![Page 1: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Staghorn Calculus – Etiology, Management & Prevention
![Page 2: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
BACKGROUND• infection stones, struvite, triple phosphate stones,
staghorn calculus.• Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate (MgNH4PO4·6H2O)
+ calcium carbonate apatite crystals (Ca10(PO4)6·CO3) Potential for morbidity and mortality:1. Untreated infection stones – progressive renal demise2. Inadequately treated struvite stone – niduses for
recurrent UTI and recurrent struvite stone formation.3. bacteria reside within these stones – life-threatening
sepsis
![Page 3: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Pathogenesis
• Infection stone =
urine pH is > 7.2urease-producing
bacteria
![Page 4: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
• (NH2 )2CO + H2O → 2NH3 + CO2
• NH3 + H2O → NH4+ + OH− pK = 9.0
• presence of urease, ammonia continues to be produced despite alkaline urine, further increasing urinary pH.
• Promotes the hydration of carbon dioxide to carbonic acid
• CO2 +H2O→ H2CO3 pK = 4.5 • H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3
− pK = 6.3• HCO3- → H+ + CO3
2- pK= 10.2
![Page 5: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
• The dissociation of hydrogen phosphate under alkaline conditions provides phosphate
OTHER FACTORS:• The relative decrease in stone inhibitors(citrate) may also
play a role in struvite physicochemistry.• GAGs theory• Stasis
![Page 6: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Bacteriology• family Enterobacteriaceae comprises the majority of
urease-producing pathogens• The most common urease-producing pathogens are
Proteus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus species
• Proteus mirabilis the most common organism associated with infection stones
• Bacterial urease can be detected by the Urea-Rapid Test• E. coli and Proteus, may alter the activity of urokinase• and sialidase,
![Page 7: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
![Page 8: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
![Page 9: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Epidemiology• Infection stones comprise 5% to 15% of all stones• More often in women (ratio of 2 : 1)Increased risk for infection calculi:1. Elderly 2. premature infants3. diabetics4. urinary stasis as a result of urinary tract obstruction,
urinary diversion, or neurologic disorders. 5. Spinalcord–injured patients 6. use of indwelling catheters
![Page 10: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
CLINICAL FINDINGSA complete history• of chronic flank pain, malaise, fever, • dysuria, and intermittent hematuria• immunosuppressed state (diabetes mellitus,
steroid intake, etc.),• history of previous stone disease• past surgical history - for urological procedures• history of using multiple, alternating antibiotics
![Page 11: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Physical Examination• a chronically ill-appearing patient• Body habitus,• presence of vertebral kyphoscoliosis• In acute pyelonephritis or pyonephrosis -
1. toxic appearance2. costovertebral angle tenderness
![Page 12: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Laboratory studies• complete blood count• basic metabolic panel• Urinalysis• Urine culture
![Page 13: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Imaging Modalities
• Renal sonography• X ray KUB• IVP• CT urography• Nuclear renography
![Page 14: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
![Page 15: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
NATURAL HISTORY OF INFECTION STAGHORN CALCULI
• Pyonephrosis• xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis• end stage hydronephrotic kidney• severe pyelonephritic changes• Perinephric abscess• Carcinoma• the overall rate of renal deterioration was 28%– Solitary, previous, recurrent, hypertension, complete,
diversion, neurogenic bladder, refused treatment• asymptomatic
![Page 16: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
TREATMENT• The primary goal of staghorn stone management is complete stone
eradication.• Various modalities of treatments are:
– Surgical• PCNL• ESWL• OPEN• SANDWICH THERAPY
– Non surgical• Dissolution therapy• Antibiotics• urease inhibitors,• urinary acidification, • dietary modification.
![Page 17: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Percutaneous Nephrostolithotomy (PCNL)the treatment of choice• superior stone-free outcomes• acceptably low morbidity.• Stone free rate of ~80%• overall risk of transfusion was 18%• serious complications was 15%. i.e.
– injury to adjacent organs (colon, spleen, liver), – hydropneumothorax, – collecting system perforations,– sepsis, – vascular injury, – renal loss.
![Page 18: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Technical advances in PCNL1. flexible nephroscopy is mandatory after
debulking the dominant stone2. to establish multiple percutaneous tracts3. second look nephroscopy.
![Page 19: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Extracorporeal Shockwave Lithotripsy (Monotherapy)
• SWL is the least invasive of the operative approaches• SWL monotherapy had the lowest success rate.• Risks included – colic requiring admission, – significant perirenal hematoma, – obstruction including steinstrasse,– pyelonephritis,– renal loss.
• “sandwich therapy”- pcnl -> eswl -> pcnl
![Page 20: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Ureteroscopy
• flexible ureteroscopy has been used in combination with PCNL – to avoid multiple access tracts– to access calyces that would be difficult to access
in an antegrade manner
![Page 21: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Open & Laparoscopic Surgery• Anatrophic nephrolithotomy and pyelolithotomy
operations• alternative in patients who require concomitant
heminephrectomy, pyeloplasty • in those with ectopic kidneys that cannot be safely
accessed percutaneously• Other indications:– morbid obesity, – large symptomatic anterior caliceal diverticular stones, – large stone volume with infundibular stenosis – massive collecting system dilation
![Page 22: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Dissolution therapy• Boric acid and permanganate• Suby’s solution G• Hemiacidrin or Renacidin® adding D-gluconic acid.• following precautions must be exercised during intrarenal chemolysis:
– Low intrarenal pressures must be maintained (<30 cm water),– Serum magnesium and phosphate must be monitored closely,– The urine must be sterile. Broad-spectrum antibiotics are given for 14 days in
the perioperative period,– The collecting system must be unobstructed and there must be no
extravasation.• Indication: in high-risk patients, with residual calculi after percutaneous
renal surgery.• Demerits : prolonged hospital stay, cost and risk of complications.
![Page 23: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Antibiotics
• Culture-specific preoperative and perioperative antibiotics are critical to prevent sepsis
• Long-term, low-dose, culture specific antimicrobials are important to prevent new stone growth and progression after surgery.
• AUA Guidelines Panel stated emphatically that treatment with antibiotics alone is not standard of care.
![Page 24: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Urease Inhibitors• Acetohydroxamic acid (AHA) is the only FDA-approved
urease inhibitor.• Irreversibly inhibits bacterial urease• High renal clearance, • Penetrate the bacterial cell wall,• Acts synergistically with several antibiotics• Adverse effects- tremulousness, thrombophlebitis,
neurologic, hematologic, and dermatologic.• Contraindicated in patients with serum creatinine
greater than 2.5 mg/dL
![Page 25: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Urinary acidification
• L-methionine to acidify urine• oral intake of 1,500–3,000 mg daily of L-
methionine• gastric patch pyeloplasty (animal model)
![Page 26: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Dietary modification
Aim :To deplete the substrates of struvite calculi, including
urinary phosphate, magnesium, and ammonia.• (Shorr regimen) a regimen of a low-phosphorous,
low-calcium diet with oral estrogens and aluminum hydroxide gel
• Adverse effects: constipation, anorexia, lethargy, bone pain, and hypercalciuria, increased risk of breast and uterine cancers.
![Page 27: Staghorn calculus – etiology, diagnosis, management](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022081521/5873832d1a28ab272d8b5437/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Thank you