-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
1/45
A version of this paper appeared in the last but one
issue of Puratattva. In my view, this is a major
contribution to our understanding of the chronology of
Bharatiya Itiha_sa. Dr. Adiga Sundara was the Head of
the Department of Archaeology and Ancient Indian
History in Karnataka University, Dharwar.
Kalyanaraman
The Traditional Date Of Asoka Maurya : Archaeological
Evidences In
Karnataka : A Consideration
A.Sundara*
Preliminary remarks.
In recent years, there is a trend rather striking, to revive
studies in and to pursue the earlier attempts,1 and to
examine the traditional history and its chronology as
known from the Puranas and other similar literary works
now on better scientific premises, by better scientific
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
2/45
methods and techniques and more comprehensively. A
dispassionate and systematic approach to and critical
review of the subject, may yield useful and factual
information for better understanding of the least known
history of the remote past of our country. I have been
trying to examine over some years the local or regional
traditions vis - a - vis archaeological findings thereat, in
north Karnataka and the results2 seem to be quite
encouraging. And this has led me to re-examine the
period of Asoka's, the Mauryan emperor, rule over
Karnataka too in relation to his ten minor; two major
edicts and versions of Kalinga separate edicts located in
eight places3 and the associated human settlements
nearby in the region.
The Problem :
William Jones4 after making a good and hard exercise
over the Puranic lists of the kings, had placed the ten
kings of the Mauryan dynasty beginning with ChandraGupta, between 1502 - 1365 B. C. and according to
another calculation, 1535 - 1219 B. C. Approximately
Asoka Maurya's period would be 1448 - 1409 or 1496 -
1457 B. C. the difference between the two calculations
being too big to reconcile.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
3/45
He found that the Puranic accounts thus were so
confusing and
varying not supported by any other contemporary
accounts and therefore
gave them up as unreliable. He thereafter turned his
attention to
the Greek accounts and after their perusal he thought
they were
acceptable. And in the course of his studies,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----\
* 329, "Saundaryashri" Bharati Nagara, DHARWAD 580
001
he was able to identify Sandrokottas and Palibotra
referred to in Megasthenes' fragmentary Indica
respectively with Chandragupta Maurya known then
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
4/45
from the Bhagavata Purana and Pataliputra of the
Magadhan kingdom. These identifications,5 in 1783,
were considered to be a " Sheet anchor of Indian
History. " A little later, James Princep succeeded in
identifying Devanampiya Piyadasi of the earliest edicts
with Asoka Maurya and of the five alien names of the II
and XIII major edicts of the emperor with the
contemporary West Asian kings6 All these strongly
supported Jones' identifications. These were more or
less implicitly accepted and followed even by most of the
eminent Indian scholars till recently.
However, since then, a scholar here or there, now and
then such as Bulher, Troyer7 did question the validity of
these identifications and the latter on the basis ofRajatarangini, opined that Asoka ruled around 1260 B.
C. Some Indian scholars, especially in the recent years,
such as Narayana Sastri,8 Krishnamachari,9 Sri Rama
Sathe,10 S. D. Kulkarni,11 David Frawley,12 and others
have seriously questioned these identifications and the
relative chronology of the early Indian history,considering the possibilities of interpreting equally
rationally the same and other relevant references
leading to inferences quite different from those of Jones
and of others.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
5/45
Further, some scholars have been pointing out
inadequacies in and
other possible interpretations contrary to the theories of
William
Jones and others. For instance, Jones in the matter of
the
identification of Sandrokottas with Chandra Gupta
Maurya considered
the list of the kings from only one Purana i.e. the
Bhagavata in
which the traditional history is traced up to the end of the
Mauryan
rule. In some of the other Puranas, the history is
narrated up to
the end of the Gupta rule. In such accounts there are
two ChandraGuptas I and II in the Gupta dynasty whom Jones could
not consider
for the alternate equations because of the non
availability then, of
the relevant Puranas to him. Moreover, unfortunately, he
died in thevery next year after his announcement of the
identification. Further,
it is not explained as to why Megasthenese
is utterly silent in his account about Chanakya and his
role in
the foundation of the strong Mauryan kingdom and
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
6/45
especially his
remarkable efforts in making securely Chandra Gupta
Maurya king in
whose court the former is said to have been as an
ambassador from
Seleucus Nikator the Greek satrap. Further, absence of
Palibotra
as surname or for that matter any surname to their
personal names,
as stated clearly by Megasthenese, in the names of the
Mauryan
kings, is totally ignored. Although the name Magadha of
the Eastern
kingdom is too well known at least from the time of the
Kurus -
Pandavas of the Mahabharata, why
Megasthesese in spite his being present in the capital of
the kingdom refers to it in a general manner as "Prassi"
i. e. Prachya ( = Eastern ). While seriously making
efforts to identify Sandrakottas with ChandraguptaMaurya, why Jones did not even casually try to identify
the other Greek names of the kings who are said to
have immediately preceded and succeeded
Sandrokottas, known from the other classical Greek
accounts, is not indicated anywhere in his arguments.
With regard to Princep's identification of the five names
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
7/45
mentioned in Asoka's major edicts nos II and XIII,
identified with the names of the West Asian kings
supposed to have been contemporaneous with Asoka by
Princep13 Madalasa Devi14 has argued that they are
actually the names of the Jana - rajyas in the
neighbourhood of Afghanistan not of the kings ruling
them in the west Asian regiion.
It is against this perspective a critical re - examination of
the findings from the archaeological excavations of the
sites with the Asokan edicts in Karnataka, seems to be
significant. The stratigraphy of the cultures revealed in
the sites, seems to have bearing on the problem relating
to the chronology of Asoka's rule over the region.
Karnataka : Archaeological evidence.
The existence of ten minor edicts of Asoka, the Mauryan
emperor, in as many as seven places since the firstdiscovery of a minor edict in Brahmagiri ( Molakalmur tk.
Chitradurga dt. ) in 1894 by B. L. Rice15 is too well
known. 1990 is an important year when for the first time
fragments of 13th and 14th major edicts and, curiously
enough, versions of two separate Kalinga edicts also,
were discovered, by chance of course, in Sannati (
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
8/45
Chitapur tk., Gulbarga dt. ), the most remarkable and
prolific Buddhist site in the entire Karnataka first
reported by Kapatral Krishna Rao16 in 1956. In fact, that
the personal name of " Devanampiya Piyadasi "
mentioned in the edicts, was Asoka, was for the first
time known from the edict in Maski ( Lingsugur tk.
Koppala dt. ) discovered in 1915. It mentions "
"Devanam Piya Piyadasi raja Asokasa". The two minor
edicts in each of the two other places: Udegolam and
Nitturu ( Shiraguppa tk. Bellary dist. ) also contain the
personal name of the emperor. In particular, the most
noteworthy point in the Brahmagiri edict, is the mention
of the name of the place also as ' Isila ', the
administrative head - quarters of the mahamatras of the
king, in Suvarnagiri, the southernmost province of the
empire. It was in search of Isila in the place where theedict is located, in early 1930s Krishna,17 the then
Director of the State Dept. of Archaeology , discovered
an extensive habitation site with numerous megaliths
nearby. Also, he laid 16 trenches and excavated
stratigraphically in order to trace the Mauryan town site
and also a few megaliths nearby. Six cultural periods insequence were recognised as follows:
1. The Microlithic ( Roppa ) culture
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
9/45
2. The Neolithic culture.
3. The Iron age Megalithic culture.
4. The Isila ( Mauryan ) culture.
5. The Satavahana culture.
6. The Early Kadamba - Chalukya culture.
Also, he could discern clear overlap between the last
phase of the neolithic and the beginning phase of the
Iron Age megalithic and the last phase of the latter with
the early phase of the early historical. Besides the burial
pottery and the iron objects from the megaliths
excavated were found to be similar to those from the
Iron Age culture of the habitation site. Unfortunately the
findings of his excavations were never fully publishedbecause of his premature death in 1947, but for a brief
report in the Annual report of the Dept. containing all the
points mentioned above. In the light of Krishna's
excavations Wheeler, the then Director General of
Archaeology in India, realised that the site is quite
promising for tracing the salient cultural milieu of theSouth Indian megalith builders and for fixing the relative
chronology of the culture, least known and utterly
confusing and erratic, then. He18 got excavated
stratigraphically the habitation site and ten megaliths :
six 'pit - circles' and four 'cist - circles' and undoubtedly,
succeeded in his attempts. The culture sequence of the
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
10/45
site he had outlined from his excavations are :
1. The Polished - Stone Axe ( later known as the
neolithic in the
chalcolithic ) culture
2. The Megalithic culture and,
3. The 'Andhra' ( later known as Early historical )
culture.
However, in the objectives of the excavations and the
studies that followed thereon by Wheeler, the Asokan
edict and the Mauryan Isila phase were hardly eithertaken note of or considered. But , for arguing rather the
probable period of the entry of the megalith builders after
the collapse of the Mauryan empire and relatively the
decline and disappearance of the Mauryan
administration in the region, he had the edict in his mind.
Certainly, in addition to the South Indian megalithicproblems, the Mauryan cultural phase in the site
highlighted previously by Krishna, should also have
been equally one of the major objectives of Wheeler's
excavations. From his arguments and dating of
particularly the Megalihic culture, it is implied as a
corollary of his reasoning, though not stated, that the
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
11/45
edict is meant for the people of the Polished Stone - axe
culture. And this would indirectly indicate the people of
this culture at least in small number were literate. But,
other than the Sindhu - Sarasvati civilization, so for no
evidence of literacy or use of script, has been found in
any of the protohistoric Neolithic or Chalcolithic and
even in the immediately succeeding southern Iron Age
Megalithic and the northeren Iron Age cultural milieu
prior to the Mauryan. The general notion is that the
peoples of these cultural stages were non - literate. It
was in this context, later Haimendorf19 with regard to
Wheeler's arguments regarding the probable period of
the settlement of the megalithic people at Brahmagiri,
pointed out the anachronism in the situation : a Brahmi
edict for the pre - or non -literate community. He
observed that it was meant probably for the megalith -builders.
South of Brahmagiri, in Chandravalli, about 2 kms. from
Chitradurga the ancient site known from the beginning of
this century, particularly for numerous Satavahana coinsalso, was excavated by Krishna20 earlier in 1928 and a
good report was thereon published. Apart from neoliths
from the surface, he could recognise two cultural stages
that can be identified as the Megalithic and the Early
historical i.e. the Maurya - Satavahana. Also, remnants
of some brick buildings of the latter, were found. This
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
12/45
sequence of the cultures was more clearly confirmed in
Wheeler's excavations in the site. But no brick structures
were then discovered. In 1978, the site was again
excavated by the Archaeological Survey 21 and traces
of Neolithic culture ( in the Chalcolithic stage ),
preceding the Megalithic and remains of brick buildings
of the Early historical immediately succeeding the Iron
age megalithic, were revealed. It appears that in
Chandravalli, there was a continuous and regular human
settlement right form the Neolithic in the Chalcolithic
stage to the end of the Satavahana period as in
Brahmagiri, and beyond probably upto the early phase
of the Early Kadamba indicated by the Brahmi inscription
of the period of Kadamba Mayura V ( S )arma, the
founder and the first king of an independent kingdom in
Karnataka.
In 1954 excavations in Maski 22 with Asoka's edict, the
picture of the cultural sequence in character and
behavior is virtually the same as that in Brahmagiri but
for one varying feature: there is no overlap between theChalcolithic and the beginning of the Iron Age
Megalithic. However, there is no distinct cultural break
as such. Surface explorations by me23 in Jatinga
Rameshvara, about 5 km. from Brahmagiri, near the
edict, Koppala, Udegolam and Nitturu clearly and
unambiguously, disclosed the flourish of the three
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
13/45
cultures as found at the first three sites outlined above.
Koppala now a district head - quarters, with two copies
of the Asoka's minor edict, locally known as " Palki
gundu " and " Gavi matha " inscriptions also is found to
have an ancient site with the three cultures24 as in the
other sites briefed above. Besides, there is a separate
site with megalithic port - hole chambers in the
proximity.
Sannati is exceedingly rich in the Buddhist relics of the
Satavahana period, succeeding the Mauryan. The latter
is culturally now weakly known from a few objects such
as a highly polished ornate stone disc with standingfemale figurine of mother goddess in bas - relief
characteristic of the Mauryan period, almost exactly
similar to that on a gold leaf from Lauriya - Nandangarh,
and a few Northern Black Polished pottery pieces etc.
However, the Mauryan phase is distinctly represented by
the presence of the Asoka's major rock edicts nos. XIIIand XIV and the versions of the two separate Kalinga
edicts,.25 The phase here is of grater importance than
that in Brahmagiri with the administrative head - quarters
of the mahamatras. By far the most important is the
occurrence of a sculptural panel26 displaying a king
accompanied with two queens and an attendant holding
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
14/45
a parasol over his head. Below the bas - relief is a label
inscription "Rano Asoko" In the site were found a few
polished stone axes implying the existence of the
Neolithic in the Chalcolithic stage as well. The site was
continued to be prominent even during the Satavahana
period as evident from the inscriptions27 of the kings of
the dynasty, such as Gautami putra Satakarni, Vasisthi
putra Pulumavi, apart from the Buddhist stupas in the
adjacent locality namely Kanaginahal and sculptural
remains in profusion overshadowing even Banavasi,
another important Satavahana site in north Karnataka.
Further, though not in Sannati not far away from the
place in Shahabad area, were found the Iron Age
megalithic remains. All these appear to be quite
significant for understanding the Mauryan period in
Karnataka.
Such in brief is the cultural sequence almost invariable,
in all the sites with the Asoka's edicts, in Karnataka. In
fact, this is more or less the picture revealed in the other
sites nearby the Mauryan edicts,27 such as Sanganakal,Piklihal, Tekkalakota ( exclusively a single culture site
with the habitational cultural relics of the Neolithic in the
chalcolithic stage ) and Hallur covering more or less the
Krishna - Tungabhadra Doab and the Tungabhadra
valley region.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
15/45
An analysis.
From the above review of the explorations and
excavations in the areas with Asoka's edicts under study
the emerging points noteworthy are:
1. Generally, there is a clear overlap of the cultural
stages : between the Neolithic in the chalcolithic and the
immediately following Iron Age Megalithic; the latter and
the ' Andhra ' i.e. Early Historical excepting Maski
where there is clear break, very brief, between the
earliest and the next.
2. The early and late phases of the Iron Megalithic
culture are respectively overlapping with the late
Neolithic in the chalcolithic with the exception at Maski
and the Early historical phases and consequently, thereis no exclusively distinct Megalithic phase in Brahmagiri.
At Maski only, the early phase ( layer [ lr ]s 5 - 9, about
1.35 m. in thickness ) of the megalithic, is typical of the
culture.
The overlap, about 30 cms, of the culture with the Early
historical
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
16/45
is comparatively too small. In it was found a small lead
coin apparently of the Satavahana. The Early historical
excluding the overlap is about 60 cms.
3. The Early historical period, evidently comprises
two phases : the Maurya and the Satavahana. Though
the Satavahana phase is vindicated from coins largely of
the Satavahana at Sannati, especially Chandravalli as
well as Banavasi and Vadgaon - Madhavapur, the
Mauryan cultural phase immediately preceding the
Satavahana, is not identified in the sites and even at
Brahmagiri by Wheeler though Krishna did; Maski and
Sannati with Asokan edicts.
4. However, the 1947 Chandravalli stratigraphic
sequence appears to be quite clear in this respect and
indicate the two major phases of the Early historical :
Satavahana ( lrs 1 - 10 ) and pre - Satavahana without
any coins and with russet coated white painted potteryoverlapping with the Iron Age Megalithic phase ( lrs 11
-13NE ). But no such phases have been distinguished
so for in any of these sites. It may therefore be noted
that in particular lrs. 7 - 9 are found to have many coins
mostly of the Maharathis, feudatories to the Satavahana.
Even lr 10 has yielded a coin of a Maharathi. This
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
17/45
stratigraphic position of the coin evidence would imply
that the Satavahana rule over this region was a little
earlier i.e. before the Maharathis became their feudatory
and stratigraphically slightly earlier than the formation of
lr.10. Lr.11 is likely to be of the beginning of the
Satavahana power. And lr. 12 is relatively
contemporaneous with the Sunga - Kanva rule over
Magadha. Lr. 13 being the overlap of the Megalithic with
the Early historical corresponds to the Mauryan rule over
this part i. e. sometime after the beginning of the
Megalithic culture from layer 13NE .
There are, in this context, a few more points relating to
the site to be considered. The so called 'rouletted'pottery apparently of Roman import and datable to c. 1st
cent. A. D. on which Wheeler unduly depended for
dating, occurred in lr. 9. Recent researches28 on this
pottery, revealed that this pottery, with roulette design, is
not of Roman origin as taken to be by Wheeler, but was
manufactured in Chandraketugarh - Tamlook regionsometime in 3rd cent B. C. or a little earlier. Secondly,
one punch marked coin characteristic of the Mauryan
age, as a survival was found in lr. 7. and a silver Roman
coin of Tiberius , minted during 26 - 37 A. D. , in layer 5.
Thus in general, there is reliable consistency in the
stratigraphic position of the archeological and
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
18/45
numismatic evidences. This approximate sequential
equation goes very well with those of Brahmagiri and
Maski. In the latter , MSK. 10, the occurrence of a lead
coin in the upper part of the overlap phase is significant.
Relatively the early part of the overlap phase
corresponds to Sunga - Kanva and upper part of the
typical megalithic phase, i.e. lr. 8 to the Mauryan phase.
Similarly, this phase, more or less coincides with lr. 7 of
Br. 21. Thus, there is rather striking agreement
regarding the stratigraphic position of the Mauryan
phase in all the sites.
5. In Vadgaon - Madhavpur, there is a pre -
Satavahana thick phase corresponding to Sunga -
Kanva and the Mauryan.
Stratigraphic chronology
Now the problem is fixing the date range of the
stratigraphic Mauryan phase. There are many C14
dates,29 some calibrated, eighteen for the Neolithic in
the chalcolithic and two for the Iron Age Megalithic in
North Karnataka. Especially the dates for the Periods II
and III of the Neolithic culture in the chalcolithic stage
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
19/45
from Watgal 30 are significant in the context.
Besides, there are eight Thermoluminiscence dates for
the pottery from the four excavated megaliths in
Komaranahalli31 ( Harihara tk. Davanagere dt. ). The
period of the culture, on average, is c. 1400 - 900. B. C.
This chronological range is applicable to the early
overlap phase of the Megalithic culture in North
Karnataka. Relatively the later part of the overlap phase
of the culture is datable to c.1000 - 400 B. C. On
average, especially in consideration of the recent dates
available for the Neolithic culture at Watgal ( Lingsugur
tk. ) the three phases of the Neolithic and the two
overlapping phases of the Iron Age Megalithic culture,
may be dated as follows :
I. Neolithic ; c. 3000 - 2750 B. C.
II. Neolithic in the chalcolithic stage
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
20/45
Early phase : c. 2500 - 1700 B. C
Late phase : c. 1700 - 1000 B. C.
III. Iron Age Megalithic culture
Early Overlap : c.1400 - 900 B. C
IV. Iron Age Megalithic
Later phase : c. 1000 - 300 B. C.
The Megalithic culture in the middle Krishna -
Tungabhadra region with Brahmagiri, Maski, Hire -Benkal and other sites, may be dated to c. 1000 - 300
B. C. with a probability of an earlier beginning around
1200 B. C. in view of the C14 dates for the culture at
Veerapuram and Ramapuram32 ( Andhra Pradesh ) on
the one hand and of the intrusion of the chalcolithic
Jorwe culture33 from the upper reaches of the Bhima,along the river into the Krishna - Tungabhadra doab
around 1000 B. C. on the other. By this time, the
Megalithic culture had already emerged in the region. In
this context the occurrence of the Northern black
polished pottery pieces in the pre Satavahana context in
Sannati seems to be significant. For , further far south of
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
21/45
this place in Anuradhapura ( Sri lanka ) , in the
excavations are found this pottery in the layers dated to
c. 5th cent. B. C. Dating therefore Sannati N. B. P. to a
phase a little earlier than 5th cent. B. C. would be
reasonable.
In the light of the critical analysis of the stratigraphy of
the Early historical stage and certain particular
antiquities therefrom discussed above, and the Mauryan
phase thereof in Karnataka, does not seem to be as late
as 3rd. B. C. and on the other hand may be dated to c.
800 - 600 B. C. with a possibility of its earlier beginning.
Epigraphical and numismatic implications
Further, there are a few epigraphical and numismatic
evidences that seem to be corroborative to the above
suggested dates to the Mauryan phase. The setting up
of the versions of the separate Kalinga edicts in Sannati,as discussed by me34 elsewhere, implies that it was
Asoka Maurya who got annexed the North Karnataka
region to his empire and among his military exploits
Kalinga war was probably the last that was unspeakably
the most ghastly that brought a profound change of
heart in remorseful Asoka. Consequently, Vijaya yatras
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
22/45
(=military campaigns ) were replaced by dharma yatras
campaigns for the spread of dharma. Versions of
compunctious appeal of the king to the conquered were
put up in not only Kalinga but also the other regions
conquered by him. It is in this way the versions of the
separate Kalinga edicts are found in Sannati also in
addition to the major edicts. Elsewhere in Karnataka so
for only the minor edicts are found. Comparatively
speaking therefore, Sannati probably had attained
already prosperity and importance and might be even
the capital city of a region attracting Asoka who
conquered it. There is an area in the vicinity of the
locality within the brick fort, locally known as "rana
mandala" ( = war site or field ). The fierce war fought by
Asoka, must have been so unforgettable that its memory
is preserved in the reference to the site of the war as'ranamandala" like Kuruksetra of the Mahabharata. If
the monolithic elephant in Dhauli could be symbolic of
His Majesty's sincere appeal to the conquered people of
Kalinga, the Asoka panel in Sannati with his personal
name may be owing to a reminiscent act of the people
from their memory of how the king appeared in personthere before their conquered fore-fathers; appealed to
them as narrated in the separate edicts recently found in
this place the versions of which were discovered for the
first time in Dhauli and Jaugada. This situation explains
as to why his personal name repeatedly occurs in his
minor edicts all over the region.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
23/45
If this proposition is acceptable, why did he think of
conquering this region ? The plan of the conquest was
certainly for some distinct and substantial material gain.
In all probability, the Megalith - builders of this region,
were widely very well known for the production of steel
weapons of very high quality. In 'Kiskindha kanda' of
Srimadramayana, Rama , a prince who was to become
yuvaraja of the Ayodhya kingdom, excellent in martial
arts, while assuring Sugriva, the diffident and fearful
Vanara chief in exile in the matter of conquering Vali his
mighty brother, speaks of the weapons he has highly
superior manufactured in "Kartikeyavana" I haveelsewhere identified this place with the Kumarasvamy
hill near Sondur in Bellary dt. on the basis of the
archeological evidences of the region.35 The Brahmigiri
megaliths excavated in 1947, were found to contain
numerous iron objects of offence and defense. And the
iron tools from the excavated megaliths atKomaranahalli, Halingali, Rajur etc through scientific
analysis are found to be of steel of very high quality,
probably made out of the local iron ore, by lamination
technique36. This is further evident from the popular
Kannada word 'ukku' for steel i.e. wootz in German. Hire
- Benkal rock - painting no.1 located in the vicinity of the
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
24/45
megalithic tomb site, displays many horse riders as well
as individuals carrying weapons apparently of iron.
Mining of gold obviously in Hatti region within a small
distance from Hire - Benkal area the richest in megalithic
sites in north Krnataka and bead production were the
other industries of the megalith - builders as evident
from the occurrence 33 gold beads from Br. Mg. no IX.
and numerous tiny steatite beads from other megaliths
of the place. On account of the rich resources of these
two and the production of these two metals by Megalith
builders the region was so prosperous that attracted
Asoka's attention, I think.
Further there is one small but seemingly significant
epigraphicalreference to be considered. In particular, in Brahmagiri
edict, the
number of days of Asoka's dharma yatra is indicated by
number category ( varga such as eka varga, dasaka
varga, sataka varga etc ) )numerals not by word
numerals i.e 200 50 6 ( = 256 ) This practice was themost ancient prevalent since the time of the Rigveda up
to the early historical when place value ( sthana such as
eka sthana, dasaka sthana, sataka sthana etc. ) system
began in which case 200 50 6 would be written as 256 ).
Of course this practice was continued as late as 1st
cent. B. C./A.D. The probable period of the beginning of
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
25/45
the practice of place value system , if and when
ascertained, may be helpful in the matter. In the
Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, the expression "
janapadha bavanam cha therasa vasasatakatam
bhimdhati tramiradaha samghatam" generally is taken to
mean the breaking up of the Dravida confederacy that
lasted for 113 years. But the number may also possibly
mean "one thousand three hundred years 37. But, in
relation to the existing scheme of chronology for the
Mauryas, this is not accepted. Now, the implication
needs to be examined again.
Another important material evidence are thin flat, cut
punch marked coins without any legend, of silver, base
silver and copper, largely squarish that were in use inMauryan period as currency in commercial and other
transactions. The technique, form, scheme and
characteristic features of the coins readily remind the
Harappan copper tablets of somewhat bigger size
carrying a figure or design on one side and an inscription
on the other from Mohenjodharo. Square flat thincopper coins of the kind with figure on one side and
inscription on the other as found at 38 ( Andhra Pradesh
), were in use but in a limited scale even in the early
Satavahana phase. In the excavations at Chandravalli,
Vadgaon - Madhavpur and Banavasi very few
legendless punch marked coins, were found. A big
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
26/45
hoard of punch marked coins a little more than 5000, in
a copper pot carrying an inscription mentioning the
name of the owner, 'Chantasa' in 2nd cent Brahmi script
was by chance found in Sindhogi ( Koppal dt. ). It was
probably inherited as personal property by him. The
tradition of producing coins of this sort , seems to have
been developed in course of time from that of the
Harappan represented by the copper tablets .
But as rightly pointed in the course of my discussion on
the topic, Dr. Ajaya Mitra Shastry pointed out that there
is one insurmountable evidence that would go against
my study i.e the established dates of the west Asian
kings mentioned in the edicts of II and XIII who were
contemporaries to the Mauryan king. In this context it isvery necessary to examine the observations made by
Madalasa Devi Agrawal, mentioned above. For, the
monarch in the same strain in the edicts refers to the
kingdoms in the south and not to the kings' names, such
as the Chola, the Pandya, etc. It is therefore worth re-
carefully inscription of Kadamba Mayura varma byRajasekharappa39 almost totally replacing M. H.
Kishna's reading of the same, is a typical instance. A
careful reading may sometimes correct previous solid
erroneous reading.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
27/45
All these seem to be corroborative to the chronological
range of Asoka's rule suggested above on the basis of
the cultural stratigraphy and the material relics from the
layers. Further the Mauryan period seems to be nearer
to the end of the Harappan civilization. Hence there is
need to re-examine thoroughly and comprehensively the
traditional accounts of the history of our country in
general as given in the Puranas and of the Mauryan
history in space and time over a wider perspective such
as the excavations at Jaugada, Rajagriha, Pataliputra as
well as the chronology of the rulers of different dynasties
succeeding the Mauryas etc in particular for which
archaeological and epigraphical evidences are also
available. Relatively the antiquity and development of
the Brahmi script also, is required to be examined.
A. Sundara
Bibliography And Notes.
1. Sethna, K. D.; Ancient India in a New Light,
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
28/45
Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi. 1989.
* " -- ; The Problems Of Aryan Origins, Aditya
Prakashan, Delhi. 1992
Deo, S. B. and Kamat, S. U. ; The Aryan Problem,
Bharatiya Itihasa Samkalana Samiti, Maharashtra, 1993.
David Frawley : The Myth Of the Aryan Invasion, The
Voice Of India, Delhi. 1996.
Pradhan,S. N; Chronology Of Ancient India, Cosmo
Publications,
Delhi. 1996. Probably first published in 1934 as
indicated in the
author's Preface to the book
Singh, G. P. ; Early Historical Tradition And
Archaeology, D. K.
Print World ( P ), Ltd. Delhi. 1994.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
29/45
Mujumdar, R. C. et.al. ; The Vedic Age, Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan, Mumbai. 1951. Chapter XXIV
2. Sundara, A. ; " Prehistoric and Protohistoric
cultures of Dakshina Kannada, Perspectives On
Dakshina And Kodagu, Mangalore University, Konaje,
Mangalore. 1991. ( 41 - 63 )
* " -- : " Hidimba Pattana : Ondu Vimarshatmaka Tippani
" Itihasa Darshana,
vol. 7. Karnataka Itihasa Academy, Bangalore.( KIA ),
1992. ( Hidimba Pattana : A critical note )
* " -- ; Hampi: The Ancient Kishkindha "
Visvambhara, ( Probings In Orientology ) : Dr. V. S.Pathak Felicitation Vol. Harman Publishing House,
Delhi. 1995.
* " -- ; 'Srimadramayanada ' Kartikeya vana 'u,
Sondurina Kumarasvami Bettave ? Itihasa Darshana,
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
30/45
Vol. 10. KIA, 1995. ( 165 - 175 ). ( Is the Kartikeyavana
of the Ramayana, the Kumarasvami hill near Sondur ? ).
* " -- ; " The Krishna - Tungabhadra valley : The
Protohistoriic Kishkindha of the Vanaras. " a paper
submitted in the seminar on River Valley Cultures
organised by Indiragandhi Manava Samgrahalaya,
Bhopal, in Sept, 1998.
3. Krishnan, K. G : Uttankita Sanskrit Vidya Aranya
Epigraphs, The Uttankita Vidya Aranya Trust, Vol. II,
Mysore. 1987. Inscriptions nos.1 - 24.
4. Lord Teignmouth : The Works Of Sir William
Jones, ( in 13 Vols. ), Vol. IV. 1807.
5. Ibid
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
31/45
6. Journal Of Asiatic Society Of Bengal, Vol. VII. (
156 ).
7. Troyer, M. (Tr.) Kalhana's Rajatarangini, 1859.
8. Narayana Sastri, T. S. : Age Of Sankara, Part I,
C.
9. Krishnamachariyar, M. : History Of ClassicalSanskrit Literature, 1937.
10. Sathe, Sriram, 1985 : Is Sandrokottas
Chandragupta Maurya ? Sahitya Niketan , Hyderabad.Sahitya Niketan Hyderabad., 1985 .
* " -- : Kings And Kingdoms, Sri Babasaheb Apte
Smarak Samiti, Nagpur, 1989.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
32/45
* " -- :Aryans : Who are they ? Bharatiya Itihasa
Samkalana Samiti, Hyderabad. 1991.
11. Kulkarni, S. D. Beginnings of Life, Culture And
History, Vol. I, 1988; The Puranas, Vol. II, 1993; Dharma
And Vedic Foundation, Vol. IV 1993; Glorious Epoch,
Vol. IX; 1995 ; and India Abroad, Vol. XVI, 1995. in the
Series of 17 volumes, Sri Bhagavan Vedavyasa Itihasa
Samshodhana Mandala, ( Bhishma ). Mumbai.
12. David Frawley : The Myth Of The Aryan Invasion,
The Voice Of India, New Delhi. 1996.
13. JASB, Vol. VII.
14. Madalasa Devi Agrawal : " Age Of Bharata war, "
Age Of Bharata War, ( Agrawal G. C. ), Delhi. 1979.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
33/45
15. Rice, B. L. : Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. XI, Mk. 2.
Directorate of Archaeology & Museums, Govt. of
Karnataka, Mysore. ( DAM ). 1903. Inscription nos. Mk.
1 and 2.
16. Kapatral Krishna Rao : " Sri Chandralamba
Parameshvari, " Karnataka Samskriti ( Samshodhane ),
Usha Sahitya Male, Mysore. 1970 ( A collection of his
articles, reprinted ).
17. Annual Report of DAM, 1942. 100 - 09.
18. Ancient India, ( AI ) No. 4, Archaeological Surveyof India, Govt. India, New Delhi. ( ASI ), 1947. ( 181 -
310. Report on the Excavations at Brahmagiri and
Chandravalli in 1947 by Wheeler, R. E.
M. )
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
34/45
19. Indo - Asian Culture, Vol. II, No. 3. 238 - 47.
20. Krishna M. H. : Excavations At Chandravalli,
DAM. 1931.
21. Indian Archaeology, A Review, 1977 - 78, ASI, (
IAR ). 27 - 29 ; fig. 5.
22. AI, No. 13, ASI, 1958. ( 04 - 141 ). ( Report on
the 1954 Excavations at Maski, Thapar, B. K. ).
23 Sundara, A. " Chitradurga Parisara : Ittichina
Puratattva Shodhanegalu " Manavia Bharati, Vol. 2.
Part. 1. Karnatak University, Dharwad. 1978. ( RecentArchaeological Investigations In Chitradurga Environs ).
24. -" -- ; " Koppala : Itihasa Purvakala, " Gavideepti,
Gavisiddheshvara Kripaposhita Vidyarthi Balaga,
Koppala. 1976. ( 97 - 103 ). ( Prehistoric Koppala )
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
35/45
25. Kartikeya Sarma : Early Brahmi Inscriptions From
Sannati, Harman Publishing House, Delhi. 1994.
26. Based on the paper presented with colour slides
by Dr. Jitendra Das, Superintendint Archaeologist,
Archaeological Survey of India, Bangalore Circle,
Bangalore in the last Annual Congress of South Indian
Numismatic Society held in Karnatak University,
Dharwad in Feb' 2000.
27. Sanganakal is located north - south between
Sannati and Brahmagiri. Piklihal is only about 25 km.
west of Maski and between the latter and Koppala, east
- west. Hallur was probably located in the south - west
corner of the southern province of the Mauryanprovince.
28. Gogte, V. D. : " The Chandraketugarh
-TamlookRegion of Bengal : Source of the Early Historic
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
36/45
Rouletted ware from India and Southeast Asia"
Man And Environment, Vol. XXII, No.1 Journ of Indian
society for Prehistoric And Quaternary Studies, 1997.
Pune.
29 . The absolute scientific dates.
A. C14 dates for :
1. The Neolithic culture in the chalcolithic stage :
i. at Tekkalakota Period IA
3395 + 105
( 3490 + 105 )
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
37/45
3465 + 105
( 3565 + 105 )
Period IB
3625 + 105
( 3730 + 105 ).
ii. at Kodekal Earliest phase.
2460 + 105 B. C.
iii. at Terdal . Earliest phase
3625 + 105
( 3720 + 105 )
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
38/45
iv. at Hallur Tr. 1 Period IA
3560 + 105
( 3660 + 105 )
( c. 1700 B. C. on average )
Period IB
3280 + 105
( 3375 + 105 )
2895 + 100
( 2980 + 105 )
Tr. 2. Period IB
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
39/45
3145 + 100
( c. 1195 B. C. )
v. at Budihal
Ash mound no.1 Period IA
7950 + 210
Layer 6: 3750 + 30
" 9. 3805 + 35
" 10. 3795 + 40
( i. e. c. 1800 - 1700 B. C. on average )
vi. at. Sanganakal Period IA
1590 + 110
1585 + 105
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
40/45
1550 + 105
( The beginning of the culture in this site was around
1600
B. C. ).
vii. at Watgal Period IIA
4150 + 50
( On average 2563, 2524, and 2500 B. C. )
Period IIB
3910 + 60
( c. 2313 [ 2199 ], 2136 B. C. )
3510 + 100
( c. 1871 [ 1730, 1729 and 1685 ] 1530 B. C. )
The average date is 2300 - 2000 B. C.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
41/45
2.. Iron Age Megalithic Culture
i. at Hallur : C14 dates
Overlap Phase
2820 + 100
( 2905 + 100 )
2970 + 105( 3055 + 105 )
The average date is 1105 + 105 B. C.
905 + 100. "
B. Thermoluminiscence dates
2. For the Iron Age Megalithic culture
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
42/45
ii. at Komaranahalli.
Meg. I I : Black - and - red ware pottery
3300 + 290
c. 1440 B. C
3080 + 260.
c. 1100 B. C.
Meg III : Black - and - red ware pottery
3110 + 500
c. 1130 B C.
2910 + 470.
c. 930 B. C.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
43/45
Meg. IV Red ware pottery
3360 + 300
c. 1380 B. C.
3180 + 280
c. 1200 B. C.
Meg. IV All Black - ware - pottery
3300 + 400
c. 1320 B. C.
30, Shaffer Jim, et.al. : " The Watgal Excavations : An
Interim Report ," Man And Environment, Vol. 20, Part 2.
Indian Society For Prehistoric And Quaternary Studies,
Pune 1995.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
44/45
31. Nagaraja Rao, M. S. " Graves Of The Early Iron
Using People At
Komaranahalli - Recent Evidence. " Archaeology Of
Karnataka, DAM. 1990.
32. Moorthy, U. S.: Megalithic Culture of South India,
Socio - Economic perspectives, Ganga - Kaveri
publications, 1994. Varanasi. List of dates at the end.
33. Sundara, A. ; " Neolithic Cultural Pattern and
Movements in
North Mysore State", Journ. of Karnatak University,
Vols. VI. 1970. andVII, 1971
34. ---"------ : Op.cit., 1995.
35 Ibid
36. Agrawal, O. P. et. al. : "Iron Objects from South
Indian Megaliths
( Karnataka ) : A Technological Study and Significance",
Archaeology Of Karnataka, DAM, 1990.
-
7/28/2019 Sundara, A. - The Traditional Date of Asoka Maurya - Very Important
45/45
37. Krishanan, K. G. Op. Cit. 1989, Ins, no.67. pages
152,156 and 158, item.16.
38. I have noticed an illustration of a square flat coin
carrying a figure on one side and an inscription on the
other obtained from the early Satavahana phase of a
site, in a booklet on archaeology of Andhra Pradesh.
The booklet at my end is not readily traceable.
39. Rajasekharappa, B. : "Chandravvalli Shasanadhamele hosa belaku"
Kannada Sahithy Parishatpathrike, Vol. 69, no. 2. 1984.
Banagalore. ( New Light on Chandravalli Inscription. )
18