The capitalist city
Underlying changes occurring during the Renaissance and baroque periods Socioeconomic transformation reshaped Western
Europe Drastic changes in class structure, economic systems,
political allegiances, cultural patterns, and human geographies
Changes occurred from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-eighteenth century
Introduction of commercialized and specialized agriculture
Enclosure of individual land units
The capitalist city
Perhaps of greatest significance is how capitalist mind set introduced notion of urban land as a source of income Proximity to city, center and most pedestrian
traffic added economic value to land Areas close to river or harbor or along major
thoroughfares in and out of city also increased in land value
Fundamental change in value led to gradual disintegration of medieval urban pattern
The capitalist city
The city center consisted of buildings devoted to business enterprises A downtown defined by economic activity emerged With industrialization would eventually expands and
subdivide into specialized districts A new upper class emerged
Status based on accumulation of economic wealth Made money buying and selling urban land Used urban land as a basis for expressing their wealth Sought newer land on edge of city for their residential
enclaves
The capitalist city
One of finest wealthy class enclaves was London’s Covent Garden Piazza Designed by Inigo Jones in the early 1630s Square was lined with townhouses edged in arcades Presence of nobility lent an aristocratic aura to the area Economic success of this enclave led to many
imitations These upper-class squares were transplanted to
America throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Up to the Industrial Revolution, urbanization
rates in Western countries were low In 1600, urban dwellers made up only 2
percent in Germany, France, and England At the same time 13 percent of the
Netherlands and Italy were urban
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city As millions of people migrated to cities
urbanization rates skyrocketed in the last 200 years By 1800 England was 20 percent urban, and
became the first urban society around 1870 By the 1890 census 60 percent of England’s
people lived in cities
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city As millions of people migrated to cities urbanization
rates skyrocketed in the last 200 years By 1800 England was 20 percent urban, and became
the first urban society around 1870 By the 1890 census 60 percent of England’s people
lived in cities The United States was 3 percent urban in 1800
In 1900 it was 40 percent In 1920 it became an urban country with 51 percent Today, about 75 percent of the population lives in
towns and cities
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Class
Laissez-faire industrialism did little for the working classes
There was distribution of such utilities as gas and water
No living improvements beyond that of the seventeenth century were made
In slum dwelling, direct sunlight was seldom available
Open spaces were nonexistent
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Class
In Liverpool, England, one-sixth of the people lived in “underground cellars”
In Manchester, England, only one toilet for every 212 people was available
Running water was usually available only on the ground floor Disease was pervasive, and mortality rates ran high In 1893 life expectancy of a male worker was 28 years, his
country cousin might live until age 52 In 1880, the death rate in New York City was 26 per
thousand, in rural areas it was half that Infant mortality rate rose from 189 in 1850 to 240 in 1870 Legislation correcting such ills came in the latter part of the
century
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Class
American industrial cities relied on a diverse labor force
Many in the labor force came from Europe After the Civil War, many former slaves migrated north
to find jobs In the South, former slaves moved into the
industrializing cities In both South and North, African-Americans lived in
segregated neighborhoods Forced by discrimination and often by law to keep their
distance from white neighborhoods For the most part services to these neighborhoods
were minimal
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Race
Some results of a recent study of black Richmond, Virginia, after the Civil War
Residents used public rituals in streets and buildings to carve their own civic representations, as well as challenge dominant white order
Black militias marched through streets on holidays certified by the black community as their own political calendar
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Race
Some results of a recent study of black Richmond, Virginia, after the Civil War
January 1, George Washington’s birthday, April 3 emancipation day, and July 4
Whites did not take kindly to this as they watched blacks occupy Capital Square, formerly reserved for white citizens
Churches, schools, and beauty shops served as community centers and public statements of an African-American identity
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Gender
Industrialization led to creation of separate spheres
Feminine sphere centered on the home and domestic duties
Male spheres dominated the public spaces and duties
Also created the need for mass consumption to keep factories running profitably
With men as producers, the duties of consumption fell to the women
Class, race, and gender in the industrial city Gender
Location logic of the urban land market meant retailers were located in the central parts of the city
Established what some have referred to as a feminized downtown
Retailers created spaces considered appropriately “feminine”
Interior spaces were well-arranged and orderly Exterior architectural design was heavily ornamented,
and streets were paved and well-lit Today, many of these places have been replaced by
shopping malls
Megalopolis
Movement away from the central city quickened in the last decades of the nineteenth century
Since World War II, new forms of transportation and communication have led to the decentralization of many urban functions
One metropolitan area blends into another, until supercities are created that stretch for hundreds of miles Supercity of “Boswash” on the Eastern Seaboard of the
United States that stretches from Boston to Washington, D.C.
Geographer Jean Gottmann coined the term megalopolis to describe it
The term is now used worldwide to describe giant metropolitan regions
Megalopolis
Characteristics of Megalopolis High population density covering hundreds of
square miles Concentrations of numerous older cities Transportation links — freeways, railroads, air
routes, and rapid transit Very high proportion of the nation’s wealth,
commerce, and political power
Megalopolis
Common problems found in megalopolis Congestion and overcrowding High land prices Financial insolvency and deteriorating inner
cores Poor and disenfranchised population in
contrast to the affluent in the suburbs Air and water pollution Political fragmentation caused by the many
smaller towns and counties
Megalopolis
Common problems found in megalopolis Congestion and overcrowding High land prices Financial insolvency and deteriorating inner cores Poor and disenfranchised population in contrast to the
affluent in the suburbs Air and water pollution Political fragmentation caused by the many smaller
towns and counties Problems are difficult to solve because they are
regionwide even crossing state borders
Edge cities
Many so-called sleeping suburbs of the post-World War II era have been transformed into urban centers with their own retail, financial, and entertainment districts
Most Americans now live, work, play, worship, and study in this type of settlement
Suburbs do not offer all the services or work places found in the edge city
The commuter who used to live in a suburb and work in the inner city has been replaced by the commuter who lives and works in an edge city
Edge cities
Many scholars are wary of calling these new nodes cities because they do not resemble our nineteenth century version of a city
Edge cities contain all the functions of old downtowns, but are spread out and less dense
Interstate highways and truck transportation made it possible for industries to locate outside the downtown
Computer and communication technologies have allowed companies to move their headquarters away from downtowns
Edge cities
Edge cities present problems for today’s planners Traffic congestion and planning for mass
transit Environmental concerns as spreading urban
areas consume more land Is it possible to provide mass transit in a
system with no center?
The urban landscapes of the developing world Most of the world’s population lives in the
developing world Here we see the greatest potential for
dramatic change in urban patterns High natural population growth Enormous rates of migration from rural to
urban
The urban landscapes of the developing world Recent city growth has been staggering
In 1950 they had only 4 of the 15 largest cities in the world
Latest census shows they have approximately half of the largest 20 cities
With this growth has come serious economic, political, and social problems
It is difficult to generalize about cities of the developing world
The indigenous city
Developed without contact with Western colonial influences
Many evolved long before there were cities in northern Europe
Precolonial indigenous cities in the New World are restricted to Mexico, Central America, and the Andean highlands
Cities in Africa Cities associated with the Yoruba civilization in
present-day Nigeria Along the Nile River Valley Band of Islamic empires in the north, and small cities in
eastern highlands
The indigenous city
Asia has the largest number of precolonial indigenous cities — from the Middle East, across present-day Pakistan and India, to China and Japan
Basic form of many cities is derived from the cosmomagical
Many cities in Mexico, Central America, China, Japan, Egypt, and India were laid out according to religious principles
Indigenous City: Jerusalem, Israel
Indigenous City: Jerusalem, Israel
Old, walled Jerusalem had Arab, Armenian, Christian, and Greek Quarters. In this Arab Quarter, passageways are narrow with stepped slopes. In earlier times streets could be gated shut.
Few openings and high windows ensure privacy in this Muslim area. Note the pipes and wires of the modern era superimposed on the ancient walls.
The indigenous city
Beijing kept its basic cosmomagical landscape until the early twentieth century Deviations from the strict pattern arose to
accommodate everyday functions of business and culture
Small alleyways and houses were built in irregular patterns not in accord with sacred principles
Until the abdication of the last emperor in 1912, the city was generally maintained as the celestial capital
In 1959, the Socialist government chose to build its symbolic center, Tiananmen Square, on the site of the sacred axis mundi of Imperial Beijing
The indigenous city
Indigenous cities of the Islamic world In the city center is the primary mosque, representing
the religious core Near the mosque is the bazaar, or market place Homes of the elite, government or municipal buildings
surround the core Moving from the core, areas of decreasing wealth and
social status are found The city is further divided in occupational districts much
like that of the medieval city — decreasing in prestige nearer the city edge
The indigenous city
Indigenous cities of the Islamic world Ethnic groups dominate certain areas or
formalized “quarters” Cities commonly reserved one quarter for
Jews, another for Christians Have a very irregular Street plan, with narrow,
winding streets Uneven building pattern, and few open spaces Residences are usually humble, in keeping
with religious dictates
The indigenous city
Indigenous cities of the Islamic world Housing arrangements often structured
around segregation of the sexes Dictated by religion Two sectors organized around separate
courtyards Female half more private, therefore at rear of
house More public male half near entrance When men are gone, whole house become
women’s domain
The colonial city Administrative, commercial, and often military outpost for an
external power Many established to economically or militarily subdue local
people When built near indigenous cities, Europeans would either weld
their city onto the existing settlement or, in a few extreme cases, build a whole new city Seen as guardians of the home Considered more moral and spiritual than men Imperative women should move to colonies to civilize and
bring order to “backward” lands In South Africa, for example, women could fill their patriotic
and feminine duties Bring visual evidence of women enlightening those who
needed it
Colonial City: Salvador, Brazil
Colonial City: Salvador, Brazil
Salvador, established by the Portuguese in 1549 to deter French and Dutch encroachment, was Brazil’s capital until 1763. The city grew as a center of sugar production, trade, and religion. Eventually, the original core, with its narrow, winding streets and slave market on the acropolis became linked with port functions on the shore below.
Colonial City: Salvador, Brazil
European architectural styles here date from the 17th through the 20th century. At the left of the Ciudad Alta is the Palacio Rio Branco, now housing tourism offices. At the right of the Ciudad Baixa is one of Salvador’s dozens of Roman Catholic churches.
The colonial city
Overseas emigration would provide an alternative source of scarce work opportunities for women
Between 1862 and 1914, more than 20,000 women emigrated to British colonies
Presence of women in the colonies was fraught with difficulties It was thought women needed protection from physical
danger Dangers were considered more threatening than those in
London because they were “foreign” Specific spaces were set up to keep them from direct
contact with foreign danger Lived in the newly built colonial cities Hill stations — fairly small residential compounds in the hills of
India
The colonial city
Separating women from native peoples did not work They could not civilize from a distance Indian servants often lived within or close to British Indian soldiers were stationed nearby Women performed missionary and benevolent work in
the Indian city Indian servants, cooks, and gardeners were present in
hill stations Housing designed in an open fashion to let in cool
breezes; also allowed native people to view private parts of the house
The colonial city
Separating women from native peoples did not work They could not civilize from a distance Indian servants often lived within or close to British Indian soldiers were stationed nearby Women performed missionary and benevolent work in
the Indian city Indian servants, cooks, and gardeners were present in
hill stations Housing designed in an open fashion to let in cool
breezes; also allowed native people to view private parts of the house
The emerging city
With the end of colonialism and movement toward political and economic independence, developing countries entered a period of rapid change
Cities have often been a focal point of this change Millions have migrated to cities in search of a better life Economic activities have often changed their
orientation from external to local markets Cities have been centers of political and social unrest
The emerging city
Because the emerging city model is a fluid one, results cannot be predicted accurately
Some think cities in developing countries will undergo the same changes found in industrializing cities of the nineteenth century
The emerging city
William Hance has written on the differences between today's emerging cities and those of the past Often 25 percent of the urban labor force is without
work In the 1800s, people could migrate to the New World to
find land and jobs Emerging cities have weaker ties with their hinterlands
than did European cities Local rural areas excluded from development that
could offer employment It will be difficult to develop rural employment as long
as economic activities continue to cluster around cities
Emerging City Homeless:Bombay, India
Emerging City Homeless:Bombay, India This woman is one of
Bombay’s homeless millions. About 75% of Bombay’s almost 13 million residents live in one-room tenements, 15% in squatter shacks, and 2% in the streets.
Family abandonment for a variety of reasons such as failure to pay a
Emerging City Homeless:Bombay, India
a promised dowry, death of a husband, or divorce, forces many women into a life of prostitution or begging to survive.
Most of Bombay’s homeless are migrants from the countryside and many are low caste and scheduled caste (untouchable).
The emerging city
Alejandro Portes argues large internal migration from rural to city can be traced back to colonial times In colonial Latin America, the city was essentially home
to Spanish elite When preconquest farm patterns were disrupted,
peasants came to the city These migrants usually lived on the margins of the city They were completely disenfranchised, because only
landowners had the right to hold office Elite attitude was a mixture of tolerance and
indifference This pattern continues today in emerging cities
The emerging city
High numbers of migrants and widespread unemployment lead to pressure for low-rent housing Most common folk solution is construction of
illegal housing, or squatter settlements In Linia, Peru, the barriadas house fully a
quarter of the urban population In Caracas, Venezuela, it is about 35 percent Similar figures are found in emerging cities in
Africa and Asia
The emerging city
The evolution of squatter settlements Usually begin as collections of crude shacks
constructed from scrap materials Gradually become more elaborate and permanent Paths and walkways link houses, vegetable gardens
spring up Often water and electricity are boot-legged in so a
common tap or outlet serves a number of houses Later economic activities such as handicrafts or small-
scale artisan activities develop
The emerging city
Various treatment of squatter settlements by city governments Some bulldoze them down periodically to discourage
migration to the city Some turn their backs, viewing them as a satisfactory
solution to the problem of low-cost urban housing Squatter settlements are an important part of the
emerging city landscape Occupy vacant land on the outskirts and in the city
center Downtown parks often covered by squatters’ houses Most often spread over formerly unwanted land, such
as steep slopes and river banks
Emerging City Squatter Settlement:Jakarta, Indonesia
Emerging City Squatter Settlement:Jakarta, Indonesia
Emerging cities are characterized by squatter settlements. Developed as Batavia by the Dutch at Kota, a swampy coastal area, Jakarta is now a rapidly growing capital city of more than 8 million. These stilt-houses are in the heart of old Batavia along the fetid, tidal Kali Besar (Big Canal) constructed in the nineteenth century.
Emerging City Squatter Settlement:Jakarta, Indonesia
Jakarta is perceived by poor, rural people as a wealthy city, full of opportunities to get rich.
Almost half of the city’s population was born elsewhere and millions reside in shanties like these.
Along with other emerging cities, rural to urban migration accounts for a significant portion of urban growth.
The emerging city
Outskirts of cities is often where new economic activities are located Landscape of factories and warehouses is common When money is available, large high-rise apartments
are built for workers Middle-class suburbs may also grow up because of
jobs and “push” forces driving affluent out of the city center
Traffic noise, air pollution, and congestion make the central city less desirable than before
The emerging city
Large central-city dwellings are often subdivided into smaller apartments for lower-income families Where one middle-class family lived, six or
seven families may be housed Whether this structural change will lead to the
ghetto pattern of North American cities remains to be seen
The emerging city
It is important to remember emerging cities may not follow the pattern of industrial cities of the 1800s
Emerging cities will not undergo the same transportation system evolution
They may evolve directly from foot and cart traffic to autos and trucks
A totally unique urban landscape may emerge
Culture regions
Urban Culture Region Origin and Diffusion of the City Evolution of Urban Landscapes The Ecology of Urban Location Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
Site and situation
Site — refers to local setting of a city, its longitude and latitude coordinates
Situation — the regional setting Example of San Francisco
Originally site of Mexican settlement on a shallow cove or inland shore of a peninsula
Importance of its situation was that it drew on water traffic coming across the bay from other settlements
Characteristics of the site changed when the small cove was filled to create flatland for warehouses and extending wharves into deeper bay waters
Site and situation Example of San Francisco
Filled in cove is now heart of the central business district The situation has changed as patterns of trade and
transportation technology have evolved The gold rush changed the importance of its geographical
situation by creating a demand for supplies for settlements, and mines and miners in the gold country
In the last decade, Oakland improved its situation to accommodate containerized cargo ships by filling in large tracts of shallow baylands
San Francisco has since declined as a port city losing situation advantage
Depending on the function of a city, certain attributes of the physical environment have been important in the decision of where to locate cities
Defensive sites
A location where a city can be easily defended
There are many defensive sites for cities River-meander site-city located inside a loop
where stream turns back on itself Leaves only a narrow neck of land unprotected
by water Examples of Bern, Switzerland, and New Orleans
Defensive Site: Toledo Spain
Defensive Site: Toledo Spain
Acropolis and meander on the Tagus River made this a perfect defensive site for a fortified Roman settlement called Toletum. It was a capital for the Visigoths and the Moors prior to becoming a Spanish one. The skyline is dominated by the 13th century Alcazar (fort), destroyed and rebuilt many times, and the Gothic cathedral begun in 1227.
Defensive Site: Toledo Spain
In 1227 Toledo was the most important Jewish town in Spain and a major cultural and intellectual center. While the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, the city retains their architectural heritage along with that of the Islamic Moors, Christians and other occupants.
Defensive sites
A location where a city can be easily defended There are many defensive sites for cities
More advantageous was the river-island site Often combined a natural moat made when a stream
was split in two Montreal is situated on a large island surrounded by
the St. Lawrence River and other water channels Islands lying off seashores or in lakes Mexico City began as an Indian settlement on a lake
island Venice a classic example of a city built on an offshore
island New York City began as a Dutch trading outpost on
Manhattan Island
Defensive sites
A location where a city can be easily defended
There are many defensive sites for cities Peninsular sites were almost as advantageous
as island sites Offered natural water defenses on all but one
side Boston founded on a peninsula had a wooden
palisade wall across the neck of the peninsula
Defensive sites
A location where a city can be easily defended
There are many defensive sites for cities Danger of sea attack prompted sheltered-
harbor urban sites High points were used where a city
developed around a fortification, and then spilled out over the surrounding lowland
Trade-route sites
Defense was not always a primary consideration
Most common types of trade-route sites —bridge-point and river-ford sites Where streams were narrow and shallow with
firm banks Occasionally cities even reflect these sites in
their names Confluence sites are common—point where
two navigable streams flow together
Trade-route sites
Head-of-navigation sites — where water routes begin — are even more common Goods must be transshipped at such points Examples
Minneapolis-St. Paul, at the falls of the Mississippi River
Louisville, Kentucky, is at the rapids of the Ohio River Portage sites are very similar — goods are portaged
from one river to another Many nonenvironmental factors can influence the
choice of a site Useful to distinguish between the specific urban site
and the general location, or spatial distribution
Culture regions
Urban Culture Region Origin and Diffusion of the City Evolution of Urban Landscapes The Ecology of Urban Location Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory Series of models designed to explain spatial
distribution of tertiary urban centers Terms
Threshold — size of population required to make provision of the service economically feasible
Range -- average maximum distance people will travel to purchase a good or service
Hinterlands — large tributary trade areas associated with central places that offer many services
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory Crucial to his theory is the fact that different
goods and services vary both in threshold and range Larger number of people required to support a
hospital, university, or department store than a gasoline station, post office, or grocery store
People are willing to travel farther to consult a heart specialist, record a land title, or purchase a car than to buy a loaf of bread or mail a letter
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory Because range of central goods and services varies,
tertiary centers are arranged in an orderly hierarchy At the top are regional metropolises that offer all
services associated with central places, and that have large hinterlands
At the bottom are small market villages and roadside hamlets that may contain nothing more than a post office, service station, or cafe
Between the two extremes are central places of various degrees of importance
Each high-ranked central place offers all goods and services of next lower ranked place, plus at least one or two more
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory One regional metropolis may contain
thousands of smaller central places in its hinterland
Christaller tried to measure the influence of three forces in determining spacing and distribution of tertiary centers
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory He created models — he first measured influence of
market and range of goods on the spacing of cities To simplify model he made assumptions
Terrain, soils, and other environmental factors were uniform
Transportation was universally available All regions were supplied with goods and services
from the minimum number of central places The shape of the model was circular, with the city at
the center When central places of the same rank were nearby,
the circle became a hexagon
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory In his second model he no longer assumed transportation was
universally and equally available in the hinterland Assumed as many demands for transport as possible would
be met with minimum expenditure for construction and maintenance of transportation facilities
any high-ranking places would then be on straight-line routes between important central places
The transportation factor causes a rather different pattern of central places
Direct routes between adjacent regional metropolises do not pass through central places of the next lowest rank
Resulted in second-rank place to be “pulled” from the points of the hexagonal market area to midpoints on the straight-line routes
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory He thought market factors would be the
greater force in rural countries He also thought transportation would be
stronger in densely settled industrialized countries with more central places and more demand for long-distance transportation
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory His third model measured the effect of political
borders on the distribution of central places Political boundaries within an independent country
would tend to follow hexagonal market-area limits of each political central place
Borders tend to separate people and retard movement of goods and services
Central places in border regions lose rank and size because market areas are politically cut in two
Important central places are pushed away from borders, which distorts the hexagonal pattern
Walter Christaller’s central-place theory Many other factors affect the spatial
distribution of central places Assumptions must be made to construct a
theoretical model that integrates different components of culture