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Sorghum for feed and fodder production

Presented in the Regional Workshop on Optimum Industrial utilization of Sorghum in

Sudan. Organized by Industrial Research & Consultancy Centre (IRCC). 18-19 April

2010. Khartoum North. Sudan

By

Maarouf I. Mohammed

Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) P.O.Box 30. Khartoum North. Sudan

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) lends itself to a variety of uses. Its uses for feed and

fodder are now overtaking that for food in many parts of the world. Recent developments in

enhancing sorghum digestibility make it a strong competitor to maize in view of its relative

advantage as low input demanding crop that can thrive better under harsh conditions. The present

paper highlights the importance of sorghum as a forage and feed-grain crop. The forage stuff

included grass, sweet and hybrid types and their production under green chop, grazing, hay or

silage making systems. As feed stuff, we discussed the potential of utilizing sorghum grains in

diary. beef and poultry nutrition. The paper also highlights some of the recent advances in

quality enhancement of sorghum specifically brown midrib trait (BMR) and high digestible

sorghum grain (HDS). The role of processing to improve the relative efficiency of sorghum as

feed-grain has also been discussed.

Introduction

Sorghum has recently witnessed an increasing importance as feed crop in the semi arid tropics

and drier parts of the world where livestock constitutes a major component of the production

system. Such importance is further accentuated by global warming, increasing water shortages,

and growing demand for high quality forage resources. Although the crop has great genetic

diversity enabling selection for most economic traits, yet improvement efforts are mostly grain

oriented with little attention being given to non-grain attributes. Kelley et al. (1991) questioned

the current strategy of strictly adopting grain-yield criteria in evaluating sorghum genotypes,

arguing that fodder's contribution to the total value of sorghum production has increased

considerably. They reported that the grain/straw price ratio of sorghum has dropped from 6:1 in

1970 to 3:1 in 1990 and is likely to decline further.

Uses of sorghum have been discussed by Dendy (1995). Much of the agricultural history of

sorghum has been for food, beverage, feed and building material. It has been used as an

industrial crop during the last 100 years. Mechanization of its cultivation and harvesting has

occurred primarily in the last 60-70 years. Industrial uses of the crop have been for feed, some

for food, starch, the chemical industry and for fuel alcohol. The use of grain as an animal feed

Mohammed, Maarouf I. Sorghum for feed and fodder production. Regional Workshop on Optimum Industrial

utilization of Sorghum in Sudan. IRCC. 18-19 April 2010. Khartoum North. Sudan

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has been an important stimulus to the global use of sorghum (Dendy, 1995). Feed use was

relatively minor until the mid-1960's when there was a rapid expansion in this use, particularly in

North America. Feed utilization overtook food use for the first time in 1966 after which feed use

has risen from 15 to 40 million tomes. Currently, about 48% of world sorghum grain production

is fed to livestock (Dowling et al, 2002). Up to 97% of this use has been in developed countries.

Production of grain for feed which is already established in many industrialized countries is

likely to become more common in developing countries in which sorghum is mainly produced

for human consumption (Dowling et al, 2002). This specially true for some higher income

developing countries, particularly in Latin America where it constitutes about 80% of sorghum

utilization.

Sorghum has great potential for fodder production under limited resource conditions. Compared

to other cereals, especially maize, sorghum is more droughts tolerant, less input demanding and

thrive better under harsh conditions. Sudangrass was first introduced to USA from Sudan in 1909

(by C.V. Piper) to replace the rhizomatous weedy type "Johnson Grass" (Maunder, 1983). In

1911, the first Sudangrass variety (Wheeler) was released in USA by Carl Wheeler (Peterson and

Miller, 1950). The advent of hybrid sorghum in the l950's represents a turning point contributing

to expanded use and higher yields of the crop. According to Maunder (1983), the release of the

first forage sorghum hybrid took place in 1959. These were the unwanted crosses of grain hybrid

program which later led to the forage hybrid “Sudax”. Another breakthrough in the history of

sorghum took place with the identification of brown midrib (BMR) trait (Porter et al, 1978)

which sparked interest for utilization of sorghum as high quality forage crop.

Sorghum as feed grain

Enhanced quality grain: The importance of sorghum grain as animal feed has been reviewed by

many workers (Subramanium and Metta, 2000; Dowling et al, 2002; Reddy et al, 2005;

Kriegshauser et al, 2006). Sorghum grain is a significant component of animal feed in the United

States, South America, Australia and China, and is becoming important in chicken feed in India.

In the Unites States it represents the second most important feed grain following maize.

Compared to corn, sorghum grain has similar feed characteristics, provides about as much

metabolizable energy, has higher crude protein content, but less digestibility. In the past, increase

of tannin content in sorghum-based animal feed has been blamed for depressed growth and feed

conversion. Nowadays, low-tannin high digestible sorghum (HDS) varieties have been

developed. HDS grain can be used as a complete replacement for maize in poultry feed without

sacrificing body weight or egg production performance of layer birds (Reddy et al, 2005;

Kriegshauser et al, 2006). Improved lines of high-lysine mutant of grain sorghum have been

shown to have substantially greater digestibility of protein than normal cultivars (Dowling et al,

2002). Variations in feed quality of sorghum have been attributed to differences in physical and

chemical seed characteristics and processing methods used before feeding. Increased seed size



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and high fat content appear to be beneficial to sorghum-based poultry diets, resulting in

improved animal performance that is comparable to that of maize (Kriegshauser et al, 2006)

Processed grain: Stock and Madery (1987) studied the feeding value of grain sorghum relative

to corn using various grain processing methods. It has been widely recognized that grain

sorghum must be processed to be efficiently used by finishing cattle. Unlike corn, whole grain

sorghum kernels will not be broken down and digested by the animal. The starch which

represents 70% of the dry matter in grain sorghum is digested at much slower rate in the rumen

of cattle compared to corn. On the other hand, proteins also appear to be less digestible in grain

sorghum than in other grains. Processing of grain ruptures the seed coat, reduces particle size and

increases surface area so digestion can occur more rapidly and extensively. Thus, processing

increases rate and extent of starch digestion resulting in large improvements in its feeding value.

Dry ground or rolled grain sorghum has a relative feeding value of 90% of dry rolled corn.

Processing by more sophisticated methods (early harvesting, steam-flaking, popping, etc.)

greatly enhance the feeding value of sorghum grain.

Sorghum for fodder

Fodder sorghums are usually classified into three major categories: forage sorghums,

sudangrasses and sorghum- sudangrass hybrids. These sorghums have little value as directly

marketable seed crops, but their value becomes apparent as they are marketed through livestock

and industrial utilization e.g. milk, meat and ethanol (Pedersen and Fritz, 2000).

Forage sorghums: These include sweet sorghum varieties and hybrids. They are tall plants (2 to

4 m) with sweet thick stems. Unlike sudangrass, forage sorghum has poor regrowth ability

following harvest, so is best adapted to a single-cut system. It is best utilized as a silage crop,

although it can be grazed or cut for hay if managed appropriately. Its silage is usually slightly

lower in energy than that of corn but similar in protein

Sudangrass: Characterized by small, fine stems and leafy growth. Sudangrasses regrow rapidly

after cutting or grazing. It can be harvested as pasture, green chop, or hay. The thinner stems

give it better drying characteristics than other sorghums for hay making. Sudangrasses are used

less extensively than in the past and have been largely replaced by sorghum-sudangrass hybrids

in grazing and haying operations for which they are well suited.

Sorghum-sudangrass hybrids: These are crosses between Sudangrass and other forms of

sorghums. They are taller, have thicker stems and can be higher yielding than sudangrass. They

are usually harvested for green chop or silage but may be pastured or hayed if sown at a high

seeding rate and harvested at immature stages (0.5 m tall).

Systems of production

Sorghum may be utilized in a number of ways: as green chop, grazed, made into hay or silage. It

can meet the requirements of the stock farmer the whole year if a combination of these systems

has been adopted. The major production systems are:



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Green chop and grazing: The feed produced under these systems permit utilization of forage at

its full feeding value. The crop is grazed or cut when plants reach a height of 60 to 90 cm and

onwards. At this stage the plants have established themselves, are very palatable and have a high

nutritive value, which ensures a good feed intake. The plants must not be allowed to flower. To

stimulate rapid growth after harvest, plants must not be grazed down or cut too short (15 – 20

cm) as this will deplete the plant reserves necessary for regrowth. Forage sorghum recovers

rapidly after utilization and a growth of 30 cm or more per week may be obtained, depending on

the variety and environment.

Hay: Haymaking is the process in which the green forage turns into dry, safely stored and easily

transported product with minimum losses of dry matter and nutrients, hence, playing an

important role in fodder availability all through the year and help greatly in bridging the

accidental gaps in forage production. Haymaking involves reduction of the moisture content in

the green matter from 70 – 90% to 20 – 25% or less. Under humid temperate conditions hay

production from sorghum types having thick stems is subjected to spoilage due to slowness of

drying. Under tropical conditions, hay made from coarse cereals such as sorghum represents a

good choice since finer grasses are usually subjected to shattering of leaves, bleaching and loss

of carotene and vitamins due to rapid drying. High seed rates are usually recommended for

sorghum specifically grown for hay production as high plant population induces thinner stems

that dry easier. Harvesting for hay is recommended before head emergence or at booting stage.

Rapid, uniform drying is critical for sorghum-sudangrass hay.

Silage: Sorghum is an important silage crop for beef and dairy producers. The general

shortcomings of sorghum silage in comparison to that of corn included lower nutritive value and

threats of prussic acid and nitrate poisoning. Forage and grain sorghums types are the best suited

for silage production. Sudangrass and sorghum- sudangrass hybrids are better suited for hay

making or grazing. Grain sorghum compares very favorably to corn as whole-plant silage. Grain

sorghum should be harvested at the mid- to late-dough stage of kernel maturity. It usually has a

higher crude protein (CP) content than corn silage, but slightly lower net energy values for beef

and dairy cattle.

If silage is made perfectly, anaerobic bacteria (lactic acid bacteria) will convert carbohydrates to

lactic acid, the pH is rapidly lowered and the silage is preserved. Yet, some DM is lost during

lactic acid production in even the best of circumstances. Whenever oxygen is present,

carbohydrates are converted to carbon dioxide and water, accompanied by the generation of

considerable heat resulting in serious losses in DM ranging from 5% - 15% in very good silage

to 25% - 50% in very bad one. Losses are quantified as the amount of forage DM fed-in minus

that fed-out of a silo. These losses are the result of effluent, respiration, primary and secondary

fermentation, and aerobic activity during the storage and feed-out process.

Ashbell and Weinberg (2000) discussed silage making in the tropics. The use of silage has long

been an integral component of temperate feeding systems worldwide, as a means to ensure year-



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round feed supply for high production animals. However, its use in the tropics has been restricted

to isolated cases, usually involving higher-return enterprises, and particularly the dairy industry.

This technology requires high investment in facilities, accurate timing in the several stages of the

ensiling process, and better understanding of the whole process than hay making demands. In

addition to these demands, silage making and management in tropical conditions needs special

attention and care with regard to three key points:

• In warm areas, it is more difficult to control the correct stage for harvesting due to very

rabid phasing of growth stages. This is especially crucial with cereal crops in the last

stages of maturity.

• The correct dry matter (DM) content in the plant before ensiling is an important factor for

the fermentation success. Unexpected weather (dry, wet or hot) can damage the crop and

increase losses.

• Aerobic stability: Rapid deterioration of silage, especially during the feeding-out process

is a real problem in a hot climate. It reduces quality and results in losses. Aerobic stability

should become a routine test in hot areas (Ashbell et al., 1991).

• Stem (lignin) ratio to the whole plant: Reducing the proportion of stem in the plant will

increase its digestibility, so, in practice, shorter hybrids are preferable.

Some of the important properties determining the value of sorghum silage. Include:

� High energy: Structural carbohydrates and starch are the main energy resources in cereal

crops. Starch is mainly accumulated in the grain, the amount of which greatly affects the

total energy content. The higher the proportion of grain in the plant, the more the total

energy. The positive effect of the presence of starch is especially important for dairy

cows. Therefore, we are looking for a high-grain sorghum hybrid.

� DM content: Ensiling technology requires at least 30% of DM in the forage. With less

than 30% DM, undesirable fermentation takes place and increases losses. To increase the

DM content, the recommended stage for harvesting should be between milk and dough

stages. Harvesting at late-dough maturity or later will increase the undigested amount of

the grains and reduce the nutritional value.

� Tannins: As pointed earlier, tannins have a negative effect on the digestibility rate of the

protein in the diet.

The brown mid-rib (BMR) trait in sorghum

The name brown midrib (BMR) refers to the reddish-brown pigmentation of the midrib of

leaves. The bmr trait is recessive. When present in the homozygous state, will effect reduced

lignin content and higher forage digestibility (Porter et al., 1978; Cherney et al., 1986; Pedersen,

1996; Casler et al., 2003). The genetic control of the lignifications process through manipulation

of the bmr trait has offered the most direct and productive approach to reducing lignin content

and increasing digestibility of forage sorghums (Gerhardt et al., 1994). Lignin concentration of



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brown midrib lines has been reduced by 5 to 50%. A decrease of 10 g kg-1

in lignin generally

resulted in an increase of 40 g kg-1

in digestibility (Cherney et al., 1991). As a result, voluntary

intake and animal performance may increase by up to 30% (Cherney et al., 1991).

Despite these advantages, some concerns regarding BMR mutations should not be overlooked,

i.e. it can lead to reduced dry matter yield and increased lodging. However, these problems are

often time and variety specific. Some cultivars perform better than others. Future cultivars

resulting from breeding efforts will likely eliminate some of the concerns associated with BMR

sorghums. Joshua et al (2005) studied the effect of harvest stage and regrowth on yield,

composition and digestibility of some bmr genotypes. They found that the genotype BMR-101

was resistant to lodging at early heading. However, it suffered from high lodging at the soft

dough stage of the summer harvest. Brent and Ted (2005) reported that bmr varieties yielded 10

to 11 percent less in most years than non- bmr varieties, and in one year where weather

conditions were hotter and dryer than normal, yield was 26% less. Lodging on average has not

been worse with the bmr varieties, however, a higher percentage of the bmr varieties were

observed to have at least some observable lodging compared to the non- bmrs. Lodging potential

was reduced by lowering seeding and nitrogen fertilizer rates. Average in-vitro digestibility of

bmr varieties was higher than non- bmr varieties and was similar to that of corn.

Sorghum for feed in the Sudan

In the Sudan, where the second largest animal wealth in Africa exists, forage sorghum constitutes

the bulk of the animal feed in the country. The traditional sorghum cultivar ‘Abu Sab’in’ is the

most important variety grown for forage in the Sudan. In Khartoum State, for example, it

represents more than 75% of the total area cultivated (Statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture of

Khartoum State, 2008). Sudan is known to have a wealth of genetic variability in sorghum (Abu-

El-Gasim and Kambal, 1975; Yasin, 1978). The Sudan genetic resources have been reviewed by

Mahmoud et al (1996). The sorghum germplasm of Sudan has been utilized extensively in the

USA and other parts of the world. Apart from kafirs of southern Africa, no sorghum contributed

to the crop's current high international status as did Sudan's feterita, milo, hegari, mugud,

ziraizeera and Sudan grass types. In contrast, local efforts to exploit such variability to develop

improved sorghum feed types have been very limited and mostly directed towards improving

food grain types. The first fully devoted forage improvement program in the country started in

2000 (Mohammed et al. 2008). One of the program objectives was to develop improved fodder

types from the local stocks of forage sorghum. Under this program, the first improved forage

sorghum cultivars ‘Kambal’ (improved Abu Sab’in) and ‘Sudan-1’ (improved Garawi) have

been released in the years 2004 and 2009, respectively (Mohammed, et al. 2008; Mohammed,

2010a). On the first of March 2010, the program has succeeded in releasing the Sudan first

forage sorghum hybrid under the name ‘Hagin Garawi’ (Mohammed, 2010b)

In the Sudan, fodder sorghums are traditionally produced under green chopping system. Grazing,

hay or silage making systems are not practiced. The traditional system favors high yields at the



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expense of high feeding value. A very common practice adopted by Abu Sab’in growers is to

delay cutting until grain formation. The grains being produced were eaten by sparrows and the

farmers usually end up with a straw of a lowered feeding value. Moreover, fodder crops are

generally viewed as low input- cash crops. Such system requires fast growing, highly productive

cultivars (i.e. cv Abu Sab'in) to minimize costs of production.

Livestock in the Sudan are traditionally fed on sorghum grain of feterita types produced under

rain fed conditions; however, under intensive production system they are fed on concentrates

composed of sorghum grain(as energy source) cake of groundnut and wheat barn (as protein

source). Khair and Krause (2003) investigated the grain feeding value of some Sudanese

sorghum varieties. Highly significant differences were encountered between cultivars for crude

protein. The feterita types showed the highest CP levels (12 %-13.7%), whereas the high

yielding types like Tabat and Wad Ahmed showed CP levels as low as 8.8 %.

Anti- quality factors

Prussic acid poisoning: Most Sorghums contain varying amounts of cyanogenic glucosides,

which depend on the variety, growth stage, and environmental conditions (Wheeler et al, 1990).

When eaten by stock, cyanogenic glucosides are converted to prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid

‘HCN’) in the rumen and may cause fatal poisoning of cattle and discourages farmers from using

the forage while it is still young and digestible. If sorghum is cut for hay and sundried the HCN

is rapidly volatilized, and can be fed to livestock. If conditions are unfavorable, plants can be

analyzed at a certified lab – if HCN > 500 ppm (DM basis) then the plants should not be grazed

or fed. More over, the negative impact of prussic acid in forage sorghum is not confined only to

the infrequent fatal poisoning of stock, but also the less obvious or hidden consequences of

induction of sulfur deficiency. As stated by Gibson (1995), the sulfur deficiency is increased

when the forage has a high prussic acid level. This is because sulfur is utilized in detoxification

reaction within animal body. Animals have this ability to breakdown prussic acid as long as there

is enough reserve of sulfur in their body tissues; however if depleted, sulfur deficiency causes a

reduction in appetite which in turn leads to a decline in average daily weight gains or milk

production. Kyabram (1995) mentioned some measures that can significantly reduce the risk of

prussic acid poisoning:

1. Do not graze the crop when it is showing signs of severe stress caused by factors such as

low soil moisture. Initial growth after stress is also high in prussic acid.

2. Do not introduce hungry stock to forage sorghum -feed them first.

3. Do not graze the crop until it reaches about 0.6 m high.

4. Introduce only a few animals initially rather than the whole herd and observe their

reaction. If animals refuse to graze, remove them promptly.

5. Provide sulphur salt licks to stock. This helps animals to detoxify the prussic acid.

6. Use lower-risk varieties as there are differences in prussic acid levels between cultivars.



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Nitrate poisoning: Sorghums can accumulate nitrates (NO3) during any weather condition that

interferes with normal plant growth; however drought is the most common cause. This NO3 is

converted to nitrite (NO2) in the rumen, which diffuses out into the bloodstream and binds to

hemoglobin. This prevents the transport of oxygen (O2) causing the animal to die from oxygen

depravation. Most NO3 accumulate in the stem or lower portion of the plant. If NO3 in the feed

exceeds 0.35% it should either be discarded or diluted with safe feed (preferably grain). Unlike

HCN, NO3 will not leach out by the sun, however ensiling the forage can lower the NO3 by

approximately 50%.

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