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The Chemistry of LifeChapter 2
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Why should we study chemistry in
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Life depends on chemistry!
• When you eat food or inhale oxygen, your body uses these materials in chemical reactions that keep you alive.
• Just as buildings are made from bricks, steel, glass, and wood, living things are made from chemical compounds.
• Wouldn’t you want an architect to understand building materials? Same idea applies to geneticists, ecologists, zoologists, botanists, biologists, and etc.
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• The study of chemistry begins with the basic unit of matter…the
History• Greeks were first to try to explain
chemical reactions• 400 BC: thought all matter composed of:
– Fire– Earth– Water– Air
• Democritus first used word “atomos”, meaning indivisible
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• Atoms are composed of 3 main particles: (subatomic particles)– Protons (+)– Neutrons– Electrons (-)
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Protons and Neutrons
• Strong forces bind protons and neutrons together to form the nucleus, which is at the center of the atom.
• Both particles have about the same mass.
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Electrons
• Electrons are negatively charged with about 1/1840 the mass of a proton.
• They are in constant motion in the space surrounding the nucleus.
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• Atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons.
• Because these subatomic particles have equal but opposite charges, atoms are neutral.
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Elements
• Elements are the building blocks of all matter.
• Elements cannot be decomposed into simpler matter.
Group Number: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
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The Elements• 110 known elements• 88 occur naturally
The 110 elements form a plethora of compounds, just as 26 letters of the alphabet make a seemingly endless number of words.
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Atomic Number
Counts the number of
protonsin an atom
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Atomic Number on the Periodic Table
11
Na
Atomic Number
Symbol
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All atoms of an element have the same number of protons
11
Na
11 protons
Sodium
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Atomic Mass
• Mass of an atom.
• Approximately equal to the number of protons and neutrons
• Find number of neutrons by subtracting the number of protons from the mass.
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Review:
• An element's atomic number tells how many protons are in its atoms.
• An element's mass number tells how many protons and neutrons are in its atoms.
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Learning Check 1
State the number of protons for atoms of each of the following:
A. Nitrogen
1) 5 protons 2) 7 protons 3) 14 protons
B. Sulfur
1) 32 protons 2) 16 protons 3) 6 protons
C. Barium
1) 137 protons 2) 81 protons 3) 56 protons
2) 7 protons
2) 16 protons
3) 56 protons
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The Periodic Table
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Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass number.
• Most elements have two or more isotopes.
• Same chemical properties because the electron number does not
change.
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Isotope symbols
XA
Z
Mass number
Atomic number
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Example
B11
5
•How many protons does this have?
•How many neutrons does this have?•Is the “5” necessary ?
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More about isotopes:
• Some isotopes have unstable nuclei which break down over time.
• They are called radioactive isotopes
• Some radiation is harmful.
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• Radiation can also be useful
Cancer Treatment
Tracers with X-rays
Radioactive Dating
Kill bacteria
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More About Atomic Structure
• The center of the atom is called the nucleus.
• Electrons live in something called shells.
• Shells are areas that surround the center of an atom.
• A shell is sometimes called an orbital or energy level.
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More About Electrons• Every shell can hold only so many
electrons
• The further from the nucleus, the more electrons a shell can hold
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Valence Electrons
• The electrons on the outside edge of the atom
• This is where the action is- where bonding takes place
• Atoms have no more than 8 valence electrons
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The Octet Rule:• Atoms will combine to form
compounds in order to reach eight electrons in their outer energy level. This is very stable!
• Atoms with less than 4 electrons tend to lose electrons.
•Atoms with more than 4 electrons tend to gain electrons.
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Compound
• Two or more elements chemically combined in specific proportions
• Examples:– Water H2O
– Salt NaCl
– Sugar C6H12O6
Chemical Formulas are used to represent compounds
Two types of compounds: Ionic Covalent
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Ionic Compounds
• Form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another.Ions - Atoms with a net charge due to gaining or losing electrons– Gaining electrons gives an ion a negative charge– Losing electrons gives an ion a positive charge
**If they have to choose, atoms would rather be stable (with a full “octet”) than neutral.
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How Does This Happen?
Some atoms have a few too many electrons
Some atoms only need a few electrons
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What do you do if you are a sodium (Na)
atom with one extra electron?
Go look for an atom that wants it!
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Ionic Bonding
• Negative ions and positive ions are held together by ionic bond.
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• Ionic compounds form between metals and nonmetals
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What If No One Will Give Up An Electron?
• Atoms with less than 8 valence electrons can move close to each other and share their electrons
• The electrons spend their time around both atoms.
• And they lived happily ever after!
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Covalent Bonds
• Formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms.
• Sometimes the atoms share two pairs of electrons and form a double bond, or three pairs of electrons to form a triple bond.
• Structures formed by covalent bonds are molecules.
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• Covalent compounds form between 2 nonmetals
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Van der Waals Forces• There are small
attractive forces between all atoms
• Help to hold molecules to each other
– Ex: Gecko
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Why do compounds form?
• Atoms are trying to get 8 valence electrons
How do compounds form?
• By ionic (e- transfer) or covalent (e- sharing) bonding
How can you tell if a compound is ionic or covalent?
• By the types of elements in the compound (ionic = M + M covalent = M + NM)
Let’s summarize what we know!
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Indicate whether a bond between the following would be 1) Ionic 2) covalent
___ A. sodium and oxygen
___ B. nitrogen and oxygen
___ C. phosphorus and chlorine
___ D. calcium and sulfur
___ E. chlorine and bromine
Learning Check 2:
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2-2 Water is a Polar Molecule
• Polar: Molecule in which electrons are shared unevenly between atoms, causing each end of the molecule to have a slight charge
Negative end
Positive end
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• This causes water to be attracted to other polar or charged particles– Water is attracted to ions – Water is attracted to itself, forming
hydrogen bonds
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Hydrogen Bonds In Water Are Responsible For:
• Adhesion– Attraction between molecules of
different substances– Graduated cylinder
• Cohesion– Attraction between molecules of
the same substance– Drops of water on a penny
• Ex: Surface Tension• Jesus Lizard
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Types of Chemical Substances
• Compounds and Elements are called pure substances.
• Most matter is neither of these.
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Mixtures
• Mixtures are combinations of substances held together by physical forces, not chemical bonds.
• Each substance keeps its own properties
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Mixtures may be either:
Solutions
Colloids
Suspensions
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Solutions
• Have small particles
• Are transparent (not the same as colorless)
• Do not separate
• Water solutions are very common in
biological systems
– Examples: salt water, kool-aid, air, brass,
vinegar
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Colloids
• Have medium size particles
• Do not separate
– Examples: fog, whipped cream, milk,
cheese, mayonnaise
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Suspensions
• Have very large particles
• Settle out (separates into layers)
– Examples: blood platelets, muddy
water, calamine lotion, oil & water,
Italian salad dressing
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pH Scale
• Measures concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
• Ranges from 0 to 14• 7 is neutral• 0-7 have more hydrogen ions (H+)
and are acidic• 7-14 have more hydroxide ions (OH-)
and are basic
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Acids, Bases, and pH• Water molecules form ions
– H2O H+ + OH- – Water hydrogen ion + hydroxide ion
• Very few ions are formed in pure water, but there are equal numbers of hydrogen and hydroxide ions
• Water is neutral!
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pH of common substances
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pH and Homeostasis
• Maintaining a pH between 6.5 and 7.5 is important in cells
• Dissolved compounds called buffers control pH– Proteins– Phosphates– Hydrogen carbonate
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Chemical Reactions
• When one set of chemicals changes into another set of chemicals, a chemical reaction occurs
• Bonds are either broken or formed (or both!)
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Chemical Equations
• Represent a reaction
• Give the types and amounts of substances that react and form
Reactants Products
2H2 + O2 2H2H22OO
““yieldsyields””
““yields”yields”
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Evidence of a Chemical Reaction
• Formation of a precipitate (a solid substance separated from a liquid)
• Gas is evolved (seen by bubbles forming in a liquid)
• Change in heat or light energy
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Organic Compounds
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Organic Compounds
• Make up most of living organisms
• Contain bonds between two or more carbon atoms
• C can easily bond with up to 4 other elements
4 valence electrons = 4 covalent bonds
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Organic Compounds
• Carbon atom is versatile, can be “backbone” of long chains or rings
• Organic molecules can be extremely large and complex; these are called macromolecules
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Organic Compounds• Four main types of organic
macromolecules: Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates• Made of C, H, & O
• Main energy source for living things
• Breakdown of sugars supplies immediate energy for cell activities
• Extra sugar is stored as complex carbs called starches
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Carbohydrates• Single sugar
molecules are called monosaccharides
• Examples:• glucose – in many plant
and animal tissues, most common monosaccharide
• fructose – in many fruits• galactose – component of
milk
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Carbohydrates• Large molecules of many
monosaccharide are polysaccharides
• Examples:• glycogen – animals use to store
excess sugar• plant starch – plants use to store
excess sugar• cellulose – fibers that give plants
their rigidity & strength
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Lipids
• Store more energy than CHOs because the chains are longer
• Ex: Fats, oils, waxes
• Won’t dissolve in water
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Lipids
• Important parts of biological membranes and waterproof coverings
• Steroids are lipids that act as chemical messengers
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Lipids
• Many lipids are made from a glycerol combined with fatty acids– If all carbons have single bonds, lipid is
saturated– Ex: butter, lard, animal fat (usually solid at room
temperature)
– If any carbons have double or triple bonds, lipid is unsaturated
– Ex: vegetable oil, fish oil, peanut oil (usually liquid at
room temperature)
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Proteins
• Contain C, H, O, plus nitrogen
• Formed from amino acids joined together
• More than 20 amino acids can be joined in any order or number to make countless proteins (think of how many words can be made from 26 letters!)
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Proteins
• Chains are folded and twisted giving each protein a unique shape
• Van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds help maintain protein’s shape
• Shape of protein is important to its function!
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Proteins• Provide structure
– Ex: Collagen- makes up your skin, muscles & bones
• Aid chemical activities in your body– Ex: Enzymes- work to speed up
rxns in your body
• Transport substances into or out of cells
• Help fight diseases
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Nucleic Acids
• Contain C, H, O, N plus phosphorus
• Formed by bonding of individual units called nucleotides
nucleotideNucleic Acid
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Nucleic Acids
• Store and transmit hereditary information–Ex: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
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