TThhee EEvvoolluuttiioonn ooff WWaatteerr MMaannaaggeemmeenntt iinn IIssrraaeell::
TThhee CCoonnssppiiccuuoouuss AAbbsseennccee ooff WWaatteerr MMaarrkkeettss
Professor Alon Tal
Ben Gurion University
Zaragoza, 30 July 2008
Greening the Drylands
Jerusalem Hills – circa 1918
Greening the Drylands
Jerusalem Hills
TODAY’S TALK
•Drought or New Hydrological Reality? •Israel’s Curious Water Management History •The Death of Water Subsidies •A Transboundary Regional Water Market?
Israel’s Water BalanceIsrael’s Water Balance
1800 2000
3400
3000
2600
2200
1600
1800 1600
2000 2200
3400
3000
2600
1600
1800Annual
Evaporation
mm
Annual Rainfall
Average
mm
+800
700
50
100
200
400
300
500
600
Lack of 2000 mm
1800
1932 2002m eD CDMC8 M MeM
458: m588D MD5 1457: AAMe 3563: A5m8AMT657: A8C8AMT
M"CDMC8T A A
MCM
M"A A
-
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1932 1937 1942 1947 1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002
Rainfall: Chronic Instability
Replenishment Data
Min : 657 Max: 3563 Average : 1457 STD :458 MCM
MC
M
Year
Agriculture
1045.1 MCM
(56%)
Other
482.6
MCM
Water Demand per Sectors 2006
Potable
562.5 MCM
Domestic
698.0 MCM
(38%)
Industry
116.5 MCM
(6%)
Annual demand grows:
20 MCM/YEAR
POPULATION GROWTH
1990 2020
The Hydrological
Price of Peace in
The Middle East
Israel’s Shrinking Water Supply 559
Kinneret basins
Arava Basin
139
316
130
469 Western Galilee Aquifer
Eastern basins 130 Coastal Aquifer 295
285 Mountain Aquifer
291
Total annual natural production Negev Basin
(recharge) 1509 70
1355
w/o southern aquifers quantities drop to
1,175
-215
-214
-213
-212
-211
-210
-209
-208
10/0
3 4/
04
10/0
4 4/
05
10/5
4/
06
10/0
6 4/
07
10/0
7 4/
08
10/0
8 'A
, eMT
Sea of Galilee Levels
Sea of Galilee, 2002
RED LINES: Below which – hydrological damage begins
BLACK LINES Below which damage is rapid and possibly irreversible
Present Drought Picture Present Drought Picture
PPrreesseenntt DDrroouugghhtt PPiiccttuurree
AAvveerraaggee rraaiinnffaallll ddrroopp iinn ppaasstt 1166 yyeeaarrss:: 11,,335500 ttoo 11,,117755 mmmm33
PPrroobbaabbiilliittyy ooff 44 ccoonnsseeccuuttiivvee eexxttrreemmee ddrroouugghhtt yyeeaarrss:: 22%%
HHiigghh LLiikkeelliihhoooodd ffoorr ccoommiinngg 55 yyeeaarrss ooff ffaalllliinngg bbeellooww rreedd lliinneess..
HHooww ddooeess iitt aaffffeecctt ttrraaddiittiioonnaall
WWaatteerr MMaannaaggeemmeenntt SSttrraatteeggyy??
(1) National Water Carrier Phase
• Construction – 1956 – 64
• 80% of Infrastructure Investment
• Provided 66% of country’s water
(80% for irrigation)
Jerusalem
Haifa
Tel Aviv
Sea of Galilee
Eilat
Main Water Supply System
••..
The Jerusalem Wastewater Treatment PlantThe Jerusalem Wastewater Treatment Plant
(2) Waste Water Reuse Phase
Tel
Growth in Sewage Recycling from
Aviv Region for Desert Agriculture
28
Number of LargeNumber of Large
in Israel:in Israel:ss’’WWTPWWTP
•• 19981998 -- 1515
•• 20022002 - 2828
•• 20052005 - 3232
~ 85% of the total~ 85% of the total
amount ofamount of
wastewater arewastewater are
treated to at leasttreated to at least
a secondary levela secondary level
WWaasstteewwaatteerr ttrreeaattmmeenntt iinn IIssrraaeell
22000088::
FFaaccttss aanndd FFiigguurreess ..EEfffflluueennttss == 445500 MMiilllliioonn MM33//yyeeaarr
..>>7722%% ooff eefffflluueennttss rreeccllaaiimmeedd ffoorr iirrrriiggaattiioonn
..2288%% ddiisscchhaarrggeedd ttoo rriivveerrss oorr sseeaa
..BByy 22001100:: RReeccllaaiimmeedd EEfffflluueennttss == 5500%% ooff aallll
wwaatteerr ttoo IIssrraaeellii AAggrriiccuullttuurree
Environmental Impacts of wastewater reuseEnvironmental Impacts of wastewater reuse
Plants & SoilPlants & Soil
••High SalinityHigh Salinity
••SodificationSodification of the soil (SAR)of the soil (SAR)
••Excess BoronExcess Boron
••Excess Nitrogen & PhosphorusExcess Nitrogen & Phosphorus
Water Sources & Public HealthWater Sources & Public Health
••Organic pollutantsOrganic pollutants
••Nitrogen, PhosphorusNitrogen, Phosphorus
••ChloridesChlorides
••Toxic compoundsToxic compounds (heavy metals,(heavy metals, organochlorinesorganochlorines, etc.), etc.)
WHOWHO -- ClCl ––
< 250 ppm< 250 ppm
IsraelIsrael
Average 1998Average 1998
190 ppm190 ppm
Tel AvivTel Aviv Tel AvivTel Aviv
GazaGaza
GazaGaza
WHOWHO - NONO33 --
< 45 ppm< 45 ppm
IsraelIsrael
Average 1998Average 1998
= 58 ppm= 58 ppm
Water QualityWater Quality -- Coastal AquiferCoastal Aquifer (Israel Hydrological Service)(Israel Hydrological Service)
Stream Pollution, Eutrophication
Boron and plant growthBoron and plant growth
From: J.From: J. TarchitzkyTarchitzky
DeficiencyDeficiency
DeficiencyDeficiency
ToxicityToxicity
ToxicityToxicity
ToxicityToxicity
New Israel Standard for BoronNew Israel Standard for Boron
in detergents, 1999in detergents, 1999
14
93
112
148
184
211
0.17
0.36
0.41
0.5
0.58
0.65
0
50
100
150
200
250
200820032002200019991996
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Sew
ag
e(m
g/L
B)
Sew
ag
e (m
g/L
B)
To
nes
B/y
To
nes B
/y
The SolutionThe Solution::
Reduction of Boron in detergentsReduction of Boron in detergents
““CompactCompact”” anlanl liquidliquid
formulasformulas –– moremore
environmentally friendlyenvironmentally friendly
Sustainable Effluent
Reuse: (Stage 2)
Old 20/30 (BOD5/TSS.) StandardOld 20/30 (BOD5/TSS.) Standard Use for agriculture is restrictedUse for agriculture is restricted
replaced by:replaced by:
New, stringent standards
for effluent quality
New Israeli standards for effluent qualityNew Israeli standards for effluent quality
•• IncludesIncludes -- 37 parameters37 parameters
•• Considers:Considers: Environmental, Agricultural, PublicEnvironmental, Agricultural, Public Health & HydroHealth & Hydro--geological Aspectsgeological Aspects
Proposed effluent quality standards - Salts
Parameter Units Irrigation Stream
Electrical
Conductivity
dS/m 1.4
SAR (mmol/L) 0.5
5
Chloride mg/L 250 400
Sodium mg/L 150 200
Boron mg/L 0.4
Fluoride mg/L 2
Treatment at the source
Cannot be treated at the WWTP
Treatment at the source
Proposed effluent quality standards - Heavy Metals
Parameter Units Irrigation Stream
Arsenic mg/L 0.1 0.1
Mercury mg/L 0.002 0.0005
Chromium mg/L 0.1 0.05
Nickel mg/L 0.2 0.05
Lead mg/L 0.1 0.008
Cadmium mg/L 0.01 0.005
Zinc mg/L 2 0.2
Copper mg/L 0.2 0.02
Manganese mg/L 0.2
Cobalt mg/L 0.05
Vanadium mg/L 0.1
Iron mg/L 2
The Carmiel WWTP
Western Galilee
High Quality Waste Water
Treatment Production
-
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
180,000
200,000
220,000
240,000
) 5 "
A (� A
M 8 M D
M
� 8 e
8 T
1,000 8, 000
30,000
50,000
78,000
116,000
154,000
172,000 187,000
190,000
17,000
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2015 2020
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
MC8T
0
4
(3) Drip Irrigation Phase
Water Conservation Measures
• 1950s – Invented due to low cost plastics
• 1965 Netafim Co. started: Kibbutz Hatzerim.
• Today > 500 million dollars in annual sales.
• Used world-wide from marijuana growers in California to vegetables in Afghanistan.
• Voted Israel’s “best invention.”
Drip Irrigation: Benefits
• Evaporation is reduced relative to sprinklers
• Can irrigate steep landscapes.
• Eliminates drift during wastewater reuse.
• Allows for precise chemigation.
• Delivers to the root zone.
• Automation = optimization
• Water use per yield drops!!!
Subsurface drip irrigation:
The Next Generation
Conserves water while:
• controlling weeds,
• minimize runoff and evaporation,
• increase longevity of laterals and emitters,
• ease use of heavy equipment in the field, and
• prevent human contact with low-quality water.
• Labor saving (avoids seasonal installation).
(4) Water Reservoir Phase
Floodwater can be used for 2 purpose:
1. To improve
quality and quantity
of ground water by
replenishing and aquifers.
2. To impound
floodwaters for
direct supply to irrigation systems
in nearby fields.
IDAN Runoff Reservoir
Today: Wastewater Storage is focus
40
(5) Desalination Phase
Israeli D
ele
ga
tion
Is
raeli D
ele
ga
tion
Is
raeli D
ele
ga
tion
– –A
us
tralia 1
9A
us
tralia
19
Au
stralia
19- - 2
2 Ma
rch
200
72
2 Ma
rch
20
072
2 Ma
rch
200
7
Development of Sea Water Desalination Plants
036
100 130 145 160280 305
405
505
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
(125)
(60)
(100)
(120)
Hadera
Palmachim
Ashdod
Ashkelon
Pre tendering stage/ Financial Agreement
Full production
Since 12/05
Construction phase. Production at 10/09
Shafdan(100)
Full production Since 9/07
Pre tendering stage
Israeli D
ele
ga
tion
Is
raeli D
ele
ga
tion
Is
raeli D
ele
ga
tion
– –A
us
tralia 1
9A
us
tralia
19
Au
stralia
19- - 2
2 Ma
rch
200
72
2 Ma
rch
20
072
2 Ma
rch
200
7Israe
li De
leg
atio
n
Israe
li De
leg
atio
n
Israe
li De
leg
atio
n – –
Au
stralia
19
Au
stra
lia 1
9A
us
tralia 1
9- - 22 M
arc
h 2
007
22 M
arc
h 2
007
22 M
arc
h 2
007
036
100 130 145 160280 305
405
505
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
(125)
(60)
(100)
(120)
Hadera
Palmachim
Ashdod
Ashkelon
Pre tendering stage/ Financial Agreement
Full production
Since 12/05
Construction phase. Production at 10/09
Shafdan(100)
Full production Since 9/07
Pre tendering stage
–-
–-
–
-
Development of Sea Water Desalination Plants
0 36
100 130 145 160 280 305
405
505
2004
20
05
2006
20
07
2008
20
09 20
10 20
11
2012
2013
(125)
(60)
(100)
(120)
(125)
(60)
(100)
(120)
Hadera
Palmachim
Ashdod
Ashkelon
HHadera
Palmachim
Ashdod
Ashkelon
adera
Palmachim
Ashdod
Ashkelon
Pre tendering stage/ Financial Agreement
Full production
Since 12/05
Construction phase. Production at 10/09
Shafdan (100)
Full production Since 9/07
Pre tendering stage
DESALINATED SEA WATER COST RANGE
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR
ce
nt/
m3
Ashkelon
Palmachim,
Haifa bay Eilat
LARGE SWRO DESALINATION PLANTS
SMALL SWRO DESALINATION PLANTS
Trinidad
Larnaca
Malta
Source: Israel Water Commission
TYPICAL LARGE SCALE SWRO DESALINATION WATER COSTS
32
40
30
28
34
24
23
28
19
19
22
17
16
15
16
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
ce
nt/
m3
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR
O&M
ENERGY
CAPITAL
102
86
70 58
48
Source: Israel Water Commission
Desalination –
Ashkelon Plant
55 55 55 55 30 20 15 8 1 Brackish
water desal.
50 - - - - - - - - Water import
2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002
315 270 140 130 110 40 ---Sea water
desalination
35 35 35 15 -----Recycle
system
455 360 230 200 140 60 15 81
Additional
amounts of
potable water
509 491 471 461 441 390 359 332 295 Treated waste
water
Manufactured water 2002 2010 MCM/YEAR
Emergency Upgrade: : 750 mcm by 2020
600 mcm immediately: cost: 500 million €
Water Development Plan: required investments
2002 – 2010 (Million €)
• Desalination 1,600
• Sewage treatment & reuse systems 1,000
• Water supply systems 600
• Renovation & Improvements 800
TOTAL 4,000,000,000 €
(6) Are We Entering a New Market-
Based Phase?
Aug. 15, 2007 – End of Water Subsidies Era
Water Pricing – Israel 2008 Domestic Agricultural Wastewater Public Institutions
1st Price € 0.72 € 0.24 € 0.11 € 1.08
2nd Price € 0.88 € 0.29
3rd Price € 1.41 € 0.38
Is the Middle East
Ready for a Water Market?
Average Willingness to Pay
CULTURAL/HISTORIC OPEN SPACE
PRSERVATION
LACK OF CONTROL IDEOLOGY
“The Jewish Farmer”
SYMBOLIC:
NATIONAL AUTONOMY
FOOD SECURITY
Palestinian Concerns Israeli Concerns
Prevailing views about Water Markets
Zaragoza, 30 July 2008
CONCLUSIONS
• Israel’s water managers can claim real achievements.
• Environmentally – many mistakes.
• Water subsidies are history. Privatization is the future.
• Command & Control seems to work.
• Pricing mechanisms will affect individual decisions.
• Markets are unlikely as “economic efficiency” has
never been a paramount policy objective.
Zaragoza, 30 July 2008