Download - Word Reconition Problem
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8/10/2019 Word Reconition Problem
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The term "sight words" has two somewhat related but different meanings in reading instruction:
the many common words in English that do not conform to rules of Word Analysis or phonetic decodingwords
like said, would, night, was, were, etc. (Some people refer to these words as "non-phonetic.")
any words a reader can recognize instantly without sounding them out.
For the sake of clarity, ASRP uses the term sight words in the first sense onlythe common words that do not
conform to rules of Word Analysis. The second meaningany words a reader can recognize instantlyASRP
includes in the category of Word Recognition.
With any learner scoring below GE 4 in Word Recognition, it is a good idea to assess her/his knowledge of the most
common sight words. Two lists you can use to assess sight word knowledge can be downloaded free on this Web
site:Dolch Basic Wordsand theFry Instant Words.(The Fry list is based on word frequency in written English, so it
includes some common words that are easily decodable such as did.)
Methods for teaching sight words as whole units vary. It all boils down to using as many modalities as necessary to
help learners remember the forms and recognize these words instantaneously. Flash cards or other ways to have
repeated visual exposure to the word, writing the word, using a finger to trace the letter sequence, and visualizing the
word are some strategies for learning the words. Saying the word while looking, tracing, or visualizing brings in
another sensehearingto help impress the word in memory. Again, repetition is the key to acquiring mastery and
automaticity with sight words.Approaches to instruction
Sight word teaching techniques should not be used as a substitute for teaching Word Analysis skills. Because most
adult poor readers have difficulty with Word Analysis skills, they tend to use a sight word approach on unfamiliar
words, when they should attempt to decode them. They substitute a word they know well for a new word that
somewhat resembles it, e.g., carrot for carriage. The result is guessing, self-corrections, and misreading.RR
Non-native Speakers of English (NNSE) in Beginning and Intermediate Level ABE classes who already read an
alphabetic language proficiently can usually transfer what they know about decoding from their native language to
English. However, like native English speakers, they will need direct instruction with the many English sight words
that are not phonetically regular (e.g., would) as well as the letter combinations that can be pronounced in various
ways (e.g., -oughin rough, bough,and thought ).
To find out more aboutWord Recognition- (700k)
back to top
http://lincs.ed.gov/readingprofiles/MC_Word_Recognition.htm
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/6316/
Stories from the Documentary:
Nathan V. Lauren Sarah Lee Adam
Nathan S.
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READING:Basics| Difficulties|Respon
ses
Difficulties with Reading
What mystifies many parents is where and whythe reading process breaks down. Although,
problems may occur in any area, decoding,
comprehension, or retention, the root of most
reading problems, in the view of many experts,
is decoding.
Reading Facts
o Roughly 85% of children diagnosedwith learning difficulties have a primaryproblem with reading and relatedlanguage skills.
o Reading difficulties areneurodevelopmental in nature.
o Neurodevelopmental problems don't goaway, but they do not mean that astudent (or an adult) cannot learn or
progress in school and life.o Most children with reading difficulties
can be taught reading and strategiesfor success in school.
o When children's reading problems areidentified early, they are more likely tolearn strategies that will raise theirreading to grade level.
Decoding DifficultiesDecoding is the process by which a word is
broken into individual phonemes and recognized
based on those phonemes. For instance,
proficient decoders separate the sounds "buh,"
"aah," and "guh" in the word "bag." Someone
who has difficulty decoding, and thus difficulty
reading easily, may not hear and differentiate
these phonemes. "Buh," "aah," and "guh" might
be meaningless to them in relation to the word
"bag" on the page.
Experts have no one explanation for thisphenomenon. In some cases, it may reflect that
some people simply require more time to
separate sounds -- time that isn't there.
Signs of decoding difficulty:
o trouble sounding out words andrecognizing words out of context
o confusion between letters and the
UP CLOSE:
Dyslexia
Problems with phonemes
Contrary to popular
misconception, dyslexia is not
characterized by letter or word
reversal. In fact, dyslexia is a
language-processing difficulty
caused by the inability to break
words into phonemes. Experts
estimate that dyslexia, the most
common reading difficulty,
affects as many as 15 percent ofall Americans.
Recent studies show a
neurobiological basis for
dyslexia, suggesting the
potential for early diagnosis and
new forms of treatment. This
research describes a biological
cause of the disorder; evidence
that dyslexia does not reflect
lack of intelligence, or attention,
or effort. In addition, this
reasearch may reveal better
ways of diagnosing and treating
reading problems.
In one experiment, for example,
scientists presented a group of
dyslexics and people who read
easily with an increasingly
difficult series of reading tasks.
The researchers used brain-
imaging equipment to monitor
the level of activity (as indicated
by the flow of oxygenated
blood) in each subject's brain
during the tasks. In proficient
readers, as the tasks grew more
difficult, new regions of the
brain were recruited. This
recruitment traveled generally
from the rear of the brain
toward the front. In contast,
activity in poor readers occurred
less in rear portions of the brain
and much more in front portions
of the brain than in proficient
readers.
produced by
2002WGBH
Educational
Foundation
All rights
reserved
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sounds they represento slow oral reading rate (reading word-
by-word)
o reading without expressiono ignoring punctuation while reading
Try it yourself.Experience a decodingdifficulty.
Comprehension DifficultiesComprehension relies on mastery of decoding;
children who struggle to decode find it difficult
to understand and remember what has been
read. Because their efforts to grasp individual
words are so exhausting, they have no
resources left for understanding.
Signs of comprehension difficulty:
o confusion about the meaning of wordsand sentences
o inability to connect ideas in a passageo omission of, or glossing over detailo difficulty distinguishing significant
information from minor detailso lack of concentration during reading
Retention DifficultiesRetention requires both decoding and
comprehending what is written. This task relies
on high level cognitive skills, including memory
and the ability to group and retrieve related
ideas. As students progress through grade
levels, they are expected to retain more and
more of what they read. From third grade on,
reading to learn is central to classroom work.
By high school it is an essential task.
Signs of retention difficulty:
o trouble remembering or summarizingwhat is read
o difficulty connecting what is read toprior knowledge
o difficulty applying content of a text topersonal experiences
READING:Basics| Difficulties|Responses
This pattern is now believed to
be the "neural signature" of
dyslexia. As more is learned
about the meaning of this
"signature," more strategies for
improving reading will be
developed.
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http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/misunderstoodminds/readingdiffs.html
The DRC Model of Visual Word Recognition
and Reading Aloud
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CELEX N CalculatorDRC N CalculatorGPC Strength CalculatorDRC Letter ConfusabilitySpieler-Balota
Reaction TimesAbout
The DRC model is a computational model
of reading which is intended to explain how skilled readers perform certain basic reading tasks.
The acronym emphasizes the two fundamental properties of the model: it is a Dual Route model,
and within the model information processing occurs in a Cascaded fashion.
The model consists of three routes, the lexical semantic route, the lexical nonsemantic route,
and the GPC route. Each route is composed of a number of interacting layers. These layers
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/misunderstoodminds/readingdiffs.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/misunderstoodminds/readingdiffs.htmlhttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/#contenthttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/#contenthttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRChttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRChttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/updates/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/updates/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/experimental-builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC#docshttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC#docshttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/understanding-drcs-output/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/understanding-drcs-output/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/working-with-drcs-parameters/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/writing-drc-batch-files/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/writing-drc-batch-files/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/drcview/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/drcview/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/drcview/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/index.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/index.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/celexN.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/drcN.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/gpcstrengths.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/lc.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/SpielerBalota.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/SpielerBalota.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/DRC-Diagram.pnghttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/SpielerBalota.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/SpielerBalota.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/lc.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/gpcstrengths.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/drcN.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/celexN.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/utils/index.phphttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/drcview/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/writing-drc-batch-files/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/working-with-drcs-parameters/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/understanding-drcs-output/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC#docshttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/experimental-builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/updates/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRChttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/#contenthttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/misunderstoodminds/readingdiffs.html -
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contain sets of units. The units represent the smallest individual symbolic parts of the model,
such as words in the orthographic lexicon or letters in the letter unit layer.
There are two ways in which the units of different layers interact. One is through inhibition,
where the activation of a unit makes it more difficult for the activation of other units to rise. The
other is through excitation, where the activation of a unit contributes to the activation of other
units. Units may also interact on the same level through lateral inhibition.
The2001 Psychological Review paper on DRC(9.1MB PDF) byColtheartet al. describes version 1.0
of the model in detail.
Simulator
A simulatorof the lexical nonsemantic and GPC routes is available for Mac OS X, Linux (x86)
and Windows. It is a command line application, so it must be operated from the Terminal
application in Mac OS X, the Shellin Linux or the Command(or DOS) Promptin Windows.
If you are not familiar with the use of this kind of software, there are many excellent tutorials
available viaGoogle search.
To get started download the latest build and use the following command line to see a list of
options the simulator supports:
drc --help
A straightforward simulation of reading aloud a word can be achieved with the command:
drc word
Docs
Simulator users may find the following documents useful:
Understanding DRCs Output
Working With DRCs Parameters
Writing DRC Batch Files
http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/files/DRC-PsychReview2001.pdfhttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/files/DRC-PsychReview2001.pdfhttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/files/DRC-PsychReview2001.pdfhttp://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/drc/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/drc/builds/http://google.com/http://google.com/http://google.com/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/drc/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/drc/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/understanding-drcs-output/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/understanding-drcs-output/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/understanding-drcs-output/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/working-with-drcs-parameters/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/working-with-drcs-parameters/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/writing-drc-batch-files/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/writing-drc-batch-files/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/writing-drc-batch-files/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/working-with-drcs-parameters/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/understanding-drcs-output/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/drc/builds/http://google.com/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/DRC/category/drc/builds/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~ssaunder/files/DRC-PsychReview2001.pdf -
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Links
Some other resources related to DRC and reading:
Max Colthearts WebsiteUniversity of OttawaOmnilex Database
The ARC Nonword Database
Related Papers
Coltheart, M. and Rastle, K. (1994). Serial Processing in Reading Aloud: Evidence for Dual-
Route Models of Reading.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and
Performance, 20, 1197-1211.
Coltheart, M. and Leahy, J. (1996). Assessment of lexical and nonlexical reading abilities in
children: Some normative data.Australian Journal of Psychology, 48, 136-140.
Coltheart, M., Langdon, R. and Haller, M. (1996). Computational cognitive neuropsychology. In
Dodd B, Worrall L and Campbell R (eds).Evaluating Theories of Language: Evidence from
Disordered Communication. London: Whurr Publishers.
Rastle, K and Coltheart, M. (1998). Whammies and double whammies: The effect of length onnonword reading.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5, 277-282.
Cestnick, L. and Coltheart, M. (1999). The relationship between language-processing and visual-
processing deficits in developmental dyslexia. Cognition, 71, 231-255.
Coltheart, M., Woollams, A., Kinoshita, S. and Perry, C. (1999). A position-sensitive Stroop
effect: Further evidence for a left-to-right component in print-to-speech.Psychonomic Bulletin
& Review, 6, 456-463.
Rastle, K. and Coltheart, M. (1999). Serial and strategic effects in reading aloud.Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 25, 482-503.
Rastle, K. and Coltheart, M. (1999). Lexical and nonlexical phonological priming in reading
aloud.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 25, 461-481.
http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/http://www.omnilex.uottawa.ca/http://www.omnilex.uottawa.ca/http://www.omnilex.uottawa.ca/http://www.omnilex.uottawa.ca/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~nwdb/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~nwdb/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~nwdb/http://www.omnilex.uottawa.ca/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~max/ -
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Rastle, K. and Coltheart, M. (2000). Serial processing in reading aloud: Reply to Zorzi (2000).
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance, 26, 1232-1235.
Rastle, K. and Coltheart, M. (2000). Lexical and nonlexical print-to-sound translation of
disyllabic words and nonwords.Journal of Memory & Language, 42, 342-364.
Rastle, K., Harrington, J.M., Coltheart, M. and Palethorpe, S. (2000). Reading aloud begins
when the computation of phonology is complete.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human
Perception & Performance, 26, 1178-1191.
Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R. & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A Dual Route
Cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud.Psychological Review, 108, 204-
256.
Roberts, M., Rastle, K., Coltheart, M. & Besner, D. (2003). When parallel processing in visual
word recognition is not enough: New evidence from naming.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,
12, 405-414.
Coltheart, M. (2004). Are there lexicons? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57A,
1153-1171.
Blazely, A., Coltheart, M., & Casey, B. (2005). Semantic dementia with and without surface
dyslexia. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 22, 695-717.
Coltheart, M. (2005). Analysing developmental disorders of reading.Advances in Speech-
Language Pathology, 7, 49-57.
Coltheart, M. (2005). Modelling reading: The dual-route approach. For Snowling, M.J. &
Hulme, C. (Eds). The Science of Reading. Oxford: Blackwells Publishing.
Bates, T.C., Castles, A., Luciano, M., Wright, M.J., Coltheart, M. & Martin, N.G. (2006). Genetic
and environmental bases of reading & spelling: A unified genetic dual route model.Reading and
Writing, 20, 147-171.
Castles, A., Bates, T. & Coltheart, M. (2006). John Marshall and the developmental dyslexias.
Aphasiology, 20, 871-892.
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Castles, A., Bates, T., Coltheart, M., Luciano, M. & Martin, N.G. (2006). Cognitive modelling and
the behavior genetics of reading.Journal of Research in Reading, 29, 92-103.
Coltheart, M. (2006). Acquired dyslexias and the computational modelling of reading. Cognitive
Neuropsychology, 23, 96-109.
Coltheart, M. (2006). Dual route and connectionist models of reading: An overview.London
Review of Education, 4, 5-17.
Howard, D., Nickels, L., Coltheart, M. & Cole-Virtue, J. (2006). Cumulative semantic inhibition
in picture naming: experimental and computational studies. Cognition, 100, 464-482.
Rastle, K., & Coltheart, M. (2006). Is there serial processing in the reading system; and are therelocal representations? In Andrews, S. (Ed).All about words: Current issues in lexical
processing. Hove: Psychology Press.
Coltheart, M., Tree, J., & Saunders, S. (2008). Computational modelling of reading impairments
in semantic dementia [Abstract].Australian Journal of Psychology, 60(1), 64.
Mousikou, P., Coltheart, M. & Saunders, S. (2008). What is the nature of the masked onset
priming effect: phonological, graphemic or both? Evidence from behavioural and computational
data [Abstract].Australian Journal of Psychology, 60(Suppl. 1), 88.
Nickels, L., Biedermann, B., Coltheart, M., Saunders, S. & Tree, J. (2008). Computational
modeling of phonological dyslexia: How does the DRC model fare? [Special Issue]. Cognitive
Neuropsychology, 25(2), 165-193.
Rastle, K., Havelka, J., Wydell, T.N., Coltheart, M. & Besner, D. (2009). The cross-script length
effect: Further evidence challenging PDP models of reading aloud.Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 35, 238-246.
Mousikou, P., Coltheart, M., Saunders, S., & Yen, L. (2010). Is the orthographic/phonological
onset a single unit in reading aloud?Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception
& Performance, 36(1), 175-194.
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Mousikou, B., Coltheart, M., & Saunders, S. (2010). Computational modelling of the masked
onset priming effect in reading aloud [Special Issue].European Journal of Cognitive
Psychology, 22(5), 725-763.
Mousikou, P., Coltheart, M., Finkbeiner, M. & Saunders, S. (2010). Can the dual-route cascaded
computational model of reading offer a valid account of the masked onset priming
effect? The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63(5), 984-1003.
Biedermann, B., Nickels, L., & Coltheart, M. (in press). Effects of homophony on reading aloud:
Implications for models of speech production.Language and Cognitive Processes.
Coltheart, M., Tree, J. & Saunders, S. (in press). Computational modelling of reading in
semantic dementia: Comment on Woollams, Lambon Ralph, Plaut and Patterson (2007).Psychological Review.
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About fonts>ClearType
The Science of Word Recognition
or how I learned to stop worrying and love the bouma
Kevin Larson
Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation
July 2004
On This PageIntroduction
Model #1: Word Shape
Model #2: Serial Letter Recognition
Model #3: Parallel Letter Recognition
Moving Window Study
Boundary Study
Evidence for Word Shape Revisited
Neural Network Modeling
Conclusions
Introduction
Evidence from the last 20 years of work in cognitive psychology indicate that we
use the letters within a word to recognize a word. Many typographers and other
text enthusiasts Ive met insist that words are recognized by the outline made
around the word shape. Some have used the term bouma as a synonym for word
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shape, though I was unfamiliar with the term. The term bouma appears in Paul
Saengers 1997 book Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading. There
I learned to my chagrin that we recognize words from their word shape and that
Modern psychologists call this image the Bouma shape.
This paper is written from the perspective of a reading psychologist. The data
from dozens of experiments all come from peer reviewed journals where the
experiments are well specified so that anyone could reproduce the experiment
and expect to achieve the same result. This paper was originally presented as a
talk at theATypIconference in Vancouver in September, 2003.
The goal of this paper is to review the history of why psychologists moved from a
word shape model of word recognition to a letter recognition model, and to help
others to come to the same conclusion. This paper will cover many topics in
relatively few pages. Along the way I will present experiments and models that Icouldnt hope to cover completely without boring the reader. If you want more
details on an experiment, all of the references are at the end of the paper as well
as suggested readings for those interested in more information on some topics.
Most papers are widely available at academic libraries.
I will start by describing three major categories of word recognition models: the
word shape model, and serial and parallel models of letter recognition. I will
present representative data that was used as evidence to support each model.
After all the evidence has been presented, I will evaluate the models in terms of
their ability to support the data. And finally I will describe some recent
developments in word recognition and a more detailed model that is currently
popular among psychologists.
Model #1: Word Shape
The word recognition model that says words are recognized as complete units is
the oldest model in the psychological literature, and is likely much older than the
psychological literature. The general idea is that we see words as a complete
patterns rather than the sum of letter parts. Some claim that the information usedto recognize a word is the pattern of ascending, descending, and neutral
characters. Another formulation is to use the envelope created by the outline of
the word. The word patterns are recognizable to us as an image because we have
seen each of the patterns many times before. James Cattell (1886) was the first
psychologist to propose this as a model of word recognition. Cattell is recognized
as an influential founder of the field of psycholinguistics, which includes the
scientific study of reading.
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Figure 1: Word shape recognition using the pattern of ascending, descending,and neutral characters
characters
Figure 2: Word shape recognition using the envelope around the word
Cattell supported the word shape model because it provided the best explanation
of the available experimental evidence. Cattell had discovered a fascinating effect
that today we call the Word Superiority Effect. He presented letter and word
stimuli to subjects for a very brief period of time (5-10ms), and found that
subjects were more accurate at recognizing the words than the letters. He
concluded that subjects were more accurate at recognizing words in a short
period of time because whole words are the units that we recognize.
Cattells study was sloppy by modern standards, but the same effect was
replicated in 1969 by Reicher. He presented strings of letters half the time real
words, half the time not for brief periods. The subjects were asked if one of two
letters were contained in the string, for example Dor K. Reicher found that
subjects were more accurate at recognizing Dwhen it was in the context of WORD
than when in the context of ORWD. This supports the word shape model because
the word allows the subject to quickly recognize the familiar shape. Once the
shape has been recognized, then the subject can deduce the presence of the
correct letter long after the stimulus presentation.
The second key piece of experimental data to support the word shape model is
that lowercase text is read faster than uppercase text. Woodworth (1938) was thefirst to report this finding in his influential textbookExperimental Psychology.
This finding has been confirmed more recently by Smith (1969) and Fisher
(1975). Participants were asked to read comparable passages of text, half
completely in uppercase text and half presented in standard lowercase text. In
each study, participants read reliably faster with the lowercase text by a 5-10%
speed difference. This supports the word shape model because lowercase text
enables unique patterns of ascending, descending, and neutral characters. When
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text is presented in all uppercase, all letters have the same text size and thus are
more difficult and slower to read.
The patterns of errors that are missed while proofreading text provide the third
key piece of experimental evidence to support the word shape model. Subjectswere asked to carefully read passages of text for comprehension and at the same
time mark any misspelling they found in the passage. The passage had been
carefully designed to have an equal number of two kinds of misspellings:
misspellings that are consistent with word shape, and misspellings that are
inconsistent with word shape. A misspelling that is consistent with word shape is
one that contains the same patterns of ascenders, descenders, and neutral
characters, while a misspelling that is inconsistent with word shape changes the
pattern of ascenders, descenders, and neutral characters. If testis the correctly
spelled word, tesfwould be an example of a misspelling consistent with word
shape and tescwould be an example of a misspelling inconsistent with word
shape. The word shape model would predict that consistent word shapes would
be caught less often than an inconsistent word shape because words are moreconfusable if they have the same shape. Haber & Schindler (1981) and Monk &
Hulme (1983) found that misspellings consistent with word shape were twice as
likely to be missed as misspellings inconsistent with word shape.
Target word: test Error rate
Consistent word shape (tesf) 13%
Inconsistent word shape (tesc) 7%
Figure 3: Misspellings that are consistent with word shape are missed more
often
The fourth piece of evidence supporting the word shape model is that it is difficult
to read text in alternating case. AlTeRnAtInG case is where the letters of a word
change from uppercase to lowercase multiple times within a word. The word
shape model predicts that this is difficult because it gives a pattern of ascending,
descending, and neutral characters that is different than exists in a word in its
natural all lowercase form. Alternating case has been shown to be more difficultthan either lowercase or uppercase text in a variety of studies. Smith (1969)
showed that it slowed the reading speed of a passage of text, Mason (1978)
showed that the time to name a word was slowed, Pollatsek, Well, & Schindler
(1975) showed that same-difference matching was hindered, and Meyer &
Gutschera (1975) showed that category decision times were decreased.
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8/10/2019 Word Reconition Problem
15/33
Model #2: Serial Letter Recognition
The shortest lived model of word recognition is that words are read letter-by-
letter serially from left to right. Gough (1972) proposed this model because it was
easy to understand, and far more testable than the word shape model of reading.In essence, recognizing a word in the mental lexicon was analogous to looking up
a word in a dictionary. You start off by finding the first letter, than the second,
and so on until you recognize the word.
This model is consistent with Sperlings (1963) finding that letters can be
recognized at a rate of 10-20ms per letter. Sperling showed participants strings of
random letters for brief periods of time, asking if a particular letter was contained
in the string. He found that if participants were given 10ms per letter, they could
successfully complete the task. For example, if the target letter was in the fourth
position and the string was presented for 30ms, the participant couldnt completethe task successfully, but if string was presented for 40ms, they could complete
the task successfully. Gough noted that a rate of 10ms per letter would be
consistent with a typical reading rate of 300 wpm.
The serial letter recognition model is also able to successfully predict that shorter
words are recognized faster than longer words. It is a very robust finding that
word recognition takes more time with longer words. It takes more time to
recognize a 5-letter word than a 4-letter word, and 6-letter words take more time
to recognize than 5-letter words. The serial letter recognition model predicts that
this should happen, while a word shape model does not make this prediction. In
fact, the word shape model should expect longer words with more unique
patterns to be easier to recognize than shorter words.
The serial letter recognition model fails because it cannot explain the Word
Superiority Effect. The Word Superiority Effect showed that readers are better
able to identify letters in the context of a word than in isolation, while the serial
letter recognition model would expect that a letter in the third position in a word