has indicated that the cost of groundwater
supplies in Ghana can be as little as 10% the cost of
surface water supplies. One possible reason for the
lower cost of groundwater is that in most cases, no
treatment is normally required for groundwaters other
than disinfection. It is therefore not surprising that
most governments, especially in developing countries,
have embarked on extensive programmes of rural water
supply based on groundwaters r
Since about 80% of population in Africa lives in
the rural areas, it stands to reason that a great majority
of the rural people will have to depend on groundwater
sources, Unfortunately, certain chemical substances
(constituents), notably iron and manganese, are sometimes
present in various concentrations up to say 30ing/l in
groundwaters. When these constituents are present in
-excessive amounts, objections are raised by consumers on
the gounds of staining effects on laundry, cooking
utensils and containers, and plumbing fixtures resulting
in the rejection of water supplies. It is known that
groundwaters in many countries contain these undesirable
constituents far in excess in maximum permissible
concentrations recommended by the WHO whose International
Standards for Drinking Water (1971) give both the
"Highest desinable" and Maximum permissible "levels as
follows: -•
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Chemical substance
Iron Manganese
Highest Desirable level (mg/1)
0. 1 0.05
Maximum Permissibl level. (mg/J)
1.0 0.5
Iron is usually present in solution in the ferrous (Fe II)
fdrm but other forms,such as organic complexes or polymers may
also be present. Such groundwater, which may be clear and bright
initially on exposure to air, becomes discoloured opalescent
due to oxidation of the ferrous iron to insoluble or colloidal
ferric hydroxide. Manganese generally behaves like iron in that
soluble manganese results in insoluble manganese oxides. As
mentioned above, objections raised by consumers to the presence
of iron and manganese in water is due to the production of
discolouration, turbidity, deposit and bitter or metallic taste.
Such waters are therefore unsuitable for domestic use.
A preliminary study of the Drinking Water Quality of
Boreholes in the Rural Areas of Ghana recently completed by
Water Recources Research Unit (W.R.R.U.) shows that over 30%
of the boreholes have water in which iron concentration exceeds
1.0 mg/1 - the maximum permissible concentration, while 25%
have manganese concentration exceeding 0.5 mg/1 - the maximum
permissible concentration. The range of concentration reported
is , for iron,zero to 20.5 mg/1 and, for manganese, zero to
4.5 mg/1.
1.2 Need for Research;
For a considerable length of time the Ghana Government has
embarked on extentive programmes of rural water supplies through
the Rural Water Supplies Division (R.W.S.D) of the Public Works
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Department (P.W.D.). The Division's operations centred mainly
on drilling boreholes and subsequent mechanisation, including
hand pump installations. Functions of the R.W.S.D. have been
taken over by the Drilling Section of Ghana Water and Sewerage
Corporation. In the 196B/o9 Fiscal Year, the Government
presented what was code-named ''Water Budget" to the nation. In
that year alone, the target set was to increase the supply of
potable water from about 33% to 40% of the population which' was
then about 3 million. Attempts are still being made for
extension of potable water to the rest of the population.
The W.H.O. of the United Nations, acting as executing
agency for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), is
currently undertaking a Rural Water Supply and Environmental
Health Programme in collaboration with the Ghana Water and
Sewerage Corporation and the Ministry of Health respectively.
In the Upper Region, the Canadian Government, through C.I.D.A.,
is involved in a project consisting of the sinking over 1,000
boreholes to be equipped with hand pumps for rural water supply.,
as well as in the programming of improvements in urban water
supplies in the region* Apart from this region, the Volta,
Eastern, Brong-Ahafo, Northern and Western regions derive their
sources of supplies mainly from groundwater. Given that 30% of
the groundwater supplies have excessive iron content and
considering that thousands of wells axe envisaged in the
government rural water supply projects, the availability of a simple low cost system for iron removal would make an invaluable
contribution to the success of the Government's rural water supply
programme. Since such problems are related to lateritic nature
of the soils and Fe and Mn. bearing minerals in the aquifers,
many developing countries are reported to have similar
groundwater quality problems. Hence, solutions provided by this
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study would also be of great value elsewhere.
The Indian N.E.E.R.I. (National Environmental Engineering Research Institute) has developed a unit for iron and manganese
removal suitable for rural water supplies but little is known of
its success in being accepted and maintained in rural areas.
Likewise there are several industrial units available which,
although simple in process design are vexy complex mechanically
and far beyong the capability of the villager either to afford
or maintain. There is no source which provides information on
all the existing unitsj their merits, demerits, and conditions
favouring their use.
This project, therefore, aims at meeting these needs.
2. OBJECTIVES
(1) To review available technology for small scale iron
and manganese removal from groundwater in rural areas.
(ii) To improve by adaptation and/or innovation on
existing methods of iron removal and make them applicable to
the village conditions in Ghana.
(iii) To determine in the laboratory and field the relative
effectiveness of the derived systems or units for small scale
iron and manganese removal.
(iv) To recommend future activities by which the more
promising iron and manganese removal units can be manufactured
either at the village or industrial level to meet the demand for
such units in Ghana.
(v) To recommend ways by which information on successful technologies can be disseminated a t t h e v i n a g e level in Ghana
and to responsible agencies abroad.
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The project will be organised through pre-project
activities followed by three main phases. Main pre-project
activities are project Formulation and mobilisation. A post-project
(fourth) phase is also planned fox technology propagation and
iissemination of information.
3.1 Phase 1 - Review of aVailabe technologies;
This review seeks to identity systems of small scale iron
^^manganese r e m o v ax ±n u s e ^n various parts of the «orld. For
sach system, the technology of the system will be described in
terms of components, principle of operation, materials for design
and operation and maintenance, method of operation, associated
squipment, cost of installation, operation and maintenance and
their adaptability and dependability. Finally the removal
efficiencies of the systems will be ascertained. These objectives
will be achieved through literature review, correspondence, field
visits and desk analysis.
3.1.1 Correspondence and contact with other research
institutions;
The objectives of this correspondence will be two-foldj
to identify countries having experience with problems of high
concentrations of iron and manganese and to obtain information on
any iron removal units which may be utilized in the field.
3.1.2 Desk analysis;
A survey of the literature and contact by mail with other
vorkers in the field will be undertaken resulting in a state of
the art review. It is likely that, apart from municipal and
industrial applications, a few systems appropriate to the
3hanaian village will be identified. It is, therefore, expected
that the vast majority of innovative work will have to be
accomplished liere in Ghana. Following this review of the
.'.; ~'c .'5 ..' ..
5 -» e-
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literature and available materials the experimental design will
be again considered and altered where necessary wit in the
confines of the objectives stated above and the financial
limits of the project. A full progress report will be submitted
to ID.R.C. at this stage.
3.1.3 Ghana National survey;
Although some preliminary survey work has been completed
(see attached) on iron and manganese levels in Ghanaian waters,
the complete picture is not entxrely clear. While the literature
review is being conducted it is intended that a complete survey
of the affected areas be carried out. This will be accomplished
by surveys of iron and manganese in waters of existing wells
(including those abandoned) in rural areas of Ghana. There may
well be considerable difference between the desirable and
permissble Fe concentrations of Drinking Water standards and
the level at which the Ghanaian villager rejects the water supply
either wholly- or partly . An investigation of water use and
rejection will be undertaken to establish iron and manganese
levels at which the Ghanaian rejects his borehole and pump supply
or alternatively those levels at which he debides "to use other
water sburdes for different purposes (rejection of the borehole
supply as a drinking, cooking and/or laundry water source).
In the initial countrywide survey, data will be collected
on the forms of iron (divalent, trivalent), pH, alkalinity etc. in
order to establish the impact of such characteristics on
groundwater rejecttion and the uecassary range of conditions which
the village iron and manganese removal unit as devised will have
to cover. Consideration will have to be given to the increasing
expection of the villager for lower levels of iron concentration
through modular approach of systems„
o
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3.1.4 Field Visits^
As a result of above activities it will be possible to
assess whatever little work conducted elsewhere in rural areas
towards removing iron and manganese from groundwaters. It is
considered desirable however, that the research engineer
involved in this project be given the opportunity of personal
contact with people directly involved in such research. The
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (N,E.E.R.I.)
in India is mentioned in this regard. Provision, has, therefore,
been made for one visit to India which will include other
areas having similar critical problems. (Bangladesh, Thailand,
Kenya and Tanzania).
3.2 Phase II - Determination of Relative Effectiveness;
The second phase of the project will be aimed at testing
the effectiveness of each system under both laboratory and field
conditions in terms of (i) raw water characteristics and (ii)
operational conditions. It will also aim at determining relative
costs of the systems as a function of the two factors listed
above, and assessing optimum conditions for operation of each
system under both laboratory and field conditions.
These objectives will be achieved through?
(i) fabrication by the University (Project staff) of the
various iron removal systems for laboratory studies
and field use.
( ii) identification of field testing sites jointly by
the University and the Ghana Water and Sewerage
Corporation (G.W.S.C.)
(iii) installation of laboratory units in the field for
further adaptation and preparation for Phase III.
This work will be undertaken by U.S.T. and G.W.S.C.
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3.2.1 Laboratory development of tost units;
Processes used in industrial and municipal plants
for removal of iron and manganese include the following:-
(i) aeration followed by sedimentation and
filtration
(ii) use of special filters e.g. contact beds;
(iii) chemical treatment using lime e.g. in the Water
softening process.
The first approach does not require the use of chemi
cals and it is one that might be applicable to Ghanaian
rural areas. In some of the special filters, coke is
used (as it is in the case of the unit developed in India
at the N.E.E.R.I.). Since coke is unavailable in this
country, manganese or bauxite ores which occur naturally
in Ghana will be considered for use as filter media in the
laboratory studies using raw water collected from boreholes,
Qther sources of filter media may be tailings of ore
processing and river bed sand. Variables to be considered
in this study will includes
(i
(ii
(iii (iv
(v
filtration rate
filter run lengths
filter washing needs and methods
removal efficiencies
cost effectiveness.
Results obtained from the laboratory investigations
will be tested under field conditions using laboratory
test units. Experience gained will be used for planning
purposes for Phase III. This aspect of the project will
be undertaken by the U.S.T. (Project Staff) and Ghana
Water and Sewerage Corporation.
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3.3 Phase III - Field Testing
Based on results obtained from Phase II, prototype
units will be designed, constructed and installed in selected
rural areas throughout the country. This phase will involve
studies aimed at selecting the best systems from standpoint
of
(i) cost effectiveness
(ii) efficiency of iron and manganese removal
(iii) simplicity of operation and maintenance, and
adapting them or modifying them further for use under
Ghanaian conditions. These units will be installed by the
Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation under the supervision
of the project engineer. Staff from the Corporation will
be expected to supervise with the assistance of the Project
Engineer the operation of pilot plant systems. Any
training of operators required will be organised to ensure
good operation and monitoring of performance of pilot plants.
In addition there will be periodic visits by the Project
Engineer to evaluate progress. Data Analysis will be
performed by U.S.T. (Project Staff). Successful units will
be recommended for use in the country and elsewhere under
specified conditions such as range of raw water iron
concentrations etc.
3.4 Phase IV - Technology Dissemination
The objective of this phase of the project is two
fold. It is aimed at reviewing the findings of the project
and at planning an effective method of dissemination of the
findings, These two objective will be met partly through
international workshops and partly through the activities
of the local Project Committee and research personnel.
3.4.1 International Workshops
The International Workshops are aimed at bringing
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together people who have been working on similar problems.
It is therefore aimed at providing a forum for sharing
experiences in both successes and failures. The workshops
would also provide a forum for a critical review of the
research methodology and findings, thereby, stimulating
interest in the research findings. Finally, the workshops
will be used as a medium for discussing methods for
propagating successful technologies which may arise from
the research project.
The International workshops will be arranged in
countries selected on the basis of their experience, interest,
and potential contribution to the objectives of the work
shops .
3.4.2 Technology Dissemination Planning
The recommendations of the Internation Workshops will
be used as the basis for the formulation of a programme for
the propagation and implementation of successful findings
that may arise from the research. Methods of developing
local capabilities for the production, installation and
maintenance of successful systems will be developed, making
use of the Project Committee members and such other agencies
and people as may appear appropriate.
4. PERSONNEL
This project will be administered by the Head of the
Department of Civil Engineering, Professor Albert Wright,
who will ensure its continued smooth operation* Professor
Wright is an Environmental Engineer and will provide technical
guidance to the project as its Director.
The Principal Investigator will be Dr. K..Y. Baliga,
a W.H.O, Sanitary Engineer with considerable research
experience in the chemistry of iron in water. Dr. Baliga
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has recently joined U.S.T. after an assignment at University
of Nairobi's Environmental Engineering Division. Dr. Baliga
will provide most of the technical and innovative skills to
this project and be responsible for its day-to-day operation.
His involvement will amount to one-third of his time. He
will be supported by a research assistant who is to be
employed full-time and responsible for the laboratory and
the field work. Facilities and personnel associated with
construction of models for the laboratory experimentation
will be provided through the Civil Engineering workshop.
Communications and co-ordination between the
institutions involved in the research and later implementa
tion of results will be enhanced through regular meetings
of a Project Committee. This Committee will be made up of
representatives of the U.S.T. and the G.W.S.C. and will act
to review progress and guide the research as it progresses.
. PROJECT INSTITUTIONS
This project is to be undertaken by the Environmental
Quality Division of the Department of Civil Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, U.S.T., Kuraasi in collaboration with
the Ghana Water & Sewerage Corporation of Ghana.
5.1 The University of Science and Technology
The U.S.T. was established in 1961 in succession to
the Kumasi College of Technology which was established in
1951. It is situated on an eighteen square kilometer campus
located about 6.5 km away from Kuitiasi.
The University has faculties of Engineering,
Architecture, Agriculture, Art, Science, Pharmacy, and Social Science. It has. just started a school of Medical
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Sciences. The Faculty of Engineering has six departments,
namely, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electri
cal and Electronic Engineering, Geodetic Engineering,
Mining and Mineral Engineering and Chemical Engineering.
5.2 Environmental Quality Engineering Division
The Environmental Quality Engineering Division has-
undertaken research in the past on water filtration, oxidation
ponds, or an oxidation ditch. Its current projects ares
(i) A study of the performance of oxidation pond in
Kumasi
& (ii) Slow Sand Filtration.
The Division is expected to provide the engineering in-put,
supported by its laboratories and workshops.
5.3 G.W. & S.C.
It is anticipated that this organisation will be
called upon to collaborate in field studies, particularly
in operation of units and in chemical analysis of raw and
treated waters.
WORK PLAN
The Plan of Work is proposed as follows:
(i) Pre-Project activities
(ii) Phase I - state of the Art Review of available
technology
(iii) Phase II - Determination of Relative
Effectiveness of a selected systems.
Laboratory and limited field work,
(iv) Phase III - Field Testing of successful systems,
(v) Phase IV - Technology propagation and
dissemination of information.
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Table 1 of Append ' . provides information on the duration
of each phase toqe'.her with associated objectives and
personnel requirements „ A chronogram can be found at
Appendix III.
FUNDING
Appendix II lists the estimated costs of various
activities involved.
CAVEAT TO RESEARCH PROPOSAL
It har. ':•€<••>::. assumed that many of the resources
necessary in rr.a.!.". part to this project will be derived from
the Excreta Manageiuent Project being proposed to the I.D.R.C.
These resources, &.1 though small, will be essential to the
functioning of the Iron and Manganese removal project.
These resource;?, include services of a typist, draughtsman,
driver/mechanic and vehicle. The vehicle use will be
coordinated by Director of the Projects. The major trans
port requirement will come during the third phase in which
the field units r.ro installed. Allowance has been made
for using tJG University vehicle hiring system during this
phase. As a condition of this proposal it is requisite
that the Excreta Management proposal be accepted.
FUNCTIONAL USE OF RESULTS
The final results will be used in developing
countries by Local Governments and Water Authorities (or
Corporations) in reactivating boreholes abandoned as a
result of high or excessive iron and manganese concentrations
or in developing boreholes in areas known to have high
concentration.1-.- of .iron and manganese generally for rural
water supplier. Xr.Ls will no doubt, offer a way of
increasing water resources use in areas concerned.
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To facilitate dissemination it is proposed that
meetings be arranged to be axtended by Ghanaian agencies
to discuss the srudy findings upon completion of the
project and consider methods by which the selected
technologies vrould be>~t be propagated (Phase IV). Copies
of project report" x-dli a'.i so be made available to
interested pe.csor.'- iv?.d organisations through international
centres such as I.R.C, at the Hague.
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APPENDIX I
T A B L E I
IROIT AITD IIAHGAMSSE REKOVAL PROJECT
Tipin." anfl Resources Recniirenents
Phase
I I I
-JL
Description
Pie-Project A c t i v i t i C £
tech:-.'.'."?..o Liable
L^soratory. > TSc-terrinr.tion of R e l a t i v e r c-afectivonosc;. :
i
i 'ield t es t ing
Activi t ies } Duration (n)
jy » Technology JUsseniiiation
literature review Coamunication with other researchers Desk analysis and report National 7e C; 1-In Survey Village rejection level survey Visits abroad
Laboratory development construction of test units Lab. unita assessment Initial field test of lab, units Evaluation of results Selection of villages
Desi{?i of prototype units Construction of prototype units Held Installations and testing Evaluation & Analysing Data Re c onaenda ti on
] Planning strategies for technology propaga-i tion. > Blueprint for connercial production of ] prototypes
Personnel
Principal Investigator & Director.
Principal Investigator t. Director
Research Assistant
J?
3 2 2 2
4 3
2
1
1
Principal Investigator ^ Director
Research Assist-.nb
G.W. & S.C,
- ditto -
Principal Investigator & Director Research Assistant, All agencies of interest.
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ACTIVITY
PERSONNEL
Pro jec t Dii 'ector (Admin) 24- y r s . 10£ t i n s
P r i n c i p a l I n v e s t i g a t o r / P r o j e c t Engineer 2^yr£. y t i n e
Research A s s i s t a n t ( f u l l t i n e )
Qhanc-Ben A'1 acle sh> -India -Tans ania ~ Kenya (1 )
. Per diei;: 28 days © ^37/d & lr.cp.l t r a n s p o r t S> ^13/d
USrv Vehicle ILontal © 30p/r. 3n a t Ir^OOiVn
Fuel <ond o i l for p r o j e c t v e h i c l e 8000n © Sp/n
Per d i en ;
P ro j ec t D i rec to r @ J01o/d 20d = 200I P r i n . I n v e s t . @ / l o / d 100 =1000<
Res. A s s t . © $ 4 /d 300 =1200(
Foreman © t> 4 /d 50 =: 200 (
Driver/Keen. @ / 4 /d 200 = 8 0 0 ,
3400
APPENDIX H
IRCET PROJECT
COST ESTHETES (CEDIS)
U S T
' 1,322
3,845
2
1,388 :
4,037
3
728
2,119
1
1
IDRC
2
J ;
—
3
TOTAL
1 U S T j
1 I
! i l
- i 2,438
1 10,001
IDRC
3,450 3,622 1,901
2,000*
1 ,400
8,973
2,000
1,400
120
7^-
360
1,300 I 1,300
. /2
650
160
J ' >y^
800
640
3,400
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. u - l i i . UXn. J.J. \\J\JU ±L>, J
. _
M&JER3&LS & SUPPLIES
Laboratory Cheuicals Glassware Kisc plunbing
S t a t i o n a r y
vforkshop :.> IDrperiucntal Uni ts 0 #400 20 Prototy-nc Uni t s -3 jfeoo 20 modif ica t ion of G;ii.::tir-A' handpunps © JS100
EQUIPIS^? " ~ Y i ^ T * f c s - i - i t for I ron v-v\
Lao punps. p e r i s t a l t i c
Library.' <?; Docuiiontation
I-Iaii and Teles
Reports P repa ra t i on and Pr in t ing :
CH&ITD TOTa'L
' 1 1 <
!
U S T
2
1
U3T
TOTAL
IBRC
13,439
600
700
900
300
2,000
4,000
2.000
600 1,500
1.15«P
400
600 9000
41,463
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APPEND IX lift
gnBxmcGM£
ACTIVITY PHASE
L i t e r a t u r e Iteviow
Correspondcnco
Desk a n a l y s i s
I n t e r n a t i o n a l v i s i t
iTcitionr.1 survey
Vi l lage acceptance l e v e l
Dov. ft Cons t ruc t ion of Lab t o s t u n i t s
Lab. tos t in r ; C: a s seesnen t
Fie ld tes t ing ; of l a b . un i t s
Evaluat ion of r e s u l t s
'..:... • iioi. o? -.-ill;:;---'-
Bo v. & Cons, of Field Test units. Fie ld I n s t a l l a t i o n and Operation Evaluat ion - Analys is
Jle-c o;::aendations
I I
1976
I-! i A
4--
Technology propagat ion
Blue p r i n t
Meetings
I I I
IV"
L S ! 0 iN f i I
I.J..I
t . . . j
I
4.
t
! I
*^+ — •* •,-..
1978
F M A K D
i ! ;
M i. M
4—
~J=±ZL_J
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APPENDIX I I I CHRGUCGPaJ-I (Contd)
ACTIVITY
Pro3act CoruLdttse Heo-iaLEge Progress Report InteriE/Jdiin. l Report
PHASE
3 I - IV
K
k.
A. H J J
1976
A S 0 N
* 1977
D J F E
< »
A M
,.
4
J J .
. ,
A
—
S 0
• «
N D , J P
197£ I-I L
.. - .
11
... . J
J" J A S
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APPEiiDIX IV
BJ SGoE GROUIIIMA'IEltS H: GHANA
TOVffJ
AIYINA3I
BCWYEHE
E33IAIIA
ABOFCUR
E F F I J J U A ^ I
JUASO
AGCNA
J?OSO
•SUHU1I
SERIPE
WAGAvJAGA
T DISTiilCI- J F G , ing / l
!t
tl
NORTH EUI'AJI
n
CAFE COAST
ASSET
AKIII A3UAXI/A
GONJA
1.1.0
4.0
15.0
6.0
1.7
0,6
3.1
1.1
1.5
11.0
3.5
tin, we/l
0.4
0
0,06
0
0.14
0,0
o.s 1.9
Trace
1.1
~\
With Reforonco to Section 3.1.3» (Extrac; xrom G.W. & S,C, Data)