Text has cohesion if
it is clearly organised so readers can find their way round the ideas
it includes words and phrases that act like ‘signposts’, helping readers to follow the author’s train of thought
the writing ‘holds together’, so that it is easy to read and understand.
*
*
*
CoherenceSome ways ofhelping the
reader see howyour ideas are
organised.
* Plan your writing in advance on a skeleton framework.
Headings and subheadings
Paragraph breaks
Layout conventions
Punctuation
Presentational devices
speech bubbles,timelines, flowcharts, etc.bullet points,boxed information.
e.g.
give an overviewof the text’s organisation.
show shifts of time, place,viewpoint, topic, etc.
draw attention to sections oftext and make meaning clearer
shows where one chunk ofmeaning ends and another
begins. (See The Punctuation Book)
show what sortof text it is, e.g.
diary, letter,newspaper, article.
* Frequently re-read your work to check organisation is clear.
Paragraphing
* In non-fiction writing, plan paragraphs beforehand.
a new topic oraspect of a topic
Paragraph breakscan help readers
to follow yourtrain of thought
by showing…
Three weeks later…In 1837,…
a shift oftime
Meanwhile, deep inthe forest,…
Suddenly, they leaptInto action…
Tom, on the other hand, was furious…
a shift ofplace
a shift ofmood or
viewpoint
a new speakerin direct speech
(See The Sentence Book)
a new step orstage in aprocess
a move from onemain point (or group of points
to another
one paragraphper category
***
***
***
* In fiction, beware of all shifts of emphasis.
Cohesive devices
Collect examples from textsyou read. Read sentences aloud to get the feel of the language patterns.
Words and phrasescan act like
signposts to helpreaders see
significant links inthe text.
Use these ‘signposts’ to linkyour own ideas. Practise the sentences in speech before you write.
conjunctions
punctuation
sentenceframes
sentence connectivesThese show links
between ideas within a sentence, e.g. when, because, until, although.
Some punctuation marks(: ; -) can show linksbetween clauses.
Words and phrasesthat show links between onesentence and thenext, e.g. However, Consequently,On the other hand…
Where nouns or verbs act assignposts, you can make a‘sentence frame’, e.g.Begin by…The reason that… is…
Connection words, phrases and sentences are importantthroughout written work. However, they are particularly useful at the start of a new paragraph.
Use time links to show thepassage of time in fiction and recounts.
sentenceconnectives
sentenceframes
Yesterday,…
On 4th June 2000,…
One wintry morning,…
Time LinksVary the linking devices sothey guide the readerwithout being too obvious.
conclusion time passing setting the scene e.g.
Finally,…
Eventually,…
At last,…
Next,… Then,…After that,…A few weeks later,…By the end of October,…
conjunctionslinking clauses
When Jane wasfour years old,…
As time went by,…
After she had left,…When it was all over,…
It all began with an invitation.
Several weeks passed.
The clock struck midnight.
It was the end of the adventure.
Cause and effect
Note that some sentenceframes lead to changesin the form of the verb.
sentenceconnectives
sentenceframes
The room is cold because the window is open.
When the window is open, the room is cold.
If the window is open, the room is cold.
The window is open so the room is cold.
Cause and effect links areparticularly important inexplanation writing.
conjunctionslinking clauses
Therefore, the room is cold.
Consequently, the room is cold.
As a result, the room is cold.
The window is open.
This means that the room is cold.
This results in the room being cold.
This causes the room to be cold.
The window is open.
The reason (that) the room is cold is that the window is open.
A further feature they have in common is____________.
and as well tooAlso, Moreover,
Furthermore,In addition, What is more,
Another point is …A further feature is …
These links are useful in• descriptive writing• texts which argue for or against a point of view.
Oppositionbut yet
while whereasHowever, Alternatively,
On the other hand,On the contrary,
The opposite point of view is…
Comparison, e.g. Contrast, e.g.
+ Addition +
One similarity is that __________.
They are both ____________.
Another way in which they are alike is ________.
____________ and _______ aresimilar in several ways.
____________ and _______ aredifferent in a number of ways. For instance, __________ is_______, while __________ is____________. Another differenceis that ________. They also differin that _________ is ________,whereas ________is ________.
Sequence
In instructions and explanations, signpost stages in the process,
4
Finally,…Finish off
by…
1
First,…
Begin by…
2
Secondly,..The next
stage is…
3
Next,…When the mixture
is ready…
Introducing examplesIntroducing definitions
Definitions and examples help make meaning clear,Use key words and sentence frames to introduce them.
Clarity
• a bloop, which is a ……………
• a ……………, known as a bloop
• a …………… called a bloop
• a bloop (a …………)
e.g. such as including
For example, For instance,
This can be seen in …
This is illustrated by …
Examples include …
Holding text together 1Nouns, noun phrases
and pronouns help bindtext together by
making references backand forward.
Make sure pronouns areconsistent in person andnumber. If not, thetext may be confusingto read.
Use a variety of nouns,noun phrases and pronouns to:• avoid repetition• improve the cohesion of your writing.
In impersonal text,stick to third personpronouns. If you startin the singular, don’tdrift into the plural.
Rob knocked on the door.
An old woman opened it and
stared down at the boy. He
smiled back. This must
be Mrs Gunn.
If one wants to be a top-class
player, we have to practise
because players do not make
it to the top unless you
give a hundred per cent.
Holding text together 2Some texts are mostlypast tense:
• recount
• narrative fiction
Make sure verb tensesare consistent. If not,the text may beconfusing to read.
Exceptions* most direct speech and quotations* references to things which continue to exist beyond the narrative* sudden changes into the present tense for dramatic effect.
Exceptions* historical reports and explanations* reference to or examples from the past.
Some texts are mostly present tense:• instruction• report• explanation• persuasion• discussion
Reported speechis in the
past tense.
Direct speechis usually
present tense.
The general said that his men were fitand highly trained.They would be ready when the invasion began.
“My men are fit and highly trained.They will beready when the invasion begins,”said the general.
Holding text together 3
I, we, you
Make sure your overallstyle and viewpoint areconsistent, depending onpurpose and audience.
third personand/or
passive voice
personal impersonalor
informal formalor
subjective objectiveor
your opinion just the facts
(see The Standard English Book)
(see The Complex Sentence Book)