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The First Two Months
FogelChapter 5 Created by Ilse DeKoeyer-Laros, Ph.D.
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Overview Chapter 5
• Physical and Motor Development• Perceptual Development• Cognitive Development• Emotional Development• Family and Society
Experiential Exercises
Co-regulating with Baby
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentNewborn States
The fetal states of rest & activity develop into sleeping & waking states
• at 32 weeks gestation: REM & non-REM
• by 38 weeks: several other sleep states
• newborns sleep about 17 hours per day, throughout the day and night
• by 3 or 4 months, infants sleep more at night than during the day, but night wakings are common in infancy and early childhood
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentNewborn States
State DescriptionQuiet sleep (NREM)
Respiration is regular; eyes are closed and not moving; the baby is relatively motionless
Active sleep (REM)
Muscles more tense; eyes may be still or display REMs; breathing is irregular; spontaneous rhythmic startles, sucks, and body movements
Drowsiness Opening and closing of the eyes; increased activity; more rapid and regular breathing; occasional smiling
Quiet alert Eyes open, scanning the environment; body is still; respiration is more rapid than in sleep
Active alert Awake, body and limb movements, less focused than in the quiet alert state
Crying Elevated activity and respiration rate; cry vocalization; facial expression of distress
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentWaking States
Newborns have two basic modes of response to stimulation: orienting & defense
– orienting – a heightened alertness that includes behavioral localization toward the source of the stimulation (a head turn to the source of a sound)
– defense – a behavioral action that involves withdrawal from the source of stimulation
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentWaking States
Newborns will orient to stimuli of moderate intensity and complexity
soft talking, moderate light levels, and holding & rocking can enhance alertness
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentCrying State
• Crying is an organized rhythmic activity
– there are different cries with different body responses and cry sounds
• The frequency increases between birth and 2 months – then, it decreases
– similar in many cultures with different patterns of infant care & response to crying
– infants cry more when parents are slower to respond
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentCrying State
Colic is crying in which
1. the infant cries at least 3 hours a day, on at least 3 days per week, for at least 3 successive weeks
2. the parents find the crying very intense
3. the infant is otherwise normal; and
4. the infant is relatively unresponsive to soothing & feeding
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentCrying State
• What causes colic?
– unknown
– not caused by digestive problems, sympathetic nervous system arousal, or cortisol levels
• Factors related to colic
– mothers who were highly stressed during pregnancy had higher chances of having a colicky baby
– colicky infants are more likely to have sleep problems & to be inattentive, emotionally reactive, and sensitive to touch, food, and other stimulation at 3 & 8 years
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentThe Effects of Crying on Adults
• Adults perceive crying as an index of distress & they try to figure out the source
– nonparents are as responsive as parents
– levels of arousal & responsiveness are equal for men & women
• Child abusers show greater arousal & more annoyance at cries than nonabusers
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentSoothing Infants
• nonnutritive sucking (NNS) immediately soothes
• swaddling reduces motor movement & startles; keeps the infant calm for long periods
• daily massage enhances alertness, sleep, growth & reduces stress and crying
• rocking can calm or put infants to sleep
• continuous sound can be calming, esp. when moderately loud & of low frequency (e.g., singing lullabies, humming)
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Newborn States
Newborn state is important
1. the body needs periods of tranquility and rest to consolidate resources for growth
2. attention to the environment depends on a stress-free state of quiet alertness
3. state regulates the types of interactions newborns have with their adult caregivers
Picture from: flickr.com
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Reflexes
Reflexes
– semiautomatic behaviors, triggered only by specific elicitors
– look about the same every time they occur
– have to run their course once triggered
http://health.allrefer.com/health/infantile-reflexes-moro-reflex.html
www.babyzone.com
See examples of reflexes on YouTube, such as the sucking reflex at www.youtube.com/watch?v=KIgzqRaYJsg
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ReflexesPurposes
• Primitive forms of orienting behavior – e.g., rooting, sucking, and grasping
• Primitive defensive reactions – e.g., the Moro reflex, reaction to a cloth on the face
• Elementary coordinations for later adaptive & voluntary movements – e.g., stepping, crawling, and swimmer’s reflexes
• No clear function– e.g., the Babinski reflex – although the lack of a
Babinski response may indicate neurological disorder
Picture from: www.susheewa.com/blog/?p=866
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentReflexes
• Reflexes are highly variable within & between infants
– depends on individual differences, age, time since last feeding & number of attempts to evoke the reflex
• Many disappear by about 6 months
– brain developments and other factors play a role (e.g., weight & muscle strength in the stepping reflex)
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentReflexes
In sum,
– newborn reflexes are extremely important for orienting the infant to the environment & for protecting the infant from harm
– movements related to reflexes are not simply discharges in the brain, but depend on muscle movement, weight, state, illness & many other factors
– reflexes play a role in the active development of the muscles, leading to increased strength & coordination
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentGrowth
Asynchronous growth: different parts of the body grow at different rates & at different times
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentSucking
Sucking is a reflex that is crucial for survival – it changes over time & becomes more voluntary
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentGrowth
The newborn’s arms & hands are among the least controlled parts of the body
– arm & hand movements seem uncoordinated but detailed video analyses show that they occur in meaningful patterns
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentThe Brain
Neuroscience – the study of the brain & nervous system as it relates to psychological & behavioral functions such as moving, thinking, and feeling
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Brain structures and functions
Major areas of the brain
– brain stem – limbic system– cortex
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Brain structures and functions
The prefrontal cortex is least developed in infancy
– connects limbic & cortical areas
– responsible for social & emotional regulation
– involves thinking, reasoning, and judging
Picture from: www.cast.org
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Brain structures and functions
Most developed in infancy
– brain stem – controls autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate
– limbic system – processes emotions and memories & some body functions
• the important structures are the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland
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Brain structures and functionsThe Limbic System
• Hippocampus – important in the formation of memories for events & sequences (autobiographical memory)– during the first 3 years, the hippocampus develops
links with the language & cognition areas of the cortex
• Amygdala – plays a role in the formation of emotional memories, especially those around fear & safety
Picture from: homepage.psy.utexas.edu
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Brain structures and functionsThe Limbic System
• Hypothalamus – links the brain to the endocrine systems of the body via the pituitary gland– regulates stress, body temperature, hunger, thirst,
and day-night rhythms
• The pituitary gland produces hormones– for stress regulation, maintenance of body state,
sexual activity, milk production in nursing mothers, & cell growth
Picture from: www.crnasomeday.com/anatpages/pituitary.htm
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Physical and Motor DevelopmentTwo Hemispheres
• Right hemisphere – processes the majority of social & emotional activity
– major development during the first 2 years of life (emotion regulation, attachments)
• Left hemisphere – more specialized for thinking & language
– develops more rapidly after the first 2 years
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Fetal and infant brain development A critical period
The period from the 5th gestational month through the age of 3-4 years is a critical period for the development of the human brain
– To understand why, we need to look at the structure of neurons – information storage & transfer cells
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Fetal and infant brain development A critical period
The brain develops by four basic processes:
1. New cells are created via mitosis during the prenatal period
• most development after this occurs by making cell connections & by pruning of unused neurons
2. The brain becomes more efficient
• glial cells guide growth & migration of neurons (prenatally)
• myelination increases the speed of conduction along the axon (mostly right before & after birth)
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Fetal and infant brain development A critical period
3. Synaptogenesis – cells grow more dendrites & axon terminals & make more synaptic connections & neurotransmitters
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Fetal and infant brain development A critical period
4.The role of experience
• experience expectant pathways await specific environmental input
• e.g., pain elicits crying
• experience dependent pathways are based on unique experiences
• those that are used most become strengthened; those that are used the least eventually die
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Optimal & non-optimal brain development
Neural plasticity – the ability of the brain & nervous system to seek novelty, learn, and remember by continuing to alter the patterns of connections between neurons
– intact brains retain plasticity throughout life
– impairments in social & linguistic skills, along with brain abnormalities, develop in infants reared in orphanages or infants not exposed to appropriate language
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Optimal & non-optimal brain development
Each baby in the first two years of life comes to assess the social world as either a safe
or a threatening place
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Optimal & non-optimalbrain development
Neuroception – nonconscious evaluation of safety or threat, by the nervous system and not the conscious mind (Porges, 2004)
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Optimal & non-optimalbrain development
Neuroception is regulated by
– Sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems
• Sympathetic nervous system – prepares the body for action
• Parasympathetic nervous system – allows the body to relax, slow down, process information, engage socially, learn & grow; the vagus nerve is most responsible for neuroception
– The HPA-axis
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The HPA-axis
Hypothalamus: CRH
Pituitary gland: ACTH
Adrenal glands: Cortisol
When stress occurs:
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Optimal & non-optimalbrain development
• Cortisol prepares the body for action in response to stress– increases blood sugar needed for action
– feeds back into the limbic system where it heightens the formation of memories related to the stressful event
• If stress is persistent, cortisol is overproduced– prolonged activation of cortisol suppresses the immune
system & physical growth
– too much stress leads to a tendency to feel fear and threat in the future & can lead to post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
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Optimal & non-optimalbrain development
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Optimal & non-optimalbrain development
In sum, the first 3 years of life are critical for brain development
– for the development of the limbic & prefrontal parts of the right brain, which is dependent on the quality of love, emotional sharing, & social engagement received & perceived
– not for cortical & left-brain processes like reading, math, thinking, or musical ability
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Optimal & non-optimalbrain development
It is more important for infant brain development to spend quality one-on-one and family time than letting the baby play for long periods with expensive toys, or
listen to Mozart, or watch baby TV programs
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Perceptual Development
• Ecological perception – experience that relies on direct perception through the senses
– the senses form the basic ways in which we are connected to the environment
• Newborns have the ability to see, hear, taste, smell, and feel – although not as focused or discriminating as adults can
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Perceptual Development
Newborn visual acuity & visual processing are poor but improve rapidly
– visual acuity is only 20/500 on average, due to an immature nervous system
– the newborn’s visual world is rather blurry, but the infant can see colors
– as a result of experience-dependent brain development, visual acuity improves to nearly 20/20 by 6 months
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Perceptual Development
• Oculomotor skills – movements that the eye makes to
– bring objects into focus
– follow moving objects
– adjust for objects at different distances
• Newborns’ tracking of moving objects is jerky, and they only follow slowly moving objects
– at 6-8 weeks, following becomes more adultlike
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Perceptual DevelopmentScanning – the eye traces a path across a visual
stimulus in small, rapid movements
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Perceptual Development
• Oculomotor control adjusts the eyes to see objects at different distances
• Depth perception – the ability to judge the relative distances between two objects & determine whether objects are close or far
– The ability to compare the two retinal images (and therefore to see distance) emerges slowly between 3 & 6 months
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Perceptual Development
• Can newborns see patterns?
– Studies show that newborns can detect differences between visual images & seem to prefer some images more than others
• Newborns prefer
– objects with clearly marked edges & outlines
– circular patterns over straight lines
– the external contours of a figure, especially if the edges are sharp
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Perceptual Development
Newborns have perceptual preferences that are likely to bring them into contact with things that enhance their survival
– infants prefer faces over other objects
– 1-day-old infants change their sucking response to see a picture of their mother’s face rather than the face of an unfamiliar female – but not when the mother is shown wearing a scarf
– newborns prefer to look at faces judged by adults to be more attractive
– they also prefer faces in which the other person’s gaze is directed toward the infant rather than averted
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Auditory Perception
• The auditory system is more mature at birth than the visual system
• Auditory sensitivity (sensitivity to sounds) involves loudness & pitch
– newborns can hear sounds of 40-60 dB but only sounds from 50-70 dB can awaken them
– they prefer sounds in the middle range; higher pitch over lower pitch; sounds made up of more than one note; and melodic sequences over a jumble of unrelated notes
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Auditory Perception
The most common source of such sounds is an adult female voice, talking or singing
– newborns prefer to listen to a song or story that their mothers had sung or read aloud 2 weeks prior to birth over an unfamiliar song or story
– newborns seem to prefer heartbeat sounds similar to those they must have heard prenatally
– infants can distinguish the voice of their own mother from the voices of other women.
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Auditory Perception
How do newborns distinguish speech sounds from different people?
– They may detect overall patterns of rhythm & pitch that differentiate one person from another
– They may be able to hear differences among syllables that give them cues about a speaker’s uniqueness
• By 1 month, they distinguish two very closely related speech sounds (e.g., “p” and “b”) and by 2 months, they recognize vowel differences
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TasteNewborns seem to distinguish the four basic tastes: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter
– They show different responses to these four tastes
– Sweet fluids seem to relax (see pictures)
– Sour, bitter & salty tastes elicit negative responses
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Smell
• Newborns can differentiate between odors (incl. vinegar, licorice, & alcohol)– In response to unpleasant odors, they make faces of
disgust and turn away
• They may recognize their mothers by odor– Newborns turn their heads more to a pad containing
their mother’s breast milk than to one containing another woman’s milk
– Breast-fed infants can also recognize their mother’s underarm odor & perfume & they prefer the smell of any breast milk over other types of smells
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Touch
Many reflexes are stimulated by touch & newborns show changes in behavior & heart rate in response to tactile stimulation
– They adjust hand & mouth movements when feeling soft vs. hard objects, or smooth vs. textured objects
– They visually recognize an object they had previously touched, but not the other way around
– In response to medical procedures (e.g., injections, circumcision), infants show increased distress and may exhibit sleep disturbances
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Perceptual Development
In sum,
– newborns perceive with all their senses and their sensitivity improves rapidly over the first few weeks and months, due to brain development & experience
– many forms of stimulation have no particular meaning for the infant but others are meaningful (e.g., recognizing mom, crying in response to pain)
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Cognitive Development
Newborns possess a number of ways to process information that are referred to as cognition –
including learning & memory, orienting & habituation, and imitation
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Cognitive Development
• Classical conditioning
– possible when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) evokes a rewarding natural response, such as a sweet taste
• Operant conditioning
– once infants learn the connection between their behavior & a reinforcement, they can signal their preferences, using sucking rate or head turn
– newborns can remember (e.g., a word repeated by mom) for appr. 24 hours & they prefer familiarity
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Cognitive Development
• Habituation is the decline in strength of responding after repeating the same stimulus; dishabituation is renewed interest
• Newborns’ motor and heart rate responses have been found to habituate to auditory stimuli, visual stimuli, and tactile stimuli
• Habituation can also be shown in premature newborns and even in infants born without a brain cortex (anencephalic)
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Newborn Imitation
Meltzoff & Moore (1977) showed that 12- to 21-day-old infants could match tongue protrusion, lip protrusion, mouth opening, hand opening,
and hand closing
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Newborn Imitation
• These findings have been replicated
– One study showed that newborns also matched moving objects
– One study found imitation of surprise, happy, and sad facial expressions
• Other studies failed to replicate these findings
– babies show a wide variety of gestures following the model
– there are wide individual differences
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Newborn Imitation
Newborn imitation may be a way of relating to people
– Infants who imitated more at birth gazed away from their mothers less at 3 months
– Newborns’ imitation of tongue protrusion showed a different pattern of heart rate change compared to when they initiated the same movement (as if to get a response)
– 6-week-old infants spontaneously reproduced the imitative response they had learned 24 hours earlier when seeing the adult model
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Newborn Self-Awareness: The Emergent Self
Evidence for early self-awareness comes from studies that show
– Newborn imitation (distinguishing own movements from the movements of others)
– Differential rooting (more when touched by someone else than by touching self)
– Differential crying (more when they hear tape recordings of other infants’ cries)
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Newborn Self-Awareness: The Emergent Self
The emergent self is the sense of self-sameness over time in
behavior, feelings, and states of arousal
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Cognitive Development
In sum,
– newborn cognition is limited to some simple forms of learning, memory, habituation, imitation, and self-awareness
– early learning and memory are fundamental to survival
• recognition of maternal sounds and smells
• learning to orient to sweet fluids & milk
• learning to avoid noxious smells & tastes
– newborns prefer familiar sights, sounds, tastes, & feelings, and do not like to be stressed or challenged
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Emotional Development
Newborns can feel distress, contentment, disgust, interest, & surprise
– newborns ‘savor’ sweet liquids
– they cry, thrash about, stiffen their bodies when distressed
– when attending to faces, social interaction, & moving objects, they may show expressions of interest & surprise
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Emotional Development
• Some expressions (e.g., smiling) do not occur with any clear link to the situation
• Emotional development depends in part on how newborn forms of expression are interpreted by adults
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Family and Society
Adults and infants have mutually complementary communications that get their interaction started and set the stage for later emotional ties
– Attachment – the maintenance of mutual proximity over time
– Bonding – skin-to-skin contact immediately after birth, between mother and infant
Picture from: raisingchildren.net.au
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Family and Society
• However, there is no conclusive evidence linking these first few minutes of contact with later attachment security – When there is no immediate post-birth contact, lasting
attachments can still be formed
• Mothers & fathers explore the newborn’s body in a patterned way when given the opportunity – apparently important for survival
Picture from: www.smh.com.au
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Family and Society
There is also a social-psychological component that may form the basis of later interpersonal communication and attachment
– early feeding patterns (suck-pause, jiggle-stop, suck-pause, jiggle-stop, etc.) precede later social discourse
– animated adult faces & brightly colored objects prolong periods of alertness
– the duration of parent-infant face-to-face play & infant attention gradually increases over the first 2 months
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Family and Society
• Studies of large-scale national samples show that fathers spend 20-35% as much time as mothers in direct infant care
• Men’s ability to participate in parenting tasks depends on the amount of social support they receive, particularly from their partners
• The more involved fathers are, the more involved they become
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Family and Society
• Father-infant and mother-infant interaction can be enhanced by specific interventions to orient parents to their newborns– E.g., 12-week-old infants whose fathers had been
trained in massage & bathing were more likely to interact with their fathers & fathers were more likely to be involved with their infants than non-trained fathers
• Parenting occurs within a family system
Picture from: www.childways.co.uk
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Family and Society
• First-time parents appear more hesitant with their babies, but this difference disappears after several months
• Firstborn newborns receive more caregiving interaction
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Experiential Exercises: Sucking
• Sucking is the first mouth movement that we master –later we build on our infant sucking ability as we learn to control thousands of other mouth & face movements – Lie on your right side in a fetal position, and place
your hands close to your mouth
– Gently protrude your lips & tongue and experiment…
– Now try sucking movements…
• Many people experience a deep relaxation of the face after doing this lesson. What was your experience?
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Experiential Exercises: Somatic Awareness of the Hands
• Sit in a chair & close your eyes – become aware of your body in the chair
• Now, notice your hands – what position are they in? How do they feel?– Slowly move your hands…
– Now, slowly curl & uncurl your right hand – then the left
– Let your hands explore your body, clothes, the chair, & each other
– Open your eyes and look at your hands as if you’ve never seen them before