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Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
4-1 Compare and contrast the overall cell structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Learning Objective
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Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryote comes from the Greek words for prenucleus.
Eukaryote comes from the Greek words for true nucleus.
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Prokaryote
One circular chromosome, not in a membrane
No histones No organelles Bacteria: peptidoglycan
cell walls Archaea: pseudomurein
cell walls Binary fission
Paired chromosomes, in nuclear membrane
Histones Organelles Polysaccharide cell
walls Mitotic spindle
Eukaryote
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Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
What is the main feature that distinguishes prokaryotes from eukaryotes? 4-1
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The Prokaryotic Cell
4-2 Identify the three basic shapes of bacteria. Learning Objective
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Average size: 0.2–1.0 µm × 2–8 µm Most bacteria are monomorphic A few are pleomorphic
Prokaryotic Cells: Shapes
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A Proteus cell in the swarming stage may have more than 1000 peritrichous flagella.
Figure 4.9b Flagella and bacterial motility.
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Basic Shapes
Bacillus (rod-shaped) Coccus (spherical) Spiral Spirillum Vibrio Spirochete
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Plane of division
Diplococci
Streptococci
Figure 4.1a Arrangements of cocci.
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Figure 4.2ad Bacilli.
Single bacillus
Coccobacillus
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Vibrio
Spirochete
Spirillum
Figure 4.4 Spiral bacteria.
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Scientific name: Bacillus Shape: bacillus
Bacillus or Bacillus
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Figure 4.3 A double-stranded helix formed by Bacillus subtilis.
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Star-shaped bacteria
Figure 4.5a Star-shaped and rectangular prokaryotes.
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Rectangular bacteria
Figure 4.5b Star-shaped and rectangular prokaryotes.
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Arrangements
Pairs: diplococci, diplobacilli Clusters: staphylococci
Chains: streptococci, streptobacilli
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Figure 4.1ad Arrangements of cocci.
Plane of division
Diplococci
Streptococci
Staphylococci
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Figure 4.2b-c Bacilli.
Streptobacilli
Diplobacilli
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Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
How would you be able to identify streptococci through a microscope? 4-2
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Figure 4.6 The Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell.
Capsule Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Fimbriae
Cytoplasm
Pilus
70S Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Inclusions
Nucleoid containing DNA
Plasmid
Flagella
Capsule Cell wall
.
The drawing below and the micrograph at right show a bacterium sectioned lengthwise to reveal the internal composition. Not all bacteria have all the structures shown; only structures labeled in red are found in all bacteria.
Although the nucleoid appears split in the photomicrograph, the thinness of the “slice” does not convey theobject’s depth.
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Structures External to the Cell Wall
4-3 Describe the structure and function of the glycocalyx.
4-4 Differentiate flagella, axial filaments, fimbriae, and pili.
Learning Objectives
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Glycocalyx
Outside cell wall Usually sticky Capsule: neatly organized Slime layer: unorganized and loose Extracellular polysaccharide allows cell to attach Capsules prevent phagocytosis
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Figure 24.12 Streptococcus pneumoniae, the cause of pneumococcal pneumonia.
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Flagella
Outside cell wall Made of chains of flagellin Attached to a protein hook Anchored to the wall and membrane by the
basal body
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Basal body
Peptidoglycan
Hook
Cell wall
Gram- positive Filament
Flagellum
Plasma membrane Cytoplasm
Parts and attachment of a flagellum of a gram-positive bacterium
Figure 4.8b The structure of a prokaryotic flagellum.
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Plasma membrane
Cell wall Basal body
Gram- negative
Peptidoglycan
Outer membrane
Hook
Filament
Cytoplasm
Flagellum
Parts and attachment of a flagellum of a gram-negative bacterium
Figure 4.8a The structure of a prokaryotic flagellum.
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Figure 4.7 Arrangements of bacterial flagella.
Peritrichous Monotrichous and polar
Lophotrichous and polar Amphitrichous and polar
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Motile Cells
Rotate flagella to run or tumble Move toward or away from stimuli (taxis) Flagella proteins are H antigens
(e.g., E. coli O157:H7)
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ANIMATION Flagella: Movement
ANIMATION Flagella: Structure
ANIMATION Motility
ANIMATION Flagella: Arrangement
Motile Cells
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Run
Run
Run
Tumble
Tumble
Tumble A bacterium running and tumbling. Notice that the direction of flagellar rotation (blue arrows) determines which of these movements occurs. Gray arrows indicate direction of movement of the microbe.
Figure 4.9a Flagella and bacterial motility.
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Axial Filaments
Also called endoflagella In spirochetes Anchored at one end of a cell Rotation causes cell to move
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Figure 4.10a Axial filaments.
A photomicrograph of the spirochete Leptospira, showing an axial filament
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ANIMATION Spirochetes
Axial Filaments
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Figure 4.10b Axial filaments.
Outer sheath
Axial filament
Cell wall
A diagram of axial filaments wrapping around part of a spirochete (see Figure 11.26a for a cross section of axial filaments)
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Fimbriae allow attachment
Fimbriae and Pili
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Figure 4.11 Fimbriae.
Fimbriae
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Fimbriae and Pili
Pili Facilitate transfer of DNA from one cell to another Gliding motility Twitching motility
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Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
Why are bacterial capsules medically important? 4-3 How do bacteria move? 4-4
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The Cell Wall
4-5 Compare and contrast the cell walls of gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative bacteria, acid-fast bacteria, archaea, and mycoplasmas.
4-6 Compare and contrast archaea and mycoplasmas.
4-7 Differentiate protoplast, spheroplast, and L form.
Learning Objectives
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The Cell Wall
Prevents osmotic lysis Made of peptidoglycan (in bacteria)
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Figure 4.6 The Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell (Part 1 of 2).
Capsule Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Fimbriae
Cytoplasm
Pilus
70S Ribosomes Plasma membrane
Inclusions
Nucleoid containing DNA
Plasmid
Flagella
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Peptidoglycan
Polymer of disaccharide: N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
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Figure 4.12 N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) joined as in a peptidoglycan. N-acetylglucosamine
(NAG) N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
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Peptidoglycan in Gram-Positive Bacteria
Linked by polypeptides
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Figure 4.13a Bacterial cell walls.
Tetrapeptide side chain
Peptide cross-bridge
Carbohydrate “backbone”
Peptide bond
N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) Side-chain amino acid Cross-bridge amino acid
NAM
N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
Structure of peptidoglycan in gram-positive bacteria
.
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Thick peptidoglycan Teichoic acids
Gram-Positive Cell Wall
Thin peptidoglycan Outer membrane Periplasmic space
Gram-Negative Cell Wall
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Plasma membrane
Cell wall Lipoteichoic acid
Peptidoglycan Wall teichoic acid
Protein
Gram-negative cell wall
Lipopolysaccharide
Outer membrane Peptidoglycan
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Lipid A Porin protein
Phospholipid
Lipoprotein
Periplasm Protein
Lipid A
Core polysaccharide O polysaccharide
Parts of the LPS
Core polysaccharide
O polysaccharide
Gram-positive cell wall
Figure 4.13b-c Bacterial cell walls.
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Teichoic acids Lipoteichoic acid links to plasma membrane Wall teichoic acid links to peptidoglycan
May regulate movement of cations Polysaccharides provide antigenic variation
Gram-Positive Cell Walls
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Figure 4.13b Bacterial cell walls.
Protein
Plasma membrane
Cell wall Lipoteichoic acid
Peptidoglycan
Lipid A
Core polysaccharide O polysaccharide
Wall teichoic acid
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Lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins, phospholipids Forms the periplasm between the outer membrane
and the plasma membrane
Gram-Negative Outer Membrane
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Figure 4.13c Bacterial cell walls.
Lipopolysaccharide
Outer membrane Peptidoglycan
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Lipid A Porin protein
Phospholipid
Lipoprotein
Periplasm Protein
Lipid A
Core polysaccharide O polysaccharide
Parts of the LPS
Core polysaccharide
O polysaccharide
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Gram-Negative Outer Membrane
Protection from phagocytes, complement, and antibiotics
O polysaccharide antigen, e.g., E. coli O157:H7 Lipid A is an endotoxin Porins (proteins) form channels through membrane
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The Gram Stain Mechanism
Crystal violet-iodine crystals form in cell Gram-positive Alcohol dehydrates peptidoglycan CV-I crystals do not leave
Gram-negative Alcohol dissolves outer membrane and leaves holes in
peptidoglycan CV-I washes out
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Table 4.1 Some Comparative Characteristics of Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria
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2-ring basal body Disrupted by lysozyme Penicillin sensitive
Gram-Positive Cell Wall
4-ring basal body Endotoxin (LPS) Tetracycline sensitive
Gram-Negative Cell Wall
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Figure 4.13b-c Bacterial cell walls.
Gram-positive cell wall Gram-negative cell wall
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Acid-fast cell walls Like gram-positive cell walls Waxy lipid (mycolic acid) bound to peptidoglycan Mycobacterium Nocardia
Atypical Cell Walls
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Figure 24.8 Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
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Atypical Cell Walls
Mycoplasmas Lack cell walls Sterols in plasma membrane
Archaea Wall-less, or Walls of pseudomurein (lack NAM and D-amino acids)
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Damage to the Cell Wall
Lysozyme digests disaccharide in peptidoglycan Penicillin inhibits peptide bridges in peptidoglycan Protoplast is a wall-less cell Spheroplast is a wall-less gram-positive cell Protoplasts and spheroplasts are susceptible to osmotic
lysis L forms are wall-less cells that swell into irregular
shapes
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Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
Why are drugs that target cell wall synthesis useful? 4-5
Why are mycoplasmas resistant to antibiotics that interfere with cell wall synthesis? 4-6
How do protoplasts differ from L forms? 4-7
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Structures Internal to the Cell Wall
4-8 Describe the structure, chemistry, and functions of the prokaryotic plasma membrane.
4-9 Define simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, and group translocation.
4-10 Identify the functions of the nucleoid and ribosomes.
4-11 Identify the functions of four inclusions. 4-12 Describe the functions of endospores,
sporulation, and endospore germination.
Learning Objectives
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Figure 4.14a Plasma membrane.
Lipid bilayer of plasma membrane
Peptidoglycan Outer membrane
Plasma membrane of cell
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The Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid bilayer Peripheral proteins Integral proteins Transmembrane Proteins
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Figure 4.14b Plasma membrane.
Outside
Inside
Integral proteins
Peripheral protein
Lipid bilayer Pore
Peripheral protein
Polar head
Nonpolar fatty acid tails
Polar head
Lipid bilayer of plasma membrane
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Fluid Mosaic Model
Membrane is as viscous as olive oil Proteins move to function Phospholipids rotate and move laterally
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The Plasma Membrane
Selective permeability allows passage of some molecules
Enzymes for ATP production Photosynthetic pigments on foldings called
chromatophores or thylakoids
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ANIMATION Membrane Permeability
ANIMATION Membrane Structure
The Plasma Membrane
Damage to the membrane by alcohols, quaternary ammonium (detergents), and polymyxin antibiotics causes leakage of cell contents
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Movement of Materials across Membranes
Simple diffusion: movement of a solute from an
area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
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Figure 4.17a Passive processes.
Simple diffusion through the lipid bilayer
Outside
Inside
Plasma membrane
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Facilitated diffusion: solute combines with a
transporter protein in the membrane
Movement of Materials across Membranes
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Figure 4.17b-c Passive processes.
Facilitated diffusion through a nonspecific transporter
Facilitated diffusion through a specific transporter
Nonspecific transporter
Transported substance
Specific transporter
Glucose
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ANIMATION Passive Transport: Principles of Diffusion
ANIMATION Passive Transport: Special Types of Diffusion
Movement of Materials across Membranes
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Movement of Materials across Membranes
Osmosis: the movement of water across a
selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water to an area of lower water concentration
Osmotic pressure: the pressure needed to stop the movement of water across the membrane
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At beginning of osmotic pressure experiment
Glass tube
Rubber stopper
Rubber band
Sucrose molecule
Cellophane sack
Water molecule
Figure 4.18a The principle of osmosis.
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Movement of Materials across Membranes
Through lipid layer Aquaporins (water channels)
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Osmosis through the lipid bilayer (left) and an aquaporin (right)
Aquaporin
Figure 4.17d Passive processes.
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Figure 4.18a-b The principle of osmosis.
At beginning of osmotic pressure experiment
At equilibrium
Glass tube
Rubber stopper Rubber band
Sucrose molecule Cellophane sack
Water molecule
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Figure 4.18c-e The principle of osmosis.
Isotonic solution. No net movement of water occurs.
Hypotonic solution. Water moves into the cell. If the cell wall is strong, it contains the swelling. If the cell wall is weak or damaged, the cell bursts (osmotic lysis).
Hypertonic solution. Water moves out of the cell, causing its cytoplasm to shrink (plasmolysis).
Water
Cytoplasm Solute Plasma membrane
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ANIMATION Active Transport: Overview
ANIMATION Active Transport: Types
Movement of Materials across Membranes
Active transport: requires a transporter protein and
ATP Group translocation: requires a transporter protein
and PEP
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Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
Which agents can cause injury to the bacterial plasma membrane? 4-8
How are simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion similar? How are they different? 4-9
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Cytoplasm
The substance inside the plasma membrane
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The Nucleoid
Bacterial chromosome
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Figure 4.6 The Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell.
Capsule Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Fimbriae
Cytoplasm
Pilus
70S Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Inclusions
Nucleoid containing DNA
Plasmid
Flagella
Capsule Cell wall
.
The drawing below and the micrograph at right show a bacterium sectioned lengthwise to reveal the internal composition. Not all bacteria have all the structures shown; only structures labeled in red are found in all bacteria.
Although the nucleoid appears split in the photomicrograph, the thinness of the “slice” does not convey theobject’s depth.
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The Prokaryotic Ribosome
Protein synthesis 70S 50S + 30S subunits
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Figure 4.19 The prokaryotic ribosome.
Small subunit
30S
Large subunit
50S
Complete 70S ribosome
50S
30S
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Magnetosomes
Figure 4.20 Magnetosomes.
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Endospores
Resting cells Resistant to desiccation, heat, chemicals Bacillus, Clostridium Sporulation: endospore formation Germination: return to vegetative state
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Figure 4.21b Formation of endospores by sporulation.
An endospore of Bacillus subtilis
Endospore
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Figure 4.21a Formation of endospores by sporulation.
Sporulation, the process of endospore formation
Spore septum begins to isolate newly replicated DNA and a small portion of cytoplasm.
Plasma membrane starts to surround DNA, cytoplasm, and membrane isolated in step 1.
Spore septum surrounds isolated portion, forming forespore.
Spore coat forms. Endospore is freed from cell.
Two membranes
Cytoplasm Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Bacterial chromosome (DNA)
Peptidoglycan layer forms between membranes.
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Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
Where is the DNA located in a prokaryotic cell? 4-10 What is the general function of inclusions? 4-11 Under what conditions do endospores form? 4-12
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Figure 4.22a Eukaryotic cells showing typical structures.
Highly schematic diagram of a composite eukaryotic cell, half plant and half animal
PLANT CELL
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Microfilament
Golgi complex
Microtubule
Vacuole Chloroplast Ribosome Cytoplasm
Cell wall
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Plasma membrane
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
ANIMAL CELL
Flagellum
Nucleus
Nucleolus Golgi complex
Basal body
Cytoplasm Microfilament Lysosome
Centrosome: Centriole Pericentriolar material Ribosome
Microtubule Peroxisome Rough endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Plasma membrane
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The Cell Wall and Glycocalyx
4-14 Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell walls and glycocalyxes.
Learning Objective
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The Cell Wall and Glycocalyx
Cell wall Plants, algae, fungi Carbohydrates
Cellulose, chitin, glucan, mannan Glycocalyx Carbohydrates extending from animal plasma membrane Bonded to proteins and lipids in membrane
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The Plasma Membrane
4-15 Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic plasma membranes.
Learning Objective
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The Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid bilayer Peripheral proteins Integral proteins Transmembrane proteins Sterols Glycocalyx carbohydrates
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The Plasma Membrane
Selective permeability allows passage of some molecules
Simple diffusion Facilitative diffusion Osmosis Active transport Endocytosis Phagocytosis: pseudopods extend and engulf particles Pinocytosis: membrane folds inward, bringing in fluid and
dissolved substances
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Cytoplasm
4-16 Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cytoplasms.
Learning Objective
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Table 4.2 Principal Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
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Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm membrane: substance inside plasma and outside nucleus
Cytosol: fluid portion of cytoplasm Cytoskeleton: microfilaments, intermediate
filaments, microtubules Cytoplasmic streaming: movement of cytoplasm
throughout cells
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Ribosomes
4-17 Compare the structure and function of eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes.
Learning Objective
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Ribosomes
Protein synthesis 80S Membrane-bound: attached to ER Free: in cytoplasm
70S In chloroplasts and mitochondria
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Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
Identify at least one significant difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic flagella and cilia, cell walls, plasma membranes, and cytoplasm.
4-13–4-16 The antibiotic erythromycin binds with the 50S
portion of a ribosome. What effect does this have on a prokaryotic cell? On a eukaryotic cell? 4-17
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Organelles
4-18 Define organelle. 4-19 Describe the functions of the nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, vacuoles, mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and centrosomes.
Learning Objectives
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Organelles
Nucleus: contains chromosomes ER: transport network Golgi complex: membrane formation and secretion Lysosome: digestive enzymes Vacuole: brings food into cells and provides support
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Organelles
Mitochondrion: cellular respiration Chloroplast: photosynthesis Peroxisome: oxidation of fatty acids; destroys H2O2
Centrosome: consists of protein fibers and centrioles
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Figure 4.24c The eukaryotic nucleus.
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear pore(s)
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Figure 4.24a-b The eukaryotic nucleus.
Ribosomes
Nuclear pore(s)
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
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Figure 4.25 Rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.
Cisternae
Ribosomes
Nuclear envelope
Smooth ER Rough ER
Ribosomes
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Figure 4.25a Rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.
Cisternae
Nuclear envelope Ribosomes
Smooth ER
Rough ER
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Figure 4.25b Rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.
Ribosomes Smooth ER Rough ER
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Figure 4.26 Golgi complex.
Secretory vesicles
Cisternae
Transfer vesicles
Transport vesicle from rough ER
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Figure 4.22b Eukaryotic cells showing typical structures.
Transmission electron micrographs of plant and animal cells.
Algal cell (Tribonema vulgare)
Animal cell, an antibody-secreting plasma cell
Plasma membrane Nucleus Cytoplasm Nucleolus
Mitochondrion Rough endoplasmic reticulum Lysosome
Peroxisome Nucleus Vacuole
Chloroplast Golgi complex Mitochondrion
Cell wall
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Matrix Cristae Inner
membrane Outer membrane
Figure 4.27 Mitochondria.
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Check Your Understanding
Check Your Understanding
Compare the structure of the nucleus of a eukaryote and the nucleoid of a prokaryote. 4-18
How do rough and smooth ER compare structurally and functionally? 4-19
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The Evolution of Eukaryotes
4-20 Discuss evidence that supports the endosymbiotic theory of eukaryotic evolution.
Learning Objective
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Figure 10.2 A model of the origin of eukaryotes.
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What are the fine extensions on the protozoan shown on the following slide?
Endosymbiotic Theory