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Principles of Radiative
Transfer
Principles of Remote
Sensing
-
Marianne KönigEUMETSAT
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Remote Sensing
All measurement processes which perform observations/measurements of parameters which carry information about properties at the location of interest, far from the location of interest
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Opposite: In-situ measurements, i.e. at the location of interest
For Meteorology: most remote sensing relies on electromagnetic waves
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Remote Sensing
"Remote Sensing" is for us
not such a strange principle – we have several remote sensing devices (which?)
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Remote Sensing - Principle
In order to obtain meaningful information from remote sensing images, the probed radiation field must have some interaction with the parameter of interest
Example:
A fish seen in "visible"
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A fish seen in "visible" wavelengths (by humans)
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Remote Sensing - Principle
In order to obtain meaningful information from remote sensing images, the probed radiation field must have some interaction with the parameter of interest
Example:
A fish seen in "visible" And seen by x-rays
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A fish seen in "visible" wavelengths (by humans)
And seen by x-rays
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Remote Sensing - Principle
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Another example: photograph and infrared picture of a house
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Electromagnetic Waves
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Characteristics:• Wavelength λ• Propagation velocity c • Frequency ν = c / λ• Wavenumber =1/ λ (cm-1)
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
1m 1mm 1µm
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Sources of Radiation (Met Applications)
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Electromagnetic Radiation – Units and Concepts
Irradiance Watts/meter2
Total energy which falls onto 1 sqm of surface
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Electromagnetic Radiation – Units and Concepts
Radiance Watts/meter2/ster (W/m2/ster)
Energy which falls onto 1 sqm of surface, coming from a certain direction
Can also be expressed as radiance per wavelength or wavenumber:
W/m2/ster/µm
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W/m /ster/µm
W/m2/ster/cm-1
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Fundamental Radiation Law: Planck’s Law
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1
12),(
2
3
−=
kThec
hTB
ν
νν1
1),(
5
2
−=
kThce
hcTB
λλλ
k = Boltzmann‘s constant
T = Temperatureh = Planck‘s constant
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Fundamental Radiation Law: Planck’s Law
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Spectral Distribution of Energy Radiated
from Blackbodies at Various Temperatures
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P. Menzel, 2007
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Concept of a Blackbody – Concept of Emissivity
A “Blackbody” is an object of temperature T which radiates energy according to Planck’s Law. Nature does not have perfect blackbodies:
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Satellite Orbits – What Can We Measure?
Geostationary orbit:36000 km heightUsable energy in solar and infrared bands
Low earth / polar orbit:~800-900 km heightUsable energy in solar, infrared and
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Usable energy in solar, infrared and microwave bands
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Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere
What do we measure?
Solar radiation: reflected by the surface, by clouds, scattered by molecules … (wavelengths?)
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Thermal radiation: emitted by the earth / clouds / atmosphere …
(wavelengths?)
What about thermal radiation from the sun???
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Explanation
At our Earth’s distance from the sun, the radiation received from the sun is approximately on the same energy level as the radiation emitted from the earth/atmosphere
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Visible(Reflective Bands)
Infrared / microwave(Emissive Bands)
microwave
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P. Menzel, 2007
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Processes for Solar Radiation
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Why is grass green?
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Processes of Thermal Radiation
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Q
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O3
Earth Spectrum and Planck Curves
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CO2
H20
CO2
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Radiative Processes
Absorption: Energy of the electromagnetic wave is taken up by matter (e.g. change in atomic state)
Emission: Energy change in the matter (e.g. change in the atomic state) releases electromagnetic radiation
Emission = Absorption!!
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Emission = Absorption!!
Absorption coefficient = property of matter
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Radiative Processes
Absorption: Energy of the electromagnetic wave is taken up by matter (e.g. change in atomic state)
Emission: Energy change in the matter (e.g. change in the atomic state) releases electromagnetic radiation
Emission = Absorption!!
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Emission = Absorption!!
Absorption coefficient = property of matter
Scattering/reflection: Radiation is “geometrically” forced to deviate from a straight line
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Illustration: Beam at 11 µm wavelength (“Window”)
Sensor
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Earth Surface
Temperature Profile
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Illustration: Beam at 6.5 µm wavelength (WV Absorption)
Sensor
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Earth Surface
Temperature Profile
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Weighting Functions
height
Absorption Channel:
peaks high in the
atmosphere
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0 1
atmosphere
Window Channel: High
contribution from
surface
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Question: What happens for higher viewing angles?
A) Satellite measures the same brightness temperaturesB) Satellite measures higher brightness temperaturesC) Satellite measures lower brightness temperatures
Sensor
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Earth Surface
Temperature Profile
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Question: What happens for strong absorption channels,
at higher viewing angles?
A) Satellite measures the same brightness temperaturesB) Satellite measures warmer brightness temperaturesC) Satellite measures colder brightness temperatures
Sensor Q
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Earth Surface
Temperature Profile
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Radiative Processes Can Be Modelled - RTMs
The equation of radiative transfer simply says that as a beam of radiation travels, it loses energy to absorption, gains energy by emission, and redistributes energy by scattering.
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The equation is a differential equation, numerical models exist which provide a solution (Radiative Transfer Models, RTMs)
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Practical Example: MODIS Imagery, 03 April 2011
Solar Bands
0.6 µm 0.9 µm 1.6 µm
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Practical Example: MODIS Imagery, 03 April 2011
Thermal Bands
266.9 K 237.6 K 249.3 K
11 µm 13.2 µm 7.3 µm
218.5 K 218.8 K 220.9 K
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Scattering
- Scattering by particles which are much smaller than the electromagnetic wavelength ("Rayleigh Scattering")
- Scattering by particles which are of same size and larger than the electromagnetic wavelength ("Mie Scattering")
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Distribution for all angles: phase function
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Rayleigh Scattering
Rayleigh scattering, named after the British physicist Lord Rayleigh, is the elastic scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light. The particles may be individual atoms or molecules.
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or molecules.
Scattering is ~ λ-4, i.e. scattering occurs for shorter wavelengths!
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Water Clouds: Scattering on Spherical Particles
Size distribution Wavelength 0.87 µmCloud droplets 1- 10 µm
Strong forward scattering
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Ice Clouds: Complex Scattering Depending on Ice
Crystals' Shape
Plates
Columns
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Columns
Rosettes
Aggregates
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ATMOSPHERICVARIABLES
T,q(z)
RADIATIVE
BOUNDARYCONDITIONS
Radiative Transfer Theory: Forward Problem
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HydrometeorsLiquid waterCloud type
etc.
RADIATIVETRANSFEREQUATION
RADIOMETERCHARACTERISTICS
TB
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ATMOSPHERICVARIABLES
T,q(z)
RADIATIVE
BOUNDARYCONDITIONS
Radiative Transfer Theory: Inverse Problem
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HydrometeorsLiquid waterCloud type
etc.
RADIATIVETRANSFEREQUATION
RADIOMETERCHARACTERISTICS
TB
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Retrieval/InversionScheme
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)p
T(p)
q(p)
p
TBs in different wavelengths
Inversion Problem
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ILL POSED PROBLEM
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)
q(p)
p q(p)
...Many possible states ofTemperatureWater vapour, etc.(or cloud parameters, aerosol information ….)
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Retrieval/InversionScheme
Many TBs in many different wavelengths
Inversion Problem
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)p
T(p)
q(p)
p
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More channels = more information!
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)
q(p)
p
T(p)
q(p)
p q(p)
...
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Inversion Problem: Practical Example, 11µm
Satellite Measurement: 286 K
286 K 286 K286 K
RTM result
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291 Kε = 0.99
Some more H2O
292 Kε = 0.99
Even more H2O
290 Kε = 0.99
Little H2O
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Satellite Measurement: 286 K
286 K 286 K286 K
RTM result
Inversion Problem: Practical Example, 11µm
Q
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291 Kε = 0.99
Some more H2O
292 Kε = 0.99
Even more H2O
290 Kε = 0.99
Little H2O
Which is the correct surface temperature?
Can we tell from this one measurement?
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Satellite Measurement: 286 K
286 K 286 K286 K
RTM result
Inversion Problem: Practical Example, 11µm
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291 Kε = 0.99
Some more H2O
292 Kε = 0.99
Even more H2O
290 Kε = 0.99
Little H2O
No, we cannot tell!
Possible: constrain humidity by forecast profile
Or: combine with another channel that is sensitive to surface temperature and humidity
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HIRS Ch01
ca. 23 km
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HIRS Ch02
ca. 19 km
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HIRS Ch03
ca. 17 km
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HIRS Ch04
ca. 7 km
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HIRS Ch05
ca. 4 km
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HIRS Ch06
ca. 2 km
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Outlook: Hyperspectral Measurements
SurfaceCloudsSurface
CloudsTemp(CO2)
SurfaceClouds
Instruments like IASI measure the IR spectrum in 8461 different samples
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Temp(CO2)
O3
H2O,CH4,N2O
CO
N2O,Temp(CO2)
(CO2)
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IASI Example
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The End
Thank you for your attention!
Consider yourself "remote sensing experts" now!
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