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Introduction to Qualitative Research
Elsye Maria Rosa
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Definisi
Pendekatan kualitatif adalah suatu proses penelitian dan pemahaman yang berdasarkan pada metodologi yang menyelidiki suatu fenomena sosial dan masalah manusia
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Definisi
Bogdan dan Taylor dalam Moleong (2007:3) mengemukakan bahwa metodologi kualitatif merupakan prosedur penelitian yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata tertulis maupun lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang diamati.
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Qualitative Research
Starts with general question or problem
No pre-defined hypothesis
Uses a purposeful sam-ple, not a random one
Uses a relatively small sample
Data collected with semi-structure & unstructured instrumentsPresents results descriptivelyUtilizes researcher’s aware-ness of own orientations, biases, experiences that might affect data collection & interpretation
Characteristics:
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Approaches to Research
Positivist (Quantitatif research)Tujuan, realitas yang stabil, konteks hubungan sebab-akibatIlmiah, berbasis bukti pengetahuan, deduktifMetode penelitian terstruktur, dapat direplikasi, eksperimental; hasil kuantitatif
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Interpretive (Qualitatif research)
Subyektif , konstruksi sosial, yang harus ditafsirkan
Pengetahuan dipengaruhi oleh realitas jamak, peka terhadap konteks, penelitian bertujuan untuk mengungkap makna fenomena
Peneliti adalah pencipta makna, membawa pengalaman subyektif sendiri untuk penelitian, metode mencoba untuk menangkap 'orang dalam' pengetahuan, penelitian yang dilakukan dalam pengaturan alam
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The process of qualitative research
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The steps in designing a qualitative study
1. Menetapkan masalah umum untuk diselidiki - Menarik bagi peneliti
2. Menyatakan tujuan penelitian- Berdasarkan analisis masalah- Muncul dari studi sebelumnya- Dipandu oleh tinjauan pustaka- Ditentukan oleh siapa yang akan menggunakan hasil penelitian
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3. Mengembangkan kerangka konseptual / teoretis untuk studi
4. Merumuskan pertanyaan penelitian umum dan khusus (tujuan dan sasaran)
5. Pilih desain penelitian kualitatif
6. Pilih strategi sampling
7. Pemilihan peserta
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7. Pastikan trustworthiness dari penelitian
8. Menentukan metode pengumpulan data dan mengembangkan alat-alat pengumpulan data
9. Menetapkan bagaimana data akan dikelola dan dianalisis
10. Interpretasi dan diskusi temuan
11. Siapkan laporan penelitian
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Qualitative Research:Funnel Approach
General research questions
Collect data
Narrower research questions
Collect data
Narrower research questions
Conclusions
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Qualitative Research:Inductive Approach
Conclusions
Specific narrow
research question
Collect data
Broader question
Collect data
Broader question
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Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures
Fo cus G ro ups D epth Interv iews
D irect(N o ndisguised)
A sso ciatio nT echniques
C o m pletio nT echniques
C o nstructio nT echniques
E xpressiveT echniques
P ro jectiveT echniques
Indirect(D isguised)
Q ualita tive R esearchP ro cedures
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Elements of the Research Process
DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING
Deductive thinking (Quantitative)
THEORY
HYPOTHESIS
OBSERVATION
CONFIRMATION
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Elements of the Research Process (Cont.)
Inductive thinking (Qualitative)
OBSERVATION
PATTERNS
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY
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QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Research process is deductive.
Research process is inductive.
Measure objective facts. Social reality, meaning is constructed.
Focus on variables. Focus on in-depth meaning.
Value-free research. Values are present & explicit (empathy).
Independent of context. Contextual importance.
Many cases, subjects. Few cases, participants.
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QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Statistical analysis Thematic analysis
Objective instruments of data collection.
Researcher as the central tool for data collection.
Highly structured research process.
Loosely structured research process.
Researcher is detached
(outsider).(Adapted from Neuman, 1997: 14)
Researcher is immersed (insider).
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QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
result oriented process oriented
particularistic and analytical holistic perspective
objective “outsider view” distant from data
subjective “insider view” and closeness to data
generalized by population membership
generalization by comparison of properties and contexts of individual organism
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Qualitative Research Methods
1. Biografi
2.Fenomenology
3. Grounded Theory
4.Etnografi
5. Case Study
6. Action Reseach
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Grounded Theory
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Grounded Theory
Rooted in social sciencesEmphasises the development of theoryWhich is grounded in data systematically collected and analysed (constant comparative analysis to produce substantive theory)Theory must be faithful to the evidenceLooks for generalisable theory - by making comparisons across situations
Focus is on patterns of action and interaction
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Phenomenology
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Features of Phenomenology
Rooted in philosophy
Central question: what is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon for this person/group of people?
How is each individual’s subjective reality applied to make experiences meaningful?
Analysis of the language used
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Action Research
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Action Research
Build action theories - action science
Aim is to develop effective action, improve practice, and implement change
Cyclical process, alternating between action and reflection
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Action-research groups
Action-learning group – facilitated or self-directed Emphasis on individual learning Reflection-in-action Reflection-on-action
Action-research team Focus on operational problems Facilitated (technical to empowering continuum)
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Sampling in qualitative research
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Considerations in sampling
Purpose of qualitative research Produce information-rich data Depth rather than breadth Insight rather than generalisation
Conceptual rather than numerical considerations Choose information-rich sites and respondents
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Common sampling approach
Purposive sampling Not hazard Select information-rich cases Not the same as convenience sampling
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Qualitative Research Methods:Case Study
Purpose
To determine the factors, & relationships among the factors, that have resulted in current behavior or status of subject
Focus is on a single subject or unit (could be multiple individuals)
Procedure Determine the case
(individual, group, or environment) to study
Determine data collection strategies & data to be collected
Collect the data Analyze the data
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Qualitative Research Methods:Case Study
Potential Problems
Observer (researcher) bias
Lack of generalizability
Requires extensive data collection
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Gambar: Jenis-jenis Dasar Penelitian Studi Kasus (Sumber: Yin, 2009, 46)
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PEMBAGIAN STUDI KASUS
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Example :
Rethinking Interventionist Research: Navigating Oppositional Networks in a Danish Hospital
Case Study: Using Baldrige Criteria to Achieve Performance Excellence at the Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital Hamilton
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Case study:William Beaumont Hospital -- Royal Oak Campus
Fire Detection Projects
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In-Hospital Management of Patients With Hyperglycemia: Transitioning From IV Insulin Therapy to Subcutaneous Insulin Regimens and Effective Discharge Planning to Maintain Glycemic Control (An Interactive Case Study) Bruce
Bode, MD; Michelle Magee, MD; Chris Hogness, MD, MPH
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Qualitative Research Methods:Ethnography
Purpose
To determine the fac-tors & relationships among the factors that result in a subject’s current status in a setting natural to the subject
Relies on extensive & detailed description
Procedure Refine the problem &
setting of interest Decide on most
appropriate & effective level of participation
Develop “working” hypotheses
Determine initial data collection strategies
Collect data over time
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Qualitative Research Methods:Ethnography
Potential Problems Results can be
difficult to analyze Findings are nearly
impossible to replicate
Small sample size Generally fairly
costly Time consuming
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Types of Data CollectionTypes of Data Collection(or “fieldwork”)
Observation
Interviewing
Focus Groups
Document Analysis
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The Three-Interview SeriesThe Three-Interview Series(Seidman, 1998)
Interview One: Life History
Interview Two: Details of the Experience
Interview Three: Reflection on the Meaning
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Men’s focus group, Hunan, China. Photo: Yuan Liping
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FGDs often work well by using existing social groups Photo: Yuan Liping
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ResourcesResources(Kuh & Andreas, 1991)
• Recording devices• Transcribing equipment• Software packages for analyzing• Member checks participants• Space• Time
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The Data
Generally collected in the form of…
field notes,diariesaudio & video tapes, copies of documents,narrative descriptions
Analysis
Some form of analysis usually takes place at the same time data is being collected
Researcher seeks to identify patterns or trends
Qualitative Research:Data Analysis
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Qualitative Research:Data Analysis
Qualitative data may be analyzed by a 3-part strategy:
reducing the data coding the data synthesizing the data
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• Read and re-read data, become engrossed in it.• Identify themes: common, conflicting, minority• Test themes across the data set, where are they common,
under what circumstances are they found, not found. This sets the parameters on the interpretation and generalisation of data
• Get more than one person to analyse the data independently then together
• Demonstrate trustworthiness in data analysis
Qualitative Research:Data Analysis
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Qualitative Research Methods:Triangulation
Metode untuk meningkatkan validitas & reliabilitas penelitian kualitatif
Meningkatkan akurasi interpretasi
Menegaskan bahwa data yang dikumpulkan bukan karena kesempatan atau sikap
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Qualitative Research Design:Triangulation
Collect data from multiple sources
Collect data in multiple ways from subjects
Collect different kinds of data in multiple ways from multiple subjects
For example: May interview teachers,
principals & parents May interview &
observe students
May review student records, interview teachers, observe students
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Multiple data sources
Multiple kinds of data
Multiple data collection strategies
Subjects(data sources)
Data collection strategies
Kinds of data
Qualitative Research Design:Triangulation
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Processes in qualitative data analysis
1. Reading / Data immersion Read for content
Are you obtaining the types of information you intended to collect
Identify emergent themes and develop tentative explanations
Note (new / surprising) topics that need to be explored in further fieldwork
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2. Read noting the quality of the data Have you obtained superficial or rich and deep responses How vivid and detailed are the descriptions of observations Is there sufficient contextual detail Problems in the quality of the data require a review of:
How you are asking questions (neutral or leading) The venue The composition of the groups The style and characteristics of the interviewer How soon after the field activity are notes recorded
Develop a system to identify problems in the data (audit trail)
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- Read identifying patterns- After identifying themes, examine how these are
patterned Do the themes occur in all or some of the data Are their relationships between themes Are there contradictory responses Are there gaps in understanding – these require further
exploration
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3. Coding – No standard rules of how to code
Emergent Borrowed
Record coding decisions Record codes, definitions, and revisions
Usually - insert codes / labels into the margins Building theme related files
Cut and paste together into one file similarly coded blocks of text
NB identifiers that help you to identify the original source Identify sub-themes and explore them in greater depth
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3. Displaying data Capture the variation or richness of each theme Note differences between individuals and sub-
groups Return to the data and examine evidence that
supports each sub-theme
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4. Developing questioning and verification Extract meaning from the data Do the categories developed make sense? What pieces of information contradict my emerging
ideas? What pieces of information are missing or
underdeveloped? What other opinions should be taken into account? How do my own biases influence the data collection
and analysis process?
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5. Data reductioni.e.distill the information to make visible the most
essential concepts and relationships Get an overall sense of the data Distinguish primary/main and secondary/sub-
themes Separate essential from non-essential data Use visual devices – e.g. matrices, diagrams
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6. Interpretationi.e. identifying the core meaning of the data, remaining
faithful to to the perspectives of the study participants but with wider social and theoretical relevance
Credibility of attributed meaning Consistent with data collected Verified with respondents Present multiple perspectives (convergent and
divergent views) Did you go beyond what you expected to find?