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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike License. Your use of this material constitutes acceptance of that license and the conditions of use of materials on this site.
Copyright 2006, The Johns Hopkins University and Keith P. West, Jr. All rights reserved. Use of these materials permitted only in accordance with license rights granted. Materials provided “AS IS”; no representations or warranties provided. User assumes all responsibility for use, and all liability related thereto, and must independently review all materials for accuracy and efficacy. May contain materials owned by others. User is responsible for obtaining permissions for use from third parties as needed.
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Vitamin A Deficiencyand Child
Health, Survival and Vision
Keith P. West, Jr, Dr.P.H.Center for Human Nutrition
Bloomberg School of Public HealthJohns Hopkins University
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Major dietary sources of preformed VA;1 Major dietary sources of preformed VA;1 ugug retinol = 1 retinol activity retinol = 1 retinol activity equivalent (RAE), previously retinol equivalent (RE) equivalent (RAE), previously retinol equivalent (RE) Photo: V. SheffieldPhoto: V. Sheffield
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Previously Previously 6:16:1 bioconversion ratio for Bbioconversion ratio for B--carotene;carotene;Now ratio = Now ratio = 12:112:1 for Bfor B--carotene; 24:1 for otherscarotene; 24:1 for others
Photo: V. Sheffield
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Functions of Vitamin A
Regulates cellular differentiation:Embryonic Epithelial (eg, conjunctival, tracts)Immune stem cells HematopoieticOsteoid (osteoblasts, - clasts)
Participates in rod cell visual cycle
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Vitamin A
Adequacy Deficiency
Bone growthReproductionEmbryogenesisRod visionCell differentiationImmunity
Growth retardationDysfunction (M&F)TeratogenesisNight blindnessEpithelial metaplasiaImpaired innate &
acquired defenses
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Elmer V. McCollum Alfred Sommer
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A 1913 “McCollum experiment” showing normal rate growth and Growth of rat while becoming VA-depleted, followed by adding A small amount of butter fat to the diet
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Early mortality and xerophthalmia histogram of rats during progressive vitamin A depletion (Stephenson, 1920)
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VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY DISORDERS Health Consequences of VAD
• Xerophthalmia: Mild to severe • Corneal blindness and disability • Anemia • Stunted growth• Impaired immunity • Increased severity of infection
(eg,measles, diarrhea, or malaria)• Mortality
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VADD Reflect a Gradient of Health Consequences
Corneal Blindness
Xerophthalmia
Metaplasia, Impaired immunity,Morbidity, Anemia, Poor growth
Tissue and plasmadepletion
Chronic dietarydeficit
Mor
talit
y Ri
skSystemic Effects
Adapted from: KP West Jr J Nutr 2002;132:2857S
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WHO Xerophthalmia Classification (1982)
XN NightblindnessX1A Conjunctival xerosisX1B Bitot’s spotsX2 Corneal xerosisX3 Corneal ulceration
KeratomalaciaXS Corneal scarringXF Xerophthalmic fundus
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Courtesy of Helen Keller International
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Examine eyes for conjunctival xerosis with handlight shown from side
Photo: K. West
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Photo: A SommerConjunctival xerosis (X1A)
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Photo: A SommerBitot’s spot (X1B)
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Photo:Bitot’s spot (X1B)
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Photos: K West
Night blindness or Bitot’s spots may occur in wasted or non-wasted children; typical prevalenceof 1 to 5%
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Photo: A SommerCorneal xerosis (X2)
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Photo: A SommerCorneal ulcer (X3A)
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Photo: A SommerCorneal necrosis - Keratomalacia (X3B)
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Photo: A SommerCorneal scar: Adherent leukoma (XS)
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Photo: Alfred SommerCorneal necrosis – keratomalacia (X3B)
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Keratomalacia
•Nutritional blindness•Corneal necrosis•Associated with
Severe wastingSevere illness
(eg, measles)Chronic, severe
vitamin A deficiency
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IVACG/WHO Vitamin A Treatment Schedule
Xerophthalmia Oral DoseDay 1 200,000 IU Day 2 200,000 IU Day 14 200,000 IU
High Risk ConditionsSevere PEMSevere diarrheaSevere ALRISevere Measles 200,000 IU on days 1 & 2
single 200,000 IU
D Ross J Nutr 2002
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Initial Response to Vitamin A
Nightblindness: 1 day
ConjunctivalXerosis/ Bitot’sSpots: 1-3 days
Corneal UlcersKeratomalacia: 2-4 days
Sommer, 1982
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Bilateral corneal scars (XS): Photo: A. Sommer
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Four-year oldIndonesian childwith leukoma (RE) andstaphyloma (LE)
Photo: K West, Jr.
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VADD in Preschool Children: Morbidity and Mortality
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01020304050
Nml XN X1B Xn+X1B
Ocular Sign(s)
Mor
talit
y (p
er 1
000
child
-inte
rval
s)
Xerophthalmia and Risk of Child Mortality in Preschool Indonesian
Children over 18-Month Period
Sommer et al, Lancet 1983
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The Aceh TrialNorthern Sumatra
1982-84: 2 cents of vitamin A cut child
by 34%
Photo: K West, Jr.
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Photo: K West, Jr.
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Eight Major Trials Over a Decade Revealed: 25-35% Reduction in Preschool Child Mortality
Adapted from Sommer & West, 1996
Over 165,000 children participated in these 8 trialsEst in 1991: 1.1 to 2.4 m deaths avoidable each year)
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VA deficiency Increases Measles Fatality;VA Treatment Reduced CFR by 50% to 80%
OR = 0.40 0.49 0.19 0.34
0
5
10
15
Lon
don
19
32
Tanz
ania
1988
Cap
etow
n19
90
Dur
ban
19
91
ControlVA treated
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Vitamin A and Malaria
• VAD exacerbates falciparummalaria
• In Papua New Guinea, VA supplementation lowered…• Clinic attack rates by 30%• Parasite density• Enlarged spleen rates
Shankar et al, Lancet 1999;354:203
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Vitamin A and Severity of MorbidityGhana VAST Trials
RR (VA/Control) 95% CI
Clinic attendances
0.88 (0.81-0.95)
Hospital admissions
0.62 (0.42-0.93)
Mortality 0.81 (0.68-0.98)
P Arthur et al, Lancet 1992; Ghana Vast Team, Lancet 1993
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Fever-related Mortality= >6 Months of Age, Sarlahi, Nepal (NNIPS-1)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 Days 1-6 Days = >7 Days
Days of Morbidity Past Week
4-M
onth
MR
/100
0 C
hild
Vis
its
ControlVit A
RR=0.82RR=0.56*
RR=0.49
* p <0.05
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Effect of Vitamin A on DiarrheaSerrinha, Bahia, Brazil
Stools/ Day
Control n=620
Vit A n=620
RR
p
≥ 3 51.7 47.8 0.92 0.07
≥ 4 25.9 23.2 0.90 0.05
≥ 5 12.3 9.9 0.80 0.005
≥ 6 5.6 4.3 0.77 0.006 Barreto et al, Lancet 1994
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Can infant health and survival be improved by direct
supplementation with VA any time during the first 6
months of life?
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Bangladeshi infant < 6 months of age receiving 50,000 IU vitamin A by expressing 3-4 drops of oil from capsule into mouth
Photo: K West, Jr.
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Days
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Prob
abili
ty o
f Sur
viva
l
0.980
0.985
0.990
0.995
1.000
PlaceboVitamin A
Vitamin A in the First Six Months of Life and MortalityIn Nepal: 50,000 and 100,000 IU given to infants < 6 months of age, recruited
during six 4-monthly home visits over a 2-year period. Vitamin A failed to reduce mortality (NNIPS-1)
Based on K West et al AJCN 1995;62:143
VA: 2625 child-years PL: 2517 child-years
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In Ghana, Peru and India: Vitamin A (25,000) given at each EPI visit at 6, 10 & 14 weeks of age failed to reduce infant mortality
Adapted from: WHO/CHD Lancet 1998;352:1257
Momdosed
Infants dosedWith EPI
VA with Measles vaccine
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Biologically Plausible Mechanisms• Immunopotentiation
- Cell mediated (T-cell)- Humoral (Antibody-mediated)
• Innate Immune mechanisms - Neutrophils, Macrophages, NK cells- Epithelial cell differentiation
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Epidemiology of VA DeficiencyGuide to Prevention
Xerophthalmia Risk Factors
Location Diet
Age, Sex Morbidity
Season SES, Care
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Magnitude of Preschool Problem in Developing (Low Income) Countries
• Xerophthamia: 4.4 million (0.9%)• VA deficient (< 20 ug/dl): 127 million (25%)
K West J Nutr 2002;132:2857S
versus in 1980s/early 1990s…
• 2.8 to 13 million with xerophthalmia• 118 to 190 million with vitamin A deficiency
Humphrey, West & Sommer BWHO 1992;70:225WHO MDIS: Geneva 1995
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Emerging Indications of a Major Impact of VA Interventions on Child Mortality…
• 1991 estimated preschool child deaths per year due to VAD: 1.1 - 2.4 m (mid-point: 1.75 m)
• 2004 WHO GBD estimated preschool child deaths due to VAD: ~600,000 (Rice, West and Black, 2004)
• Difference: Roughly ~1 m deaths due to VA deficiency are currently being prevented each year
• 700,000 per year more to go!
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Village and Household PairwiseOdds Ratio for Xerophthalmia
Village HouseholdMalawi 1.2 4.4Zambia 1.7 7.4Indonesia 1.7 9.7Nepal 2.2 7.7
Katz et al, Internat J Epidemiol 1992
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Lessons from CLUSTERING?
• Treat child with xerophthalmia• Dose siblings of a case with VA• Counsel mother about family diet• Target case’s village for program
IVACG Policy Statement, 1996
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0
10
20
30
0 1 2 3 4 5 6Age (years)
Prev
alen
ce p
er p
er 1
000
Chi
ldre
n
Prevalence of Bitot’s Spots by Gender and Age in Indonesia
Sommer, 1982
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Photo: K West, Jr.
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Percent of Rural Bangladeshi Children Still Being Breastfed by Age
Bangladesh Nutritional Blindness Survey, 1983
020406080
100
12 24 36 48 60 72
Perc
ent S
till
Bre
astfe
edin
g XerophthalmiaNon-xerophthalmia
Helen Keller International, 1986
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Dietary Protection From Xerophthalmia Dietary Protection From Xerophthalmia Summary of Epidemiologic StudiesSummary of Epidemiologic Studies
Food <1 1 2 3 4 5Breastmilk
Yellow Fruit
Dark GreenLeaves
Eggs/DairyLiver
Age (years)
KP West, 2001
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Risk of Xerophthalmia in Nepalese Children by Type of Food Usually Eaten in 1st 2 Years of Life
Odds Ratio
Risk Decrease
“r” with Sib Diet
Meat w/liver 0.09 91% 0.38
Egg 0.11 89% 0.53
Fish w/liver 0.41 59% 0.39
Mango 0.28 62% 0.54
Gittelsohn et al Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51:484
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Vitamin A deficiency appearsto be a major health problem among women of reproductive age in many developing countries, suggesting that it is a chronic; that is, it persiststhroughout the “life cycle”.
Photo: Keith West
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Increased evidence of VA deficiency among pregnant women; suggests that VAD persists throughout “life cycle”.
Low VA status: ~20 mVA deficient: ~ 7 mNight blind: ~ 6 m
K West J Nutr 2002
In developing countries
Photo: Keith West
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Night blind, pregnant Nepalese womanPhoto: P Christian
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Mortality of Women by Night BlindStatus in Pregnancy, Sarlahi, Nepal
0100200300400500600700800900
Pregnant 0-6 wk 7-12 wk 13-24 wk 25-36 wk 37-52 wk >52 wk
Postpartum
Mor
talit
y ra
te p
er 1
00,0
00
Night blindNot night blind
Christian et al., Am J Epidemiol 2000
Post-LatePregnancy
Late Pregnancy-related PeriodMaternal Period
Night blindness disappears shortly after birth
Latent risk of infection/death
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Can intervening with VA improve maternalhealth and survival?
Photo: Keith West
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NNIPS-2 Design
270 Wards
Beta-carotene7000 RE / wk
90 wards
14,536 women
7201 pregnancies
Vitamin A7000 RE / wk
90 wards
15,305 women
7747 pregnancies
Placebo0 RE / wk
90 wards
14,805 women
7241 pregnancies
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Cumulative Pregnancy-related Mortality of Mothers NNIPS-2, Nepal
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Pregnancy To 6 Wk To 12 Wk
Dea
ths
per 1
00,0
00 p
regn
anci
es
PL
VA
BC
RR = 0.60 0.47 0.63 0.56 0.60 0.51
RR = Relative Risk; RR excludes 1.0 West et al, BMJ, 1999
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VADD: Women of Reproductive Age
• Maternal XN/ with disability• Other xerophthalmic eye signs• Infection: Diarrhea, sepsis/fever • Anemia• Reproductive morbidity (?)• Maternal mortality • Infant risk: Mortality
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JiVitA Bangladesh
A new 8-year research project in Bangladesh to confirm the impactof maternal vitamin Aor beta-carotene supplementation onmaternal mortality (n=68,000);
“Jivita”: Bengali wordMeaning “alive”
Supported by USAID & Gates
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Additional Maternal VA Trials
• Ghana: Maternal mortality; underway• Tanzania: No survival benefit for
infants born to HIV+ mothers; possible increased risk of MCT of HIV (W Fawzi et al)
• Zimbabwe: postpartum dosing on infant mortality, HIV transmission, other outcomes, unaffected by VA
(J Humphrey et al)
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Improving VA Intake:Complementary Approaches
• Supplementation• Food fortification• Dietary diversification• Novel approaches: genetic
modification, plant breeding
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Diet
Fortification
Supplements
DeficientPopulation
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Photo: K West, Jr.
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Photo: K West, Jr.
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Vitamin A Supplementation
• Centerpiece for prevention• Proven, low-cost, sustainable, rapid• Highly effective• Low risk (in both extent and severity)• ~600 m capsules distributed by
UNICEF each year
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Target Groups and Vitamin AProphylaxis Guidelines
Group Dosage (IU) Frequency Children
< 6 mo 50,000 6, 10, 14 wk
6-12mo 100,000 Every 4-6 mo
≥ 12 mo 200,000 Every 4-6 mo
Mothers 400,000 ≤ 6-8 wks postpartum
(IVACG, J Nutr 2002)
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VA Supplementation
• Medical: Therapeutic• Saturated: All health contacts
with target groups• Universal: Stand-alone, NIDS,
semi-annual campaign
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Vitamin A Coverage Increases with “Campaigns”
Bangladesh starts semi-annual 2-day campaign
Helen Keller International, 1996
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Large Dose Vitamin A
.2¢ per 200,000 IU dose in oil
encapsulate
2¢ per 200,000 IU capsule
delivery system
20¢ per delivered doseK. West, ACC/SCN State of Art Paper No. 2, 1987
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Photo: Keith West
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Photo: Keith West
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Impact of MSG + A in Indonesia
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50Serum Retinol (ug/dL)
Perc
ent o
f Chi
ldre
n
Baseline5 Months11 Months
Based on Muhilal et al, Am J Clin Nutr 1988;48:1265
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Flour
Noodles
Sugar
Fortify mulitiple foods with vitamin A
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Food Fortification
Passive Delivery
“Centrally” Processed
Widely Consumed
Technically Fortifiable
Innovative Financing
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Photo: K West, Jr.Photo: K West, Jr.
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Helen Keller International
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Photo: K West, Jr
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Vitamin A and Child Mortality PreventionEvidence-based Global Advocacy
• UN-ACC/SCN Statement (1986)• WHO/UNICEF Statement (1987)• IVACG Statement (1989)• World Summit for Children (1990)• Lusaka Convention (1990)• Ending Hidden Hunger (1991)• Internat’l Conference on Nutrition (1992)• Bellagio Brief (1992)• 25th Session of UN-ACC/SCN (1993)• UNICEF/WHO Mid-Decade Goals (1994)• 2002 UNGA Special Session to follow-up of
World Summit and Millenium Dev. Summit
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NNIPS-2 Studies in Nepal: Key Findings
For more information see: P Christian et al: Int J Epidemiol 1998; Eur J Clin Nutr1998; Am J Clin Nutr 1998; Soc Sci Med 1998; Am J Epidemiol 2000; Katz et al, 1995
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Impact of Maternal Vitamin A or Beta-carotene Supplementation on Pregnancy-related
Mortality (Through 12 Weeks Post-partum)
PL (7241)
VA or BC (14948)
No. deaths 51 59 MR/100,000 704 395 RR 1.00 0.56 (95% CL) - (0.37,0.85) 44% reduction (p < 0.005)
West et al, BMJ 1999