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Wireless Radio Basics
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In all wireless communication systems there are several factors that contribute to the loss / gain of signal strength. Things that affect the signal strength include:
Choice of Cabling
Antenna Selection
Connectors
Environmental Obstructions
Energy Losses / Gains
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::INCREASING
FREQUENCY
::
::
RADIOBAND
RADIOCHANNEL
CHANNELWIDTH
Radio Bands and Channels
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Designation Abbreviation Frequencies Free-space Wavelengths
Very Low Frequency VLF 9 kHz - 30 kHz 33 km - 10 km
Low Frequency LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz 10 km - 1 km
Medium Frequency MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz 1 km - 100 m
High Frequency HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz 100 m - 10 m
Very High Frequency VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz 10 m - 1 m
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz 1 m - 100 mm
Super High Frequency SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz 100 mm - 10 mm
Extremely High Frequency EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz 10 mm - 1 mm
Frequency Spectrum
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Spectrum Allocation Chart
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Licensed band - licensed by government authority
Specific frequency channel, only one user per area
“Narrow-band” - channel width 6.25, 12.5 or 25KHz
License-free - ISM - Industrial, scientific & medical
Spread spectrum technique, Allows wide-bandwidth
Radio Bands for Industrial Wireless
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Examples
Licensed band - 450 to 470 MHz - 1600 x 12.5KHz
License-free - 902 to 928 MHz, 26 x 1MHz or 1040 x 25KHz
2.4 - 2.48 GHz, extremely wide channels
Wider channels Wider bandwidth Higher data rates
Radio Bands for Industrial Wireless -example
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Direct Sequence (DSSS)Spreads data packet over wide band - effectively transmitting each bit on many channels. Higher data rates (> 1Mb/s), but vulnerable to interference.
Frequency Hopping (FHSS)Change frequency after each data packet. Slower data rates (115.2Kbd), but more robust. Less vulnerable to interference.
Types of Spread Spectrum
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Each data bit is spread over multiple frequencies
Average power is reduced Direct Sequence has a higher
bit rate than Frequency Hopping
More vulnerable to interference
Direct Sequence SS
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Time/mSec
PowerWatt
Frequen
cy
928M
Hz
902M
Hz86
9.4
MHz
869.
65 M
Hz
Frequency Hopping
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905U uses 50 x 250KHz channels
After 3 transmissions
Frequency Hopping
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After 12 transmissions
Frequency Hopping
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After 100 transmissions, all channels have been used once
Frequency Hopping
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1mW = 0dBm 10mW = 10dBm 100mW = ? 200mW = ?
Two main variables
Frequency - Hertz - KHz, MHz, GHz
Power - linear measurement - Watts - mW, W
- log scale more common - dBm - referenced to 1mW
dBm = 10 log10 [RF signal in mW]
20dBm
x 2 = +3dB x 4 = +6dB x 5 = +7dB x 10 = +10dB
x 1/2 = -3dB x 1/4 = -6dB x 1/5 = -7dB x 1/10 = -10dB
23dBm
Radio Variables
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The answer is...
The real question should be:
How far will a radio receive?
How far will the radio transmit?
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A radio signal becomes unreliable when it’s strength falls below the Receiver Sensitivity or the background noise
RFAmplitude
Time
Noise
Averagelevel
Receiver sensitivity
Receiver Sensitivity
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BER - Ratio of the number of errors to total bits transmitted
RFAmplitude
Time
Noise
Receiver sensitivity
High BER Low BER
Received signal
Bit Error Ratio
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Fade margin is margin between Signal and Noise / Sensitivity“Safety Margin” - normally 10dB on a “fine day”
RFAmplitude
Time
Noise
Receiver sensitivity
Fade margin
Received signal
Fade Margin
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Frequency as frequency increases, distance decreases proportionally
Receiver sensitivity, antenna gain, cable loss despite manufacturers’ claims, most wireless products have similar sensitivities
Noise / interference The noisier the environment the more careful you have to be with antenna placement
Transmitter power, antenna gain, cable loss Attenuation of radio signal Heights of antennas, Obstructions in radio path
Other factors Atmospheric, Ground Mineralisation
Factors Affecting Distance
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Distance
RF Power (dBm) along a radio path
Transmitter30dBm = 1W
Min. signal level for reliable operation
A radio signal attenuates as it passes through air
Receiver-110dBm = 0.01pW
Signal Attenuation
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Distance
RF Power (dBm) along a radio path
Transmitter
Min. signal level for reliable operation
Increasing the power at the transmitter increases the distance
In “free-space”, distance doubles for 4x increasein power (+6dB)
Power must reduce
to 1/4 (-6dB) fordistance
to halve
Transmit Power
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Distance
RF Power (dBm) along a radio path
10 - 20 miles
1000 - 3000 feet
Line-of-sight path
Typical congested industrial path
The effect of obstacles
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Radio path pattern between two antennas is a “football” envelope
An obstacle has less blocking effect in the middle of the path
than close to one end
The envelope is “less spread” as frequency increases obstacles have more of a blocking effect at higher frequencies
The effect of obstacles
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No direct path
Tx
Rx
Multiple reflected paths
There is more signal loss on reflection or passing through buildings as frequency increases
Typical industrial radio path
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Transmitter power = Power generated by transmitter Radiated power = Power radiated by antenna in desired direction ERP = Effective Radiated Power
= Transmitter power * Antenna gain * Cable loss Cable loss is less than 1 and reduces radiated power. Antenna gain should be more or less than 1 In dB terms,
ERP = Transmitter dBm + Antenna gain dB - Cable loss dB
Radiated Power
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Transmitter Power = 30dBm = 1W
Effective radiatedpower = 36dBm
= 4W
cable loss
- 4dB
Antenna gain= 10dB
Signal at Receiver= -94dBm
cable loss
- 4dB
Received Signal = -100dBm
Antenna gain= 10dB
Same effect at Receiver
Radiated Power
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All wireless communication systems have several factors that contribute to the loss of signal strength. Cabling, connectors, and lightning arrestors can all impact the performance of your system if not installed properly.
In a ‘low power’ system every dB you can save is important!! Remember the “3 dB Rule”.
For every 3 dB gain you will double your power
For every 3 dB loss you will halve your power
Power Losses
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-3 dB = 1/2 power
-6 dB = 1/4 power
+3 dB = 2x power
+6 dB = 4x power
Sources of loss in a wireless system: free space, cables, connectors, jumpers, obstructions
3 dB Rule
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Propagation Mechanisms
Propagation mechanisms are very complex and diverse. First, because of the separation between the receiver and the
transmitter, attenuation of the signal strength occurs. In addition, the signal propagates by means of diffraction,
scattering, reflection, transmission, refraction, etc.
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Site A Site B
Antenna to Antenna
Propagation Mechanisms - LOS (Line of Sight)
This maximizes the distance and reliability of the signal.
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Diffraction occurs when the direct line-of-sight (LOS) between the transmitter and the receiver is obstructed by an obstacle whose dimensions are much larger than the signal wavelength (67cm for 450 MHz radio wave).
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS does not exist
Site A Site B
Propagation Mechanisms - Diffraction
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Scattering occurs when the path contains obstacles that’s are comparable in size to the wavelength (67cm for 450 MHz radio wave). E.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts
Similar to diffraction, except that the radio waves are scattered in a greater number of directions.
Of all the mentioned effects, scattering is the most difficult to be predicted.
Site A Site B
Propagation Mechanisms - Scattering
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Occurs when the radio wave encroaches an obstacle which is larger than the wavelength (67cm for 450 MHz radio wave).
A reflected wave can increase or decrease the signal level at the receiver. In many cases, the received signal level tends to be very unstable. This is commonly referred to as Multipath Fading.
E.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Site A Site B
Propagation Mechanisms - Reflection
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Higher frequencies have higher attenuation on penetrating obstacles
2.4Ghz
900Mhz
Penetrating Objects
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Higher frequencies lose more signal strength on reflection
900Mhz 2.4Ghz
Reflections
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Radio path does not have to be line-of-sight - only for maximum range
Obstacles reduce radio signal, witch reduces reliable range Metal and wet obstacles reduce signal more than non-metal and dry An obstacle has more affect when it is closer to the antenna
TEST THE RADIO PATH
Effects of Obstructions
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The antenna converts radio frequency electrical energy fed to it (via the transmission line) to an electromagnetic wave propagated into space.
The physical size of the radiating element is proportional to the wavelength. The higher the frequency, the smaller the antenna size.
Assuming that the operating frequency in both cases is the same, the antenna will perform identically in Transmit or Receive mode
Antennas - How They Work
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Isotropic Source - spherical radiationThis is a hypothetical point source antenna that serves as a reference for the measurement of antenna gain
Gain = 0 dB
Plan ViewElevation View
Antenna Pattern Reference - Isotropic Antenna
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The type of system you are installing will help determine the type of antenna used. Generally speaking, there are two ‘types’ of antennas:
Antenna Types
Omni-Directional
This type of antenna has a wide beamwidth and radiates 3600; with the power being more spread out, shorter distances are achieved but greater coverage attained
Dipole antenna
This type of antenna is typically used for shorter distances
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Light is omni-directional
Omni Antenna - Example
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Omni Antenna Radiation Pattern
Horizontal Pattern Vertical Pattern
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Isotropic PatternDipole Pattern
Gain = 2.14 dBElevation
Plan
Dipole is made of two 1/4-wave conductors joined in the middle
Dipole Antenna
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Collinears
2 DipolesStacked
Dipole
Collinear
Dipole
Collinear
Collinear Antenna
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-Dipole Whip 2dB
-Collinears 5 / 8 / 10 dB
-1/4 wave whips -3 to 0dB
Typical Omni Antenna Gains
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Antenna Types
Directional
This type of antenna has a narrow beam-width; with the power being more directional, greater distances are usually achieved but area coverage is sacrificed
Yagi, Panel, Sector and Parabolic antennas
This type of antenna in is used in both Point to Point and Point to Multipoint
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YAGI Antennas
Light is focussed in a particular direction
Typical Omni Antenna Gains
Reflector / mirror
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Reflector Folded Dipole
Director
YAGI Antennas
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YAGI Radiation Pattern
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Gain = 3 dB
Isotropic Antenna
2 Element YAGI
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6 Element Yagi
9 Element Yagi
450
350
Yagi Antennas direct almost all power in one direction
Higher gain antennas direct power into a tighter beam
YAGI Bandwidth
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16 Element 16dB
9 Element 14dB
6 Element 11dB
3 Element 7dB
Typical YAGI Gains
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- only for very high frequency > 2 GHz
- used in medium to long links
- gains of 18 to 28 dBi
Parabolic, Grid-pack Antennas
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- directional in nature, but can be adjusted anywhere from 450 to 1800
- typical gains vary from 10 to 19 dBi
- very commonly seen at cell phone base stations
Sectoral Antennas
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Polarization can be Vertical or Horizontal - depend on how antenna is installed.
Omni-directional antennas have Vertical polarity when mounted vertically
Polarity of Yagis is based on direction of elements - can be Vertical or Horizontal
All antennas in the same RF network must be polarized identically regardless of the antenna type.
Antenna Polarization
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Omni-directionalYagi
Polarity - Vertical
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Two Yagis can form a Horizontal polarity linkNot compatible with Omni-directional antennasCan be used for “radio isolation” from another system with Vertical polarity
Polarity - Horizontal
Horizontal Polarity is known as ‘E’ Plane
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Data wireless uses 50 ohm cables - RF impedance is based on inner : outer diameters
Loss increases with cable length and frequency
Larger diameter cables have lower loss, but are much harder to install - bending radius
Coaxial Cables
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Loss (dB per 30 m)Coaxial cable
Outerdiameter
(mm)450M
Hz900MHz
2.4GHz
RG58C/U 5 13.5 18.2
RG58 Cellfoil 5 6.9 9.0 16.5
RG213 10 5.0 7.4 14.5
LDF4-50 16 1.6 2.2 3.7
Attenuation Table - Cables
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N-male BNC
N-female SMA
Connector Types
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Have someone experienced install them
Poor fitting results in high RF losses
Best to buy pre-made cables
Do not splice connections in the antenna lines
Buy one cable that reaches the entire distance
Exposed connections need to be well taped
Antennas – usually Female
Lightning Arrestors – usually Female
Connectors – Good Practices
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All outside coax connections should be wrapped in a
Rubber Vulcanising Tape to stop moisture ingress.
Scotch® 23 Rubber Splicing Tape
Stretch to elongate sealant tape while wrapping over the connection
For proper UV protection Electrical Tape should then be wrapped over the Vulcanising Tape
Cable Connection Protection
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Use a lightning arrestor when the antenna is not protected by surrounding
steelwork
Connect antenna bracket, wireless unit and the lightning arrestor to same
earth point.
Typically structural steel is OK for ground connection
Do not use Gas Lines or Water pipes for discharge.Check Electrical Code for grounding recommendations.
The Lightning Arrestor
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Redundancy
This is one of the main concerns with wireless systems.
Our products do support redundancy for Radio path I/O Total redundancy Stand-by
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Wireless Redundancy – Radio Path
Radio Path redundancy between same modules via a repeater Suitable if primary radio path is variable – e.g. construction site Simple to achieve, and only need one radio channel Doesn’t protect equipment failure
Two sets of outputs
Two comms-fail outputs - one for each path
Radio Path Redundancy
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Wireless Redundancy – Outputs
Redundancy for outputs in different locations Suitable when connected to common system via existing LAN Protects equipment failure & RF interference at output module Doesn’t protect equipment failure at input end
Output Redundancyinput
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Wireless Redundancy – Total
Complete redundancy Two separate wireless systems on two separate radio channels Protects equipment failure and RF interference at both ends Special set-up to ensure radio channels don’t “block” each other
Hot Redundancy
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Wireless Redundancy – Standby
Standby Redundancy Protects equipment failure, but not RF interference Intelligent devices (e.g. PLC) must be at both ends Intelligent device switches power upon comms-fail
Standby Redundancy
comms-fail output
input
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Line of Sight whenever possible – Always the best Antenna outside of the cabinet - Always Antenna away from Noisy sources – As far away as possible
other antennas, VFDs, Welders, computers, etc
Antenna as high as possible Coax Cable as short as possible
Use pre-made tested hi-quality cables, this will lower the loses in the system
Ground ALL equipment to the earth system properly This will reduce the noise level
Rules For Best Performance