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Requirements Requirements DeterminationDetermination
Chapter 4
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ObjectivesDetermine the requirements for a systems development project.Identify the criteria necessary and select an appropriate requirements analysis technique(s) for a systems development project.Explain how to perform requirements–gathering techniques (interviews, JAD, questionnaires, document analysis, and observation).Select the appropriate requirements-gathering technique(s) for a systems development project.
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REQUIREMENTS REQUIREMENTS DETERMINATIONDETERMINATION
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A statement of what the system must do A statement of characteristics the system must haveFocus is on business user needs during analysis phaseRequirements will change over time as project moves from analysis to design to implementation
What is a Requirement?
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Functional RequirementsA process the system hast to performInformation the system must contain
Nonfunctional RequirementsBehavioral properties the system must have
OperationalPerformanceSecurityCultural and political
Requirement Types
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Requirements definition reportText document listing requirements in outline formPriorities may be included
Key purpose is to define the project scope: what is and is not to be included.
Documenting Requirements
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Determining Requirements
Participation by business users is essentialThree techniques help users discover their needs for the new system:
Business Process Automation (BPA)Business Process Improvement (BPI)Business Process Reengineering (BPR)
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Basic Process of Analysis (Determining Requirements)
Understand the “As-Is” systemIdentify improvement opportunitiesDevelop the “To-Be” system conceptTechniques vary in amount of change
BPA – small changeBPI – moderate changeBPR – significant change
Additional information gathering techniques are needed as well
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REQUIREMENTS REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS ANALYSIS TECHNIQUESTECHNIQUES
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Business Process Automation
Goal:
Efficiency for users
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Identifying Improvements with Business Process Automation
Problem AnalysisAsk users to identify problems and solutionsImprovements tend to be small and incrementalRarely finds improvements with significant business value
Root Cause AnalysisChallenge assumptions about why problem existsTrace symptoms to their causes to discover the “real” problem
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Root Cause Analysis Example
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Business Process Improvement
Goal:
Efficiency andeffectivenessfor users
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Duration Analysis (BPI)Calculate time needed for each process stepCalculate time needed for overall processCompare the two – a large difference indicates a badly fragmented processPotential solutions:
Process integration – change the process to use fewer people, each with broader responsibilitiesParallelization – change the process so that individual step are performed simultaneously
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Activity-Based Costing (BPI)
Calculate cost of each process stepConsider both direct and indirect costsIdentify most costly steps and focus improvement efforts on them
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Benchmarking (BPI)
Studying how other organizations perform the same business processInformal benchmarkingCommon for
customer-facing processesInteract with other business’ processes as if you are a customer
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Business Process Reengineering
Goal:
Radical redesign of business processes
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Outcome Analysis (BPR)
Consider desirable outcomes from customers’ perspectiveConsider what the organization could enable the customer to do
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Technology Analysis (BPR)
Analysts list important and interesting technologiesManagers list important and interesting technologiesThe group identifies how each might be applied to the business and how the business might benefit
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Activity Elimination (BPR)
Identify what would happen if each organizational activity were eliminatedUse “force-fit” to test all possibilities
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Selecting an Analysis Technique
Potential business valueProject costBreadth of analysisRisk
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Characteristics of Analysis Techniques
Business Business BusinessProcess Process ProcessAutomation Improvement Reeingineering
Potential Business Low-Moderate Moderate HighValue
Project Cost Low Low-Moderate High
Breadth of Analysis Narrow Narrow-Moderate Very Broad
Risk Low-Moderate Low-Moderate Very High
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REQUIREMENTS-REQUIREMENTS-GATHERING GATHERING TECHNIQUESTECHNIQUES
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Interviews
Most commonly used techniqueBasic steps:
Selecting IntervieweesDesigning Interview QuestionsPreparing for the InterviewConducting the InterviewPost-Interview Follow-up
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Selecting Interviewees
Based on information needsBest to get different perspectives
ManagersUsersIdeally, all key stakeholders
Keep organizational politics in mind
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Types of Questions
Types of Questions Examples
Closed-Ended Questions * How many telephone orders are received per day?
* How do customers place orders?* What additional information would you like the new system to provide?
Open-Ended Questions * What do you think about the current system?* What are some of the problems you face on a daily basis?* How do you decide what types of marketing campaign to run?
Probing Questions * Why?* Can you give me an example?* Can you explain that in a bit more detail?
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Organizing Interview Questions
Unstructured interview useful early in information gathering
Goal is broad, roughly defined information
Structured interview useful later in process
Goal is very specific information
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Structuring the Interview
High Level:Very General
Medium-Level:ModeratelySpecific
Low-Level:Very Specific
TOP DOWN
BOTTOM UP
EXAMPLES?
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Interview Preparation Steps
Prepare general interview planList of questionAnticipated answers and follow-ups
Confirm areas of knowledgeSet priorities in case of time shortagePrepare the interviewee
ScheduleInform of reason for interviewInform of areas of discussion
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Conducting the Interview
Appear professional and unbiasedRecord all informationCheck on organizational policy regarding tape recordingBe sure you understand all issues and termsSeparate facts from opinionsGive interviewee time to ask questionsBe sure to thank the intervieweeEnd on time
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Conducting the InterviewPractical Tips
Take time to build rapportPay attentionSummarize key pointsBe succinctBe honestWatch body language
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Post-Interview Follow-Up
Prepare interview notesPrepare interview reportHave interviewee review and confirm interview reportLook for gaps and new questions
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Joint Application Development
A structured group process focused on determining requirementsInvolves project team, users, and management working togetherMay reduce scope creep by 50%Very useful technique
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JAD Participants
FacilitatorTrained in JAD techniquesSets agenda and guides group processes
Scribe(s)Record content of JAD sessions
Users and managers from business area with broad and detailed knowledge
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JAD Sessions
Time commitment – ½ day to several weeksStrong management support is needed to release key participants from their usual responsibilitiesCareful planning is essentiale-JAD can help alleviate some problems inherent with groups
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JAD Meeting Room
JPEG Figure 5-5 Goes Here
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The JAD Session
Formal agenda and ground rules Top-down structure most successfulFacilitator activities
Keep session on trackHelp with technical terms and jargonRecord group inputStay neutral, but help resolve issues
Post-session follow-up report
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Managing Problems in JAD Sessions
Reducing dominationEncouraging non-contributorsSide discussionsAgenda merry-go-roundViolent agreementUnresolved conflictTrue conflictUse humor
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Questionnaires
A set of written questions, often sent to a large number of peopleMay be paper-based or electronicSelect participants using samples of the populationDesign the questions for clarity and ease of analysisAdminister the questionnaire and take steps to get a good response rateQuestionnaire follow-up report
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Good Questionnaire Design
•Begin with non-threatening and interesting questions•Group items into logically coherent sections•Do not put important items at the very end of the questionnaire•Do not crowd a page with too many items•Avoid abbreviations•Avoid biased or suggestive items or terms•Number questions to avoid confusion•Pretest the questionnaire to identify confusing questions•Provide anonymity to respondents
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Document Analysis
Study of existing material describing the current systemForms, reports, policy manuals, organization charts describe the formal systemLook for the informal system in user additions to forms/report and unused form/report elementsUser changes to existing forms/reports or non-use of existing forms/reports suggest the system needs modification
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Observation
Watch processes being performedUsers/managers often don’t accurately recall everything they doChecks validity of information gathered other waysBe aware that behaviors change when people are watchedBe unobtrusiveIdentify peak and lull periods
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Selecting the Appropriate Requirements-Gathering Techniques
Type of informationDepth of informationBreadth of informationIntegration of informationUser involvementCostCombining techniques
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Selecting the Appropriate Techniques
Interviews JAD Questionnaires Document Observation Analysis
Type of As-Is As-Is As-Is As-Is As-IsInformation Improve. Improve. Improve. To-Be To-Be
Depth of High High Medium Low LowInformation
Breadth of Low Medium High High LowInformation
Integration Low High Low Low Lowof Info.
User Medium High Low Low LowInvolvement
Cost Medium Low- Low Low Low- Medium Medium