The Maghreb

HIST 100711/6/13

The Spread of Islam

North Africa before Islam

• Not integrated into empires• Urban centers– Connections to Europe and Byzantium– Christianity

• Small scale agriculture• Pastoralist nomads• Berbers

Roman amphitheater in El Djem, Tunisia

Arab Conquests• 643-648: First invasion, across Libya

– First Fitna• 665-689: Second invasion, conquer Tunisia

– Second Fitna• 692-709: Third invasion, conquer Morocco• 711: Invasion of Spain• Establish numerous small states• Qayrawan: Capital of Arab Ifriqiya

Great Mosque of Qayrawan, Tunisia

Berbers and Islam• Subject population vs. welcomed converts• Jizya and slavery• Kharijism • 740-743: Berber Revolt

– Berber tribal revolt– With Islamic trappings

• Ends with Berber states centered on tradingposts• Rustamids (r. 761-909): Kharijite Berber state centered on

Tahert

Idrisids (r. 789-926)• Zaydi Shi’ites• Idriss I (r. 788-791): grandson of the Shi’ite Imam Hasan b. `Ali

and founder of Idrisid state• 787 – Flees `Abbasids• Seeks help of Awraba Berbers• Marries daughter of chief (birth of Morocco?)• Uses Shi’ite charisma and Berber muscle to conquer Morocco

Tomb of Idris I, Moulay Idriss, Morocco

Idrisids and Fez

• 789 – Establish the city of Fez as Idrisid capital• Encourage immigration of Arabs• Especially those escaping from `Abbasids and

Umayyads of Spain• Establish a core of Arab supporters to counter Berbers

`Abbasids and Aghlabids

• Aghlabids (r. 800-909)• `Abbasid governors of Ifriqiya turned independent dynasty• Centered on Qayrawan• The Wild West– Rebellious Arab soldiers– Berber attacks

Aghlabids and Italy• 827 – 902: Conquest of Sicily

– Part of Byzantine Empire– Along with southern Italy

• 847 – 871: Emirate of Bari – Muslim state on Italian Peninsula• 9th century piracy• 965 – 1091: Emirate of Sicily • Norman conquest of Italy• Arabs in the Norman court

Painting made for Norman king of Palermo, 1150

Fatimids in North Africa• Isma`ili Shi’ite missionaries convert Kutana Berbers• 909: al-Mahdi declares himself caliph• Establish capital in Tunisia• Conquest of North Africa (and Sicily)• Destruction of Kharijite dynasties• 969: Conquest of Egypt• 972: Abandonment of North Africa

Walls of Mahdia, first Fatimid capital

Zirids (r. 973-1148)

• Sanhaja Berbers governing North Africa for the Fatimids

• Removal of Fatimid resources, especially navy• Sicily becomes fully independent• 1016: Shi’ite revolt violently put down• 1049: Zirids break with Fatimids, recognize

`Abbasid authority

New Arab Invasions• Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym• Bedouin Arab tribes sent by Fatimids• 1057: Zirids lose Qayrawan• Breakdown of unified North Africa• Hammadids (r. 1014-1152): Sanhaja Berber offshoot of Zirids ruling north-eastern Algeria

Beni Hammad Fort

Almoravids (r. 1040-1147)

• Sanhaja Berbers from the Western Sahara• Trans-Saharan Trade• Gold-Salt Trade• Sijilmasa: Key trade center in northern Sahara• Almoravids pressured by Zanata Berbers to the north and the Ghana Empire to the south

Almoravids and Islam

• 1040: Berber chieftain goes on pilgrimage to Mecca• `Abdallah b. Yasin: Maliki religious scholar from

Qayrawan returns with chieftan• Teaches Qur’an, hadith, and law• Enforces strict moral code– No music, no alcohol, changes tax codes

• Promotes coming of the last days• The inner jihad• Ribat – al-murabitun - Almoravids

Maraboutism

• Marabout: religious scholar and teacher, but also Sufi saint

• Guide to a religious community• Syncretism• Ribat – murabit – marabout• Baraka, shrines, and ziyara

A marabout’s tomb in southern Morocco

Almoravids

• 1055 – take Sijilmasa from Ghana• Establish control over Trans-Saharan Trade• 1070 – Establish Marrakesh as capital• 1080 – complete conquest of Morocco• 1082 – aid requested from Spanish Muslims• Create a single state uniting Sahara, Morocco, and Spain

Almoravids and Empire

• Amir al-muslimin• Scribes from Spain• Christian mercenaries• Black ghulam• Maliki religious scholars• Elimination of Shi’ism and Kharijism

Almoravid General Abu Bakr

Muhammad b. `Abdallah b. Tumart (ca. 1080-1130)

• Berber religious scholar who studied in Baghdad and Damascus• Mixture of strict Sunni law with Sufi charisma• 1117: Returns to Morocco as a fiery, puritan preacher• Heir to the Prophet• Return to the time of the Prophet• Mahdi, imam, and ma`sun (sinless)• Berber military strength with religious charisma

Ibn Tumart Mosque