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PURE LAND BUDDHISM AND WESTERN

CHRISTIANITY COMPARED: A QUEST FOR

COMMON ROOTS OF THEIR UNIVERSALITY*

x. The Compassion Motif

The Compassion Motif is particularly conspicuous in Pure Land Buddhism, along with the development of the worship of Bodhi- sattvas.

The Bodhisattva was originally the Buddha before Enlighten- ment. But later anybody who aspired for Enlightenment and rendered help to suffering creatures was called a "bodhisattva". About the same period the worship of saints appeared in the West. Because the saints were so good, their prayers were supposed to have great weight with God. Bodhisattvas also, being so compassionate, were supposed to extend hands of help willingly. The practice of the bodhisattva requires vigor and endeavor. In Tibetan, the word Bodhisattva is translated as Heroic Being (Byan-chub sems- dpah). The Christians also canonize only those saints who have exhibited virtues in gradu heroico.

The Buddhist art of the earliest period represented Buddha by an empty place or a symbol which was later on replaced by a divine figure of the Apollo type. In the art of Gandhara the nimbus is also given to gods and kings. It is said that Christian art adopted the symbol in the 4th century.

Images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas appeared and their worship was greatly encouraged. The Christian saints also, though no longer on earth, were supposed to be able to pray in heaven for those who honored their icons. Women and monks especially loved images. They compared the iconoclasts to the Roman soldiers who crucified

* Edi tor ' s note. This article is part of a chapter in a forthcoming book by its distinguished author. I t follows a methodological postulate presented in earlier chapters. Fortunately this postulate is here presented in the "Conclusion". The reader is therefore advised to read that first, to achieve a proper understanding of the postulate and of the profound purpose of this article.

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Christ. In Mah~y2ma Buddhism also the worship of images, in addition to the existing worship of stupas, was greatly encouraged. "All who caused jewel images to be made and dedicated, adorned with the thirty-two characteristic signs, reached enlightenment. Others who had images of Sugatas (Buddhas) made of the seven precious substances, of copper or brass, have all of them reached enlightenment. Those who ordered beautiful statues of Sugatas to be made of lead, iron, clay or plaster h a v e . . , etc. Those who made images (of the Sugatas) of painted walls, with complete limbs and the hundred holy signs, whether they drew them themselves or had them drawn by others, h a v e . . , etc. Those even, whether men or boys who during the lesson or in play, by way of amusement, made upon the walls (such) images with the nail or a piece of wood, have all of them reached enlightenment. ''1

Legends and stories 2 extolling Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and devout believers came into existence, even as legends and stories about saints and martyrs were related in the medieval West.

Magical elements crept in to universal religions. In Mah~y~na, Bodhisattvas were worshipped for their magical power, which brings forth fortune, wealth, the healing of diseases, the dispelling of disasters, etc. In the West also, for example, people in the Greek Empire of the East kissed the icons, put them down dry wells to bring the water back, and trusted them to do other feats of magic. But whereas Christian saints were originally historical persons, Buddhist bodhisattvas are not historical individuals, although they are said to be repeatedly born in this world to help suffering beings.

We may also note that the cult of the goddess of mercy in Mah~y~ma lands has certain analogies with the cult of the Virgin in the West. It is especially represented in the worship of the Bodhisattva Avalokite~vara or Kwan-yin in Chinese or Kannon in Japanese, who looks like a mother. Avalokite~vara has probably been the most worshipped divine being in Asian countries. The Virgin Mary was the friend of the souls, and all alike, lord and lady, serf and maid, took refuge under the broad folds of the protecting Mary. The similarities with Mary are so very convincing that in the days when Catholics were persecuted for political reasons in feudal Japan,

1 The Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundarika-sutra), II, vv. 82-87. 2 A genre of Buddhist literature, avadana, a legend, originally meant a pure and virtuous act, aristeia. (Max Mtiller, Sacred Books of the East, vol. X p. 5o, n.).

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Japanese Catholics worshipped the images of Maria secretly under the pretension that they were the images of the Buddhist Kannon. They secretly called them "Maria-Kannon". Kannon shares some features with Catholic saints also. "If one happens to fall into the dreadful ocean, the abode of Nagas, marine monsters, and demons, he has but to think of Avalokitegvara, and he shall never sink down in the vast waters. ''~ In the West St. Christopher has been the patron of travelers. 4 But in spite of obvious similarities, there are remarkable differences. Avalokitegvara was by origin a male person, although his youtlook became female. Moreover, whereas Maria was a historical individual, Avalokitegvara was not supposed to be a historical individual, for his real personality was regarded as eternal.

Around the same time as Avalokitegvara a tradition about the coming Buddha, Maitreya, also came to the fore. Maitreya (etymo- logically derived from mitra, meaning friend), personifies friend- liness in terms of etymology. It is said that his legend was to some extent stimulated by Persian eschatology. It met the spiritual needs of the new age.

Even transcendental Wisdom came to be deified and worshipped as an object of worship, as Sophia in the West and as "the Holy Goddess Wisdom" (Bhagavati Prajfia-paramitrt) in India and other South-Asian countries, although the iconographies of Sophia and Prajfiaparamita seem to have evolved independently. The Holy Wisdom is, like the Virgin, the mother and yet "untouched" by defilement. 5

The Lotus Sutra, chapter 24, Samantamukhapar iva r t a , v. 6. " I n the bosom of one of those spacious coves which indent the eastern shore of the

Hudson, at tha t broad expansion of the river denominated by the ancient Du tch navigators the T a p p a n Zee, and where they always prudent ly shortened sail, and implored the protection of St. Nicholas when they crossed, there lies a small market- town or rural port, which by some is called Greensburgh, but which is more generally and properly known by the n a m e of Ta r ry Town." (W. Irving: The Sketch Book.) I n America we find often taxi-drivers driving with an icon of St. Christopher. In J a p a n taxi-drivers drive with an amule t of Fudo (Acalanatha Vidyaraja) of the Nar i tasan Temple wi thin their cars, even as Amer ican drivers do.

I n the Medi te r ranean world, we meet, at the same period, with Sophia, who is modelled on Ishthur , Iris, and Athene; she represents a fusion between the idea of wisdom and the idea of the M a g n a Mater, and is placed by the side of the supreme male being. Like Is thar and the Virgin Mary , the praj~aparamita was in essence both mother and virgin. She is the " M o t h e r of all the Buddhas" , i.e. she is not barren but fertile, fruitful of m a n y good deeds, and her images lay great stress on her full breasts. Like a


One striking expression of the Compassion-Love motif is the idea of Vicarious Atonement. The opinion is widely held that the concept of vicarious atonement is confined to Christianity alone. A Hindu swami has said that such a conception is foreign to the Hindu mind. "The life of Christ is spiritually inspiring. To us in India, however, the end is just t r agedy . . . The deaths of our own spiritual heroes, Sri R~ma and Sri Krish.na, were near tragic: but we did not build our religion on them. But this is what Christians have done with the death of Christ, and the consequence has been calamitous. In place of the life-giving message of Jesus came grim dogmas of atonement from sin. ''6

But contrary to such opinion, we find the notion of vicarious atonement both in Hinduism and Buddhism, although the significance is different.

In Hindu literature we find stories expressing this conception. For example, the Mftrka.ndeya-Pur~m. a relates the story of the pious king Vipagcit. He expresses his wish to the King of Death (Yama).

"If through my presence, racking torture Of these poor ones is alleviated, Then will I stay here, my friend, Like a post, I will not move from this spot." 7

The story ends, saying: The king of gods grants him this wish, and as he ascends to heaven, all the inmates of hells are released from their pain.

The figure which represents the ideal most conspicuously in Hinduism seems to be that of Tondar-adi-podiy-avar. Tondar-adi- podiy-arvar was a Vais.nava saint, a historical person, who lived

virgin, on the other hand, she remains "unaffected, untouched", and the scriptures emphasize her elusiveness more than anything else. The Sophia (Wisdom) of the gnostics and the Neo-Platonists plays a definite role at the creation of the world, while the Transcendental Wisdom of the Mahayana has no cosmic functions, and remains unburdened by the genesis of this universe. The iconographies of Sophia and Praj~a- paramita also seem to have evolved independently. There is a Byzantine miniature of the ioth century (Vat. Palat. gr. 381 fol. 2.) which is said to go back to an Alexandrian model. There, the right hand of Sophia makes the gesture of Teaching, while the left a rm holds a book. This is not unlike some Indian statues of the Prajfiaparamita. (E. Conze: Buddhism, p. 143. ). 6 Robert Lawson Slater: Can Christians Learn from Other Religions? Wheaton College, New York, I963, p. 26. 7 M. Winternitz: A History of Indian Literature (2nd ed. ; Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press, i939), I, pp. 562 ft.


about 83o A.D. 8 But he was regarded as an incarnation of the chaplet (vanamala) of Vis.nu. 9 His image always represents a standing posture with a burden on the right shoulder, whereas in other images the arvars or saints are in the sitting posture. But here is one shouldering the sufferings of all men. We are reminded of the images of Amit~bha in the Shinshu Buddhism of Japan, which always show him in standing posture, thus indicating his readiness to help suffering people.

The idea of vicarious atonement is naturally closely related to a sense of human need, and ideas of sin remedied by compassionate Grace, which will be discussed in the following section.

A Buddhist conception of vicarious atonement was expressed by N~ggtrjuna, in his work, Ratn~vali, where he said: "May my merits go to others; may the sufferings of others ripen upon me! ''1~

"To take over the sufferings of others by oneself" was extolled as an ideal of Mah~y~na ascetics. However, we should not overlook one great difference between Christianity and Mah2Ly~na. In Christianity vicarious atonement is effected by Christ alone, whereas in Buddhism it is effected by many bodhisattvas.

Medieval Christians found the ideal image of vicarious atonement in Christ on the cross, whereas Northern Buddhists found it especially in Ksitigarbha or Jizo of Japan. The name of Ksitigarbha menas "Earth-womb" or "Earth-Storehouse". The original meaning of the title is not very clear, but it was interpreted to mean that he is lord of the nether world. Some scholars think that the belief in Ksitigarbha first appeared in Central Asia. Legend has it that he has vowed to deliver all creatures from hell. He visits them in their places of suffering to deliver them. In Japan he is the special protector of dead children. When someone dies to save others, people in Japan erect an image of Jizo in his honor, calling it "Lord Jizo in Vicarious Atonment" (Migawari Jizoson). It is said that jizo will never enter Nirvana, so long as there remains even one person suffering from afflictions, and that he stays in the mundane world with sinners.

8 Surendranath Dasgupta: A History of Indian Philosophy, (Cambridge University Press, x952), I I I p. 64 .

Ibid. p. 64. i0 The Chinese version of the Ratnavali, the Sanskrit text of which is lost for the most part. (Taisho Tripitaka, vol. 32, p. 5o4c.)

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2. Human Corruption

Dependence on Other Power is associated with a sense of corrup- uon. In Christianity there is the consciousness of sin. In the Buddhist tradition this was most conspicious in Pure Land Buddhism. In the scriptures of early Pure Land Buddhism, 11 compiled in an age of spiritual unrest, probably at the end of the Kusf~.na dynasty in the second century A.D., the consciousness of spiritual crisis is very evident. One scripture says its teaching was meant for the people in the degenerate age. "The Buddha taught the Law which all the world is reluctant to accept, during this corruption of the present kalpa, during this corruption of mankind, during this corruption of belief, during this corruption of life, during this corruption of passions. ''12 In the Christian scripture, the Book of the Revelation, composed at the end of the first century, the end of the world and the creation of a new world is depicted. "He [an angel] seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the Devil and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years, and threw him into the pit, and shut it and sealed it over him, that he should deceive the nations no more, till the thousand years were e n d e d . . . And when the thousand years are ended, Satan will be loosed from his prison and will come out to deceive the nations which are at the four corners of the earth, that is, God and Magog, to gather them for battle. ''la

Believers in the Buddhist Pure Land were supposed to be born there after death as the reward for their faith and good works. The Savior of this School is Amida (Skrt.: Amit•bha, lit. "Immense Light", and Amit~yus, lit. "Eternal Life".) His Western Paradise of the Pure Real (Sukhxvati, in Japanese Joda) is depicted in glowing terms. It is "prosperous, rich, good to live in, fertile, lively. It is fragant with several sweet-smelling scents, rich in manifold

11 The Pure Land is sometimes called the Buddha Land, or Buddha Field, or Pure Western Land. Professor K e n n e t h Morgan thinks that the term, Pure Realm, is prefer- able since it avoids the erroneous connotations of a geographic location or a material world. (The Path of the Buddha, edited by Kenne t h W. Morgan, New York, the Ronald Press, 1956, passim.) This is especially true with Honen and Shinyan. Here I have followed the ordinary, conventional translation. 1~ The Smaller Sukhavati-sutra, I8. SBE. vol. 49, P. IO2. In the Chinese version of the Larger Sukhavati-sutra by Sanghava rman the consciousness of crisis and sin is set forth with great emphasis. in Revelat ion 20.


flowers and fruits, adorned with gem trees, and frequented by tribes of manifold sweet-voiced birds.. ." Similarly "Jesus represents the kingdom of heaven as a festal gathering where they sit down to table, a4 and drink wine, aS, and even a Dante or a Milton could not choose but borrow all the colors for their pictures from this world of earth. ''a6 Chinese folklore already possessed the notion of a fairy palace in the Kun-lun mountains, inhabited by Hsi-wang- mu, "Royal Mother of the West."

The scriptures of Pure Land Buddhism explain that Amitabha Buddha is now in the Pure Land in the West, beyond numberless Buddha Lands, where he casts his light in all ten directions and is preaching to save countless sentient beings. Therefore, Sakyamuni taught that we should always concentrate on Amit~bha. The Smaller Sukhavati sfitra speaks of the birth by grace: - "Beings are not born in that Buddha country as a reward and result of good works performed in the present life. No, all men and women who hear and bear in mind for one, two, three, four, five, six or seven nights the name of Amit2~bha when they come to die, Amitftbha stands before them in the hour of death, they will depart from this life with quiet minds, and after death they will be born in paradise. 'u7

The Larger Sukhavati Sutra tells how Dharmftkara (later Amit2~bha Buddha), when he was still a Bodhisattva striving to become a Buddha, had made forty-eight vows to enable ordinary people to be reborn in his selfless Pure Land where they could attain Enlighten- ment by hearing, believing and rejoicing in the Merit of Amitabha which is above the natural world, and unthinkable. Now that he has become a Buddha his vows are fulfilled and the Pure Land of tranquil sustenance (which is Endless Life and Boundless Light) is established. Thus salvation by the great mercy, the power of

I4 Matthew, 3, I I. 15 Matthew, 26, 29 . 16 p. Deussen: The Philosophy of the Upanisads, p. 320. 17 The original text runs as follows: "Not on account of a mere root of goodness are beings born in the Buddha country of the Tathagata Amitayus. Whatever son or daughter of good family shall hear the name of the Lord Amitayus, and having heard it shall reflect upon it, and for one, two, three, four, five, six, or seven nights shall reflect upon it with undisturbed minds, when they come to die the Tathagata Amitayus attended by the assembly of disciples and followed by a host of bodhisattvas will stand before them, and they will die with unconfused minds. After death they will be born even in the Buddha-country of the Tathagata Amitayus, in the world Sukhavati." (Smaller Sukhavativyuha, I o).


Amit~bha Vows is assured, and the followers of the Pure Realm sects of Buddhism therefore seek Buddhahood, that is, Enlighten- ment - through rebirth in Amida Buddha's Pure Land of Supreme Happiness. Rebirth in the Pure Realm is attained by faith in the power of Amit~bha Vows to save all beings.

The doctrine of self-cultivation and the worship of the Buddha, which are both preached in Buddhism, may seem contradictory to each other. However, both have arisen from the same source. According to Buddhist philosophy we should endeavor to realize our true self in a moral and religious sense. This ideal is quite compatible with the worship of the one who has already realized his true self in a perfect way. In Mah5y~na Buddhism many Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were worshipped. The worship of Amit~bha Buddha in particular has played a very important role in Chinese and Japanese Buddhism.

The scripture of this school emphasized the act of concentrating on the name of Amitabha and this practice has continued in China, and also in Japan.

In the West is also we find invocation. Origen says that magicians invoke the "God of Abraham", often without knowing who He is, but apparently this invocation was regarded as specially potent. One is led to suppose that the magicians of the time used formulae from all known religions, but if Origen is right, those derived from Hebrew sources were the most effective. His argument is the more curious as he points out that Moses forbade sorcery.

Incidentally, Mah2ty~ma Buddhists supposed that in the Pure Land there is no human woman, although they admitted the existence of heavenly nymphs (@saras). Amitabha Buddha, before his attaining Buddhahood, made a vow: "If, after I have obtained Enlightenment, women in immeasurable, innumerable inconceiv- able, incomparable, immense Buddha-countries on all sides, after having heard my name, should allow carelessness to arise, should not turn their thoughts towards Enlightment, should, when they are free from birth, not despise their female nature; and if they, being born again, should assume a second female nature, then may I not obtain the highest perfect Enlightenment." (The 36th vow of

is Origen: Contra cel~um, Bk. I, Ch. X X V I I , cited in B. Russell: History of Western Philosophy, pp. 328-329 .


Dharm~kara; i.e. Amit2tbha) The thought that a woman is born a man in after-life is often set forth in Buddhist literature. A teaching corresponding to the above was delivered by John the Scot in the Medieval West, who said that man was originally without sin, and when he was without sin he was without distinction of sex. This, of course, contradicts the statement "male and female created he them." But according to John, it was only as the result of sin that human beings were divided into male and female. Woman embodies man's sensuous and fallen nature. In the end the distinction of sex will again disappear, and we shall have a purely spiritual body. 19

The sense of Sin was most conspicuous in Shinran of Japan. Shinran ( i i73- i263) , is the founder of the Shinshu sect, the sect with the largest membership in Japan to-day. He has often been compared to Luther. But as he lived in nearly the same period as Thomas Aquinas, which corresponds with the beginning of the Medieval Age of Japan, it would not be inappropriate to discuss his thought in the framework of medieval thought. At nearly the same time in India R~m~nuja and other Hindu religious leaders of the Bhakti religion advocated salvation by the grace of God, Vis .nu or Siva.

According to Shinran, calamity is involved in the mere fact of our being alive. All living beings are sinful. We cannot live without committing sins. We are all karma-bound. Like Honen, his master, he saw "man with blind eyes, capable of doing nothing. ''2~

"Though I seek my refuge in the true faith of the Pure Land, Yet hath not my heart been truly sincere. Deceit and untruth are in my flesh, And in my soul is no clear shining. ''21 It was no wonder that those who did not believe the teachings of

the Buddha were wicked. But, even those who had already heard the teaching of Buddha were committing sins. This fact was the starting point of reflection for Shinran. "I am already neither a priest nor a layman. Therefore my surname should be 'Baldheaded fool' (Gutoku, i.e. outwardly shaven, inwardly secular, polluted.) ' '~

Sambandhar, the Saiva saint (7th century A.D.) of Southern

19 B. Russell: op cit., p. 4o6. 20 Honen: Ojo-taiyo-shu (The Outline of the Way to Salvation). 21 Hitan- jutsukai-wasan. ~,2 Kyo-gyo-shin-sho.

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India, also cried: "No righteousness have I, I only speak in praise of Thee. Come, Valivalam's Lord, let no dark fruit of deeds, I pray, Torment thy slave who with his song extols Thee day by day. ''2~ In the West also we find similar reflection. Paul said: "For I do

not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I do. '''~ The same spiritual attitude was expressed in the medieval age. St. Augustine besought God to forgive him: "Behold my heart, O God, behold my heart, which Thou hast pity upon in the bottom of the abyss. Now, behold, let my heart tell Thee, what it sought there, that I should be gratuitously wicked, having no temptation to that evil deed itself. It was foul, and I loved it; I loved to perish, I loved my own fault, not that for the sake of which I committed the fault, but my fault itself I loved. Foul soul, falling from the firmament to expulsion from Thy presence; not seeking aught through the shame, but the shame itself! ''25

To trace the origin in Indian Buddhism of the concept of sin as distinguished from the concept of "bad" or "evil" is not easy. The words (akusala or papa, could mean either. Such terms as agha, kilbisa, enas etc. were used from antiquity, and inherited by Budd- hists, but it is not likely that they had any important significance in Buddhist theology as being different from evil, one reason being that Buddhism did not presuppose the concept of God. But when Shinran used the term "zaiaku" or "zaisho", it reflected a keener sense of the innate sin of man.

Shinran did not systematize his concept of sin. In his main work (Kyogvo-shin-sho) he conveyed the traditional concept of the Ten Sins or Evil Deeds (Juaku) and the Five heinous Sins (Gogyakuzai).

The Ten Sins are: i) to kill, 2) to steal, 3) to seek unlawful lust, 4) to tell lies, 5) to patter, 6) to slander, 7) to use a double tongue,

23 F. Kingsbury and G. E. Phillips: Hymns of the Tamil Saivite Saints, (London: Oxford Universi ty Press, i92I) , p. 21. o.~ Romans , 7, 19. ~a Confessions, Bk. II , Ch. IV. 2~ August ine pointed out tha t he sinned, not only as a school-boy, when he told lies and stole food, bu t even earlier; tha t even infants at the breast are full of sin gluttony, jealousy, and other horrible vices. W h e n he reached adolescence, the lusts of the flesh overcame him. "Where was I, and how far was I exiled from the delights of T h y house, in tha t sixteenth year of the age of my flesh, when the madness of lust which ha th license th rough m a n ' s viciousness, though forbidden by T h y laws, took the rule over me, and I resigned myself wholly to i t?" (Confessions, Bk. II , Ch. I I ; Russell: op. cir. p. 347).


8) to be greedy, 9) to become angry, IO) to hold wrong views. The Five Deadly Sins are: I) patricide, 2) matricide, 3) killing of

arhats, 4) causing disorder in Buddhist Brotherhood, 5) causing blood to come out of the Buddha's body.

In the West the expression of confession by Augustine was based upon a single fact that he plucked some pears from a tree, a boyish prank, although he was not hungry. He continued throughout his life to consider this an act of almost incredible wickedness. However, Shinran did not describe what kind of wicked acts he committed actually. He may have been ashamed of mentioning individual cases. Herein we find a certain difference in religious confession parallel to the difference between the mental attitude of many Western artists who described the cruel scenes of battles vividly while most Japanese painters only depicted them vaguely.

According to Shinran sin is indeed deeply rooted in human existence.

"In their outward seeming, are all men diligent and truth- speaking,

But in their souls are greed, and eager and unjust deceitfulness, And in their flesh do lying and cunning triumph." "Too strong for me is the evil of my heart. I cannot overcome it. Therefore is my soul like unto the poison of serpents, Even my righteous deeds, being mingled with this poison, must

be named the deeds of deceitfulness. ''27 Shinran felt he was destined to hell. 28 But Shinran did not

entertain the idea of original sin. According to Augustine, Adam, before the Fall, had had free will, and could have abstained from sin. But as he and Eve ate the apple, corruption entered into them, and descended to all their posterity. 29 I f our ancestors had not committed sin, men would not die. But as they actually committed sin, we have to die. Since we all inherit Adam's sin, we all deserve eternal damnation.

3" "Other Help" But Shinran also stresses the salvation of common men solely by

grace of Amitabha Buddha. "Take refuge in the Ultimate Strength,

27 Yamabe and Beck, Buddhist Psalms (London: Murray, I92i ) , p. 86. 28 Tannisho, 2. 29 Russell: op. cir., p. 365 .

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for His pure radiance is above all things. He who perceiveth the Light is set free from the fetters of Karma. ''3~ "Take refuge in the Mighty Consoler. Wheresoever His mercy shineth throughout all the worlds, men rejoice in its gladdening light. 31"Without His Compassionate Vow how can we wretched beings be delivered from the fetters of birth and death? ''az

Corresponding to this coupling of the sense of sin with the prospect of saving grace, we have, in the Christian tradition, the word of Paul: "For the creature was subjected to futility, not of his own wilt but by the will of him who subjected it in hope. ''aa Augustine had to cry for salvation from the abyss into which he had fallen. "There is no other means for man than to know his weakness, and cling to God, being tired out. T M He said: "When man learns that in himself he is nothing and that he has no help from himself, then arms in himself are broken in pieces, then wars in himself are ended. Such wars, then, destroyed that violence of the Most High out of His holy clouds whereby the earth was shaken and the kingdoms were bowed; these wars He has taken away unto the ends of the earth."35

One might say: - We cannot perceive the grace of Buddha. Is it not invisible? Shinran replies: - It is our grave sins that prevent us from noticing it. Althought we are not aware of it, we are already embraced by the grace of Amitabha.

"Though we are covered with illusion, And cannot see the light of salvation, Untired is He who always shines upon me!"36

As we live especially in a Corrupted Age, we cannot be saved from the mundane world without relying upon the original vow of Amitabha.

"No hope is there that the men now living in this last, closing age

s0 Yamabe and Beck: op. cir., p. 2o. San-Amidabutsu-ge, v. 5. 31 Yamabe and Beck: op cir., p. 2o, Ib. v. 8. ~ Tannisho, 14. 38 Romans , 8, 20. 3~ Confessions, VII , 18. 35 Theodore E. M o m m s e n : "St. August ine and the Christ ian Idea of Progress," in Ideas in Cultural Perspective, edited by Philip P. Wiener and Aaron Noland, (New Bruns- wick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1962), p. 533. 88 Shoshinge


shall escape the fetters of life and death if they refuse the merciful promise of the Blessed One. ''~7

"Shameless though I be and having no truth in my soul, yet by virtue of the Holy Name, the merits of Him are widely spread throughout all directions. ''aS

By meditating on the fact that we ourselves are sinful, we come to feel compassion for others. Compassion depends on grace. "We are wicked and sinful, but through the virtue of faith we try to do good for the welfare and peace of the world - yet not through our own power, but through that of Another (i.e. Amitabha)." All men, whether they are honest or criminal, are, without any distinction, admitted to Amida's Pure Realm. Faith in Amida's grace is the one and only condition of admission. Amida is a being of compassionate love in the genuine form comparable to the highest God. But unlike the Christian God, he is not a judge. There is no conception of punishment by Amida. The Shin sect holds the view that even evil people are eligible for salvation by Amitabha Buddha.

"Even a bad man will be received in Buddha's Land, but how much more a good man!", Honen had said. Shinran said the reverse - "Even a good man will be received in Buddha's Land, but how much more a bad man! ''39 A good man may be able to save himself by his own merit. But it is not to be expected that a bad man can save himself by his own merit; he needs the grace of the Buddha. He has no other means. Now even a good man who does not necessarily need grace can be saved; how much more a bad man who cannot be saved otherwise than by grace. The sinner has only to believe in the Grace of Amifftbha, and the Pure Realm is his. Here faith becomes the sole requisite to salvation; all other Buddhist moral philosophy is swept away.

Thought corresponding to that of Shinran can be found in Thomas Aquinas, his Christian contemporary. "By mortal sin a man forfeits his last end to all eternity and therefore eternal punishment is his due. No man can be freed from sin except by grace, and yet the sinner is to be blamed if he is not converted. Man needs

37 The Three Periods. Yamabe and Beck: op. cir., p. 68. ~8 Hitanjutsukai Wasen (Wherein with Lamenta t ion I make my Confession) v. 4. ~9 Tannisho, 3. Cf. "Whi le to propose to be a better man is a piece of unscientific cant, to have become a deeper man is the privilege of those who have suffered. And such I think I have become." (Oscar Wilde: De Profundis.).

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grace to persevere in good but no one can merit divine assistance. God is not the cause of sinning, but some He leaves in sin, while others He delivers from it. As regards predestination, Saint Thomas seems to hold, with Saint Augustine, that no reason can ge given why some are elected and go to heaven, while others are left reprobate and to to hell. ''~~

Similar controversy regarding the operation of grace occurred in different traditions. In Christian theology two standpoints were expressed, i.e. gratia cooperativa and gratia sola. In the Vais.nava religion of Bhakti, the followers of Rftmfmuja were divided into two separate schools, and there arose a bitter controversy about the exclusiveness of grace. The difference between these two schools was indicated by a drastic figure. They were distinguished as the ape-way and the cat-way. When a mother ape falls into danger, her young immediately cling fast to her, and when she makes a leap to safety, they are saved, by the act of the mother it is true, but in such a way that the young one cooperates a little, because it must cling to the mother. But when danger threatens a cat with her young, the mother cat takes the young in her mouth. The young does nothing for its salvation. It remains merely passive. All cooperation is excluded. ~1 In the Pure Land Buddhism of China and Japan the relation between faith (shin) and work (gyo) was also a subject of heated debate. Many leaders thought that man should cooperate. But Shinran firmly said that pure faith alone is enough, and that one should not rely upon works.

In Japan, generally speaking, the Buddhist faith was professed in terms of the human nexus. Many people were converted for the beatitude of their parents, relatives or masters or feudal lords, etc. But Shinran's professed faith was genuinely individualistic. "I, Shinran, for the sake of filial piety towards my parents, have never, ever once, uttered the Nembutsu (invocation to Amida). The reason is that all sentient beings in some birth of life have been my parents or my brothers. We can save all of them when we become Buddhas in the next life. ''4~ Individualism in the religious sense of the word was very conspicuous in the case of Shinran. Yuien, Shinran's disciple, presented the belief of his master as follows: "The Master

40 Russell: op. cit., p. 460. 41 R. Ot to: India's Religion, p. 56. 4~ Tannisho, 5- Tr . by Fujiwara, p. 26.


(Shinran) used to say, 'When I carefully consider the Vow which Amida brought forth after five kalpas' contemplation, I find that it was solely for me, Shinran alone! So, how gracious is the Original Vow of Amida who resolved to save me, possessed of many karmic sins [' ,,4a

It has been a conspicuous tendency among the Japanese people to esteem master-disciple relationship in a closely knit group around a master. Shinran denied it defiantly. "It is utterly unreasonable for those who are devoted solely to the Nembutsu (invocation to Amida) to quarrel, saying, 'These are my disciples', or 'Those are others' disciples'. I Shinran, do not have even one disciple of my own. The reason is, if I should lead others to utter the Nembutsu by my own efforts, I might call them my disciples. But it is truly ridiculous to call them my disciples, when they utter the Wembutsu through the working of Amida Buddha. ''44

But the relationship between the Absolute and the individual differed with traditions. Christian medieval thinkers always looked upon God with awe. Hindu saints called the individual "the slave of God". ~5 However, Japanese Pure Land leaders never used the term "slave". They called Amida Buddha "parent" (singular), implying that all the believers are his children. As parents wish to bring up their children to the same state as themselves, Amida makes all sinners Buddhas like Amida. There is no discrimination. If there should be any discrimination, Amida's compassion would not be complete.

The Japanese devotion to Amida has been practised by the repetition of the phrase: Namu Amidabutsu (Adoration to Amida Buddha). This phrase is called the Title of Six Syllables.

In Tamil Saivism the constant repetition of the five syllables (pa~caksara), i.e. "Namas Siv~ya" (lit. Adoration to Siva) was very important. In Saivaite catechisms a whole chapter is devoted to its use.

"Those who repeat it while love's tears outpour, It gives them life, and guides them in the way. The Lord's great name, wherefore 'Hail Siva' say. ''46

43 Tannisho, Epilogue II1. Tr. by Fujiwara, p. 79. 44 Tannisho, VI. Tr. by Fujiwara, p. 28. 45 E. G. Kingsbury and Phillips: op. cit., pp. 2 i ; 23. 4~ Kingsbury and Phillips. op. cir., p. 25.

9 2 I N T E R N A T I O N A L J O U R N A L F O R P H I L O S O P H Y O F R E L I G I O N

Tulsi Das said that the Name of R~tma is more important then Rama himself.

Then how many times have we repeated the title or name of the Highest One?

Some devout believers of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism thought that the oftener they repeated the Namu Amidabutsu, the more merit they could obtain. There was a legend that Saint Honen repeated the phrase a million times, although Honen simply said: " I t is very good to believe in the grace of Buddha with the heart, and repeat the name of Buddha with the mouth. ''~7 Shinran thought that both faith and repetition of the name were required. "Though you have faith, and do not repeat the name of Amida Buddha, it profits you nothing. Though you repeat the name of Amida Buddha, and do not have faith, you will not be able to be born into the Pure Land. Therefore, you should believe in the grace and repeat the name of Amida, and you will undoubtedly be born into the Buddha's Land. ''~8 But he did not want to separate these two. "Faith and adoration are not two different things but one, for there is no adoration without faith, and no faith without adoration."~9

I am not quite sure whether such an oral practice is essential for Christians. However, we should not overlook the fact that such a tendency existed in Christianity. Paul definitely said: "That is, the word of faith which we preach; because, if you confess with your lips that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For man believes with his heart and so is justified, and he confesses with his lips and so is saved. ''5~ He thus said clearly that salvation is accomplished when the two, belief with the heart and confession with the mouth, are combined together. "Every one who calls upon the name of the Lord will be saved. ''al However, such confession was not so simplified in Christianity as it was in Pure Land Buddhism.

The problem of eligibility of wicked persons arises. It is because we are wicked persons that we are qualified to be saved, some

47 The Life o f Honen, vol. 28. 48 mattosho, i 2 t h Le t t e r . 49 Ibid., ~ I t h le t ter .

50 R o m a n s io , 9 - i o . 54 R o m a n s io , 1 ' ) - I 3.


people have said. (In this connection we should compare this Western antinomianism.) ~2 Among the later followers of Shinran there appeared some people who boastfully said that they were not afraid of committing sins. This allegiance was called "Pride in the Original Vows (of Amitabha)". In India, the Tengalais adopted the dangerous doctrine of dosabhogya, 53 i.e. that God enjoys sin, since it gives a larger scope for the display of his grace. The thought that sins give opportunities for salvation appeared very early in the West also. "Law came in, to increase the trespass; but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more. '''5~

But the teaching of the eligibility of wicked persons was not meant to encourage bad actions. Such a thought was forbidden as heresy by the Shinshu sect. With pure faith good deeds came sponta- neously.

"Unto us hath our Father given those two spiritual gifts. Of these the first is the virtue whereby we attain unto His Kingdom, and the second is the virtue whereby, having so attained, we return into this world for the salvation of men. By the merit of these two gifts are we initiates of the true faith and of its deeds."

"When we shall have attained unto the faith and the deeds of the Merciful Promise through our Father that is in all things able to give them unto us, birth and death are henceforward as Nirv~t.na. And this is called the Gift of Departure. ''55

The thought that the Compassion of Buddha should be realized in actual deeds was stressed by later Shinshu priests. Kakunyo sang: "Outside our wish to give things to others out of compassion, where can we find the form of Buddha!" Rennyo (1415-i499) said: "When it rains or when it is terribly hot, let workmen stop work early. This is an outcome of the great compassion of Buddha. ''56 Compassion should be realized in daily life. Similarly in the Christian tradition bad deeds under the excuse of grace were not justified. "Are we to continue in sin that grace may abound? By

52 Ant inomianism was first advocated by J o h a n Agricola, the German theologian, in the i6 th century. There were some who subscribed to it. "Mora l i ty does not help me. I am a born ant inomian. I am one of those who are made for exceptions." (Oscar Wilde: De Profundi~). ~3 S. Radhakr i shnan : I~di~n Philosophy, II , 669. a~ Romans, 5, 20. ~5 Thanksgiving for Donran (Yamabe and Beck: op. cir. p. 49). 5~ Goichidaiki Kikigaki.

94 I N T E R N A T I O N A L J O U R N A L F O R P H I L O S O P H Y O F R E L I G I O N

no means! How can we who died to sin still live in it? ''aT Shinran was unique in his deep consciousness of sin. But his

concept of sin was traditional. "Though sin hath no substance in itself, and is but the shadow of our illusion, and soul (lit. the essence of mind) is pure in itself, yet in all this world there is no sincere man. ''58

Sin is devoid of any reality in itself. Therefore man can be liberated. Such a Buddhistic concept of sin can be found among Medieval Christian thinkers, such as John the Scot, who said: "Sin has its source in freedom: it arose because man turned towards himself instead of towards God. Evil does not have its ground in God, for in God there is no idea of ev i l . . . Evil is not-being and has no ground, for if it had a ground it would be necessary. Evil is a privation of good. ''5~ However, such a theory was forbidden by the Popes. The Buddhist concept of sin indeed differed from the Christian concept.

Shinran, as we have observed, did not entertain the thought of the original sin of the ancestors of mankind. Here we find one reason why the faith in the Pure Land has been compatible in Japan with ancestor worship.

4. Conclusion

The distinction which I have here drawn between a consciousness of what may be broadly described as moral and spiritual corruption on the one hand and concepts associated with this consciousness on the other hand is, I think, significant. I f sin is conceived as rebellion against God, as in the Judaic-Christiart tradition - "have mercy on me, O G o d . . . against thee, thee only, have I sinned and done that which is evil in thy sight" (Psalm 5I, i, 4) - then it has to be said that, strictly speaking, there is no such concept in Buddhism. For the relation between Buddha and man in Buddhism, especially when all men are considered to have the Buddha nature, as in Mah2ty5n thought, is not the same as the relation between God and man in Christianity since Buddhism presents no concept of a Creator-God. The nearest approach in Buddhist thought to such thought occurs when the Eternal Buddha

57 R o m a n s 6, I - 2 .

5s Hitan jutsukai Wasan ( W h e r e i n w i t h L a m e n t a t i o n I M a k e m y Confess ion) 59 Russe l l : op. cit., p. 4o5 .

B U D D H I S M AND W E S T E R N C H R I S T I A N I T Y 95

is presented as Father of the worlds, the source of a general, persistent provision and concern for all sentient beings, as in the parable of the refreshing rain, falling constantly on all beings everywhere, given in the Lotus sutra (Saddharma-pundarika).

This distinction between human consciousness and associated concepts applies generally to all that I have said in this comparative treatment of the two traditions, Buddhist and Christian. In some instances we have observed comparable ideas of concepts. But what we have more frequently observed are terms of thought which are not strictly comparable when seen within their own related con- texts, yet associated with similar practices, behavior and language suggesting comparable human situations, condition, and consciousness.

It is this latter ground of comparison, which appears throughout this discussion, that may account for the general acceptance of these two "universal religions" Buddhist and Christian. In both cases the appeal may be seen as related to comparable human needs and conditions raising comparable questions or problems along with similar human aspirations and frustrations as men at all times, in all countries, face the mystery of life and consider their destiny.

We have also observed, however, in the realm of religious thought, certain tensions as men consider the problems presented. Thus in a previous chapter we observed practice and thought emphasizing the need for human resolution or self-help in the attainment of emancipation or salvation, whereas in this present chapter we have the emphasis on Other Help or Grace, with a "religion of grace" in the Buddhist tradition as well as in the Christian. Even where the one emphasis predominated, echoes of the other remain, with tension maintained between the two, as is shown in the ape-cat illustration used in the debates concerning the operation of Other Help or Grace and the degree of human co-operation, and we have similar tension exhibited in the difference of Buddhist views regarding the recital of the Nembutsu. It may also be observed that it is difficult to decide whether to place Zen Buddhism in the category of Self-Help or Other-Help. Such observation means that we need to be critical, as Paul Tillich has said, of any dis- position to present any one religious tradition in narrow, static terms of a particular type, for this means ignoring movements of life and thought which are not confined to any one tradition.


This conclusion may lead us to look more critically at the opinion, frequently expressed to-day, that all which might be described as "modern" in Japan and elsewhere in the East is solely due to Western influence. This we shall consider on another occasion.

HAJIME NAKAMURA

University of Tokyo

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