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The Transformations of Scientific Fields: Physics, Chemistry
1900-1945
Yves GingrasCanada Research Chair
History and Sociology of ScienceCIRST-UQAM
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Distinctions between fields by journal title
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Papers and References in Selected Source journals (1900-1944)
Field Papers Papers with references References
References/ Paper
Chemistry 122 902 97 935 1 295 014 13,2
General 112 087 57 188 304 884 5,3
Mathematics 13 496 10 429 82 562 7,9
Physics 59 950 50 275 555 123 11,0
Total 308 435 215 827 2 237 583 10,4
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Growth in number of researchers
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Growth in the number of papers
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Authors’ “productivity”
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Collaborative research
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Proportion of papers by country (journal publisher)
Note: “other” counties include Sweden, the Netherlands, the USSR and Switzerland
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Interdisciplinarity(defined by the journals where scientists publish)
Maths-Phys Chem-Maths Chem-Phys
Bateman, H Loewy, A Harkins, WD
Weyl, H Schmidt, E Trautz, M
Schur, I Saurel, P Langmuir, I
Synge, JL Fischer, E Tammann, G
Bieberbach, L Meyer, E Hahn, O
Hopf, E Schmidt, H Eyring, H
Meyer, E Salkowski, E Tolman, RC
Klein, F Young, RC Huggins, ML
Larmor, J Muller, M Pauli, W
Polya, G Schmidt, R Mark, H
Top 10 interdisciplinary authors (1900-1945)
Chemistry: 54,000 authors
Maths: 2700 authors
Physics: 17,000 authorsChemistry/Physics: 2700
Chemistry/Maths: 130
Maths/Physics: 280
All 3 disciplines: 20
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Country of origin of cited publication
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Citations in chemistry journals
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Citations in Physics Journals
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Citations in Mathematics Journals
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Impact of disciplines on one another
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Citation statistics by country (1900-1944)
Chemistry Germany Other France UK USA
Germany 72.83% 5.69% 5.70% 7.14% 8.64%
Other 36.21% 35.57% 5.79% 10.28% 12.15%
France 39.43% 6.96% 37.94% 7.38% 8.29%
UK 27.95% 4.91% 5.25% 36.80% 25.09%
USA 25.03% 6.31% 5.35% 13.79% 49.52%
Total 51.27% 7.54% 5.93% 11.76% 23.50%
Citin
g
Cited
Maths Germany Other France UK USA
Germany 63.49% 14.90% 9.19% 5.83% 6.59%
Other 31.70% 28.30% 23.43% 7.70% 8.88%
UK 13.04% 7.76% 5.50% 65.03% 8.67%
USA 21.32% 10.55% 7.03% 12.52% 48.57%
Total 36.99% 12.71% 8.53% 22.21% 19.57%
Physics Germany Other France UK USA
Germany 70.96% 4.55% 4.87% 10.75% 8.87%
Other 32.04% 29.47% 3.34% 16.44% 18.71%
France 32.70% 5.61% 39.02% 13.14% 9.54%
UK 24.25% 4.82% 4.68% 41.04% 25.20%
USA 21.72% 4.81% 3.61% 16.24% 53.62%
Total 39.88% 5.31% 5.78% 17.53% 31.50%
Cited
Cited Citin
g
Citin
g
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Citation statistics by discipline (1900-1944)
Bio / Med Chemistry General Engineering Maths Physics
Chemistry 9.00% 74.94% 9.11% 0.98% 0.02% 5.95%
Maths 1.58% 0.13% 21.67% 0.41% 70.35% 5.87%
Physics 1.78% 12.50% 21.41% 3.22% 0.57% 60.51%
Total 6.87% 56.20% 12.74% 1.56% 2.13% 20.49%
Citin
g
Cited
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Gauging the country of publication of cited articles
% of articles produced by country UK USA Germany Other (*)
Chemistry 6.36 31.51 55.24 6.89
Mathematics 14.17 30.57 49.43 5.83
Physics 18.88 41.49 32.89 6.74
(*) France is included in this category, since the database poorly reflects the French journals in Chemistry and Physics
Based on a semi-random sample of 300 physicists and 500 chemists from each country(**) , we can get an alternative idea of how the cited articles are distributed:
% of articles cited by scientists in: Chemistry Physics
France 11.15 12.08
Germany 38.70 30.67
Other 6.70 5.83
UK 19.95 25.83
USA 23.50 25.58(**) There is insufficient data for the case of mathematicians
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Co-citation network of physicists, 1900-1904 (More than 8 co-citations).
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Physics (1905-1911)
• Co-citation network of top 50 most cited authors
• Note two groups which emerge
Node sizes reflect number of citations, visible ties for 11 co-citations or more
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Multi-dimensional scaling and agglomerative clustering
• MDS provides a map based on the distances “dissimilarities” between citation patterns of the authors (top 50 most cited authors in physics, 1905-1911)
• AHC then allows us to identify cluster of “similar” authors
• In this case, it identifies two primary, distinct clusters, which are the same as those identified using the networks
Group 2
spectroscopy
Chemical physics
Electron theoryIonization, atom
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Word frequency in titles of citing papersGroup2: Ionization of gases, atomic model, emission spectra
… (Thomson, Stark, Wien, Riecke, Lenard, Warburg, Kayser)
Word Frequency
Radiation 34
Light 28
Relativity 24
Electrical 22
waves 20
metals 18
Dispersion 17
Magnetic 17
Heat 17
Electric 15
energy 15
Electromagnetic 14
Electron 13
Absorption 13
metal 13
method 12
moving 12
spectrum 12
Word Frequency
Light 55
rays 36
Radiation 35
Electrical 33
Discharge 28
Absorption 28
gases 27
Spectra 27
spectrum 23
lines 22
Cathode 22
Spectral 21
Emission 19
canal 19
Electricity 17
influence 17
Magnetic 17
Group 1: Special relativity and the photoelectric effect (Einstein, Abraham, Lorentz, Drude, Planck)
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Co-citation network of physicists, 1912-1918 (More than 10 co-citations).
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Co-citation network of physicists, 1925-1930 (More than 16 co-citations)
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Co-citation network of physicists, 1937-1944 (More than 21 co-citations)
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Names 1900-04 1905-11 1912-18 1919-24 1925-30 1931-36 1937-44ABRAHAM, M 26 7 19 96 488 - -BETHE, HA - - - - - 34 1BHABHA, HJ - - - - - 438 2BIRGE, RT - - - - 7 15 123BLACKETT - - - - - 75 4BOHR, N - - 16 2 16 151 47BORN, M - 36 42 4 4 29 35BREIT, G - - - - - 25 3COMPTON, AH - - - 17 9 1 28DEBYE, P - - 3 3 10 2 15DIRAC, PAM - - - 17 5 33DRUDE, P 2 2 15 101 156 268 410EINSTEIN, A - 10 4 6 38 - -FERMI, E - - - - 185 9 7FRANCK, J - - 18 5 11 152 -HARTREE, DR - - - - - 8 143HEISENBERG, W - - - 131 1 4 6HUND, F - - - - 3 41 -JAUNCEY, GEM - - - 172 87 10 204JOHNSON, TH - - - - - 17 10LENARD, P 5 4 8 9 37 91 181LORENTZ, HA 13 8 12 13 165 - -LUMMER, O 7 28 106 - - - -MOTT, NF - - - - - 54 5MULLIKEN, RS - - - - 5 6 36NERNST, W 24 24 6 143 - -PASCHEN, F 10 16 13 16 22 186 -PAULI, W - - - 47 6 129 30PLANCK, M 6 5 5 10 108 - -ROSSI, B - - - - - 21 8RUTHERFORD, E 21 13 11 14 118 42 185SCHR…DINGER, E - - - 86 8 63 -SLATER, JC - - - 459 84 3 12SOMMERFELD - 38 9 1 2 27 77STARK, J 4 3 1 8 43 - -THOMSON, JJ 1 1 2 7 34 - -VOIGT, W 22 9 10 29 - 92 -WALLER, I - - - 454 75 7 78WARBURG, E 9 6 26 50 - - -WIEDEMANN, E 8 20 138 109 - - -WIEN, W 3 14 7 19 70 - -WIGNER, E - - - - 150 38 9
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Co-citation network of authors in Mathematics
Journals (1900-1911)
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Why We Cannot Predict Nobel Prizes...
Yves Gingras and Matthew WallaceCIRST-UQAM
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Nobel prize winners and nominees
Number of physics nominees (1901-44): 813Number of physics winners (1901-44): 47
Number of chemistry nominees (1901-44): 756Number of chemistry winners (1901-44): 43
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Evolving profile of prize winners
(n=43)
(n=46)
(n=71)
(n=47)
(n=42)
(n=89)
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Probability distribution of rankings 3 years before and after the prize
Note that, in all cases, the winners’ centrality provides a slightly better indicator (for the highest ranks)
(n=172)
(n=169)
(n=167)
(n=166)
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How does the distribution of winners’ rankings evolve? (Part I: Physics)
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How does the distribution of winners’ rankings evolve? (Part II: Chemistry)