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PhysiologyPhysiologyCrops, YieldCrops, Yield
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What is your main goal as a farmer?
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Where it starts
• Photosynthesis is the fundamental plant process that is responsible for plant growth and the production of yield.
• All of our food supply depends upon photosynthesis.
Source: Dennis Egli
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sugarsproteinsfats
minerals
CO2
O2
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Goal
• The business of agriculture is to manage photosynthesis to get maximum food production as efficiently as possible.
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TIME
DRY WEIGHT
g/m2
(lbs/acre)
Vegetative Biomass
Tota
l Bio
mas
s
Seed
Bio
mas
s
Vegetative Stage Seed Fill
Floweringand
Seed Set
PhysiologicalMaturity
Harvest Maturity
Growth and Development of a Crop Commodity
Source: Dennis Egli
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Solar Energy
Water (H2O)Mineral nutrients; N, P, K, Ca, Mg,S, Mo, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B, Cl
CO2
Temperature
Source: Dennis Egli
O2
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“ “Practically everything we see about us has Practically everything we see about us has involved photosynthesis at some stage or involved photosynthesis at some stage or another. The gardener often talks about another. The gardener often talks about ‘feeding’ plants when he applies fertilizers ‘feeding’ plants when he applies fertilizers and the notion that plants derive their and the notion that plants derive their nourishment from the soil is one that is nourishment from the soil is one that is commonly held. They do not. Plants take up commonly held. They do not. Plants take up minerals from the soil and they derive their minerals from the soil and they derive their nourishment from the air”.nourishment from the air”.
Edwards and Walker (1983) C3, C4: Mechanisms and Cellular Edwards and Walker (1983) C3, C4: Mechanisms and Cellular
Regulation of Photosynthesis. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Regulation of Photosynthesis. Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Source: Dennis Egli
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Photosynthesis
• Chlorophyll – green pigments
• Absorbs light.
• Light powers the process
• Capture C from CO2 and O2 from H2O to form sugars
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Chlorophyll – green pigmentsKey elements – N, Mg, C, O, H
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Photosynthesis
• Chlorophyll – green pigments
• Absorbs light.
• Light powers the process
• Capture C from CO2 and O2 from H2O to form sugars
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Respiration
• Uses some of the C fixed in photosynthesis to carry on maintenance and development of the plant.
• Photosynthesis makes the sugar, respiration does something with it.
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Photosynthesis:
carbon dioxide + water sugar + oxygen
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O 6 CO2 + 12 H2O
Solar energy
Energy
Source: Dennis Egli
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Source: Dennis Egli
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Photosynthesis
• Capture C from CO2 and O2 from H2O to form sugars– C3 plants – 3-carbon sugar
– C4 plants – 4-carbon sugar
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Species Total Production (2005/2006)
Rank Photosynthesis
Millions of tonnes1
Maize 704 1 C4
Rice 634 2 C3
Wheat 618 3 C3
Soybean 218 4 C3
Barley 140 5 C3
Sorghum 58 6 C4
Peanut 50 7 C3
Rapeseed 49 8 C3
Millet 32 9 C3
Sunflower 30 10 C4
Top 10 world grain crops based on total world production (2005-2006).
1 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 2205 pounds. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (www.FAO.org).
Source: Dennis Egli
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Source: Dennis Egli
(Corn)
(Soybean)
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Source: Dennis Egli
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Your Main Goal
• Maximize photosynthesis in order to maximize yield.
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Yield = LI × RUE × HI
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TIME
DRY WEIGHT
g/m2
Vegetative Biomass
Tota
l Bio
mas
s
Seed
Bio
mas
s
Vegetative Stage Seed Fill
Floweringand
Seed Set
PhysiologicalMaturity
Harvest Maturity
Growth and Development of a Crop Commodity
Source: Dennis Egli
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Three Stages of Yield Production (Murata,1969)
•Vegetative Growth:•Formation of organs for nutrient absorption and photosynthesis
•Flowering and Pod Set:•Formation of flower organs and the yield container.
•Seed Filling:•Production, accumulation and translocation of yield components
Source: Dennis Egli
Reproductive Growth
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Questions?
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Corn Yield Improvement
• Hybrids
• N fertilizer
• Herbicides
• Higher plant populations
• Narrow rows (from 40 down to 30 inches)
• Earlier planting
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Corn Yield Increases
• 60% to genetics
• 40% to agronomics
Lee and Tollenaar, 2007
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Corn Harvest Index
• Ear: 50% of dry matter• Stalk and leaves: 50%
of dry matter• Harvest Index:
– Ear Weight : Total Above Ground Biomass
• HI has not changed in the hybrid era
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Seed Yield Components
• Kernel number• Kernel size• Kernel weight
Lee and Tollenaar, 2007
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Corn Grain Yield
Pre-Silking
• Leaf area/angle
• Flowering Date
• Photosynthesis
Post-Silking
• Leaf area/angle
• Number of Days
• Functional Stay Green
• Visual Stay Green
Dry Matter
AccumulationSilk Establishment
Potential Kernel Number
Thresholdplant growthrate at silking
(PGRs)
Kernel set efficiency(# of kernels/unit PGRs)
Lee and Tollenaar, 2007
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Yield = LI × RUE × HI
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Soybean
• Yield Trends, etc.
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NE Soy Irrigated Trend: y(kg/ha) = 40.6x - 77,791
y(bu/ac) = 0.604x - 1,157 (R2 = 0.82)
NE Soy Rainfed Trend: y(kg/ha) = 21.0x - 39,479
y(bu/ac) = 0.312x - 587.1 (R2 = 0.24)
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010Production Year
Se
ed
yie
ld (
kg
/ha
)
14.9
22.3
29.7
37.2
44.6
52.0
59.5
Se
ed
yie
ld (
bu
/ac
)
57.0
40.0
Recent Droughts
Jim Specht, Nebraska
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USA & NE Soybean Yield Trends (1972-2005)
NE Irrigated Trend: y = 40.6x - 77,791 R2 = 0.82
NE Rainfed Trend: y = 21.0x - 39,479 R2 = 0.24
USA Trend: y = 29.9x - 57,119 R2 = 0.74
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Production Year
Se
ed
Yie
ld (
kg
/ha
)
2980 44.3By2010
Conversion Factors: 67.25 kg/ha = 1 bu /ac; 1000 kg/ha = 14.7 bu/ac
USA Soy Yield trend line at 29.9 kg/ha yr (0.44 bu/ac yr) rate goes to 4000 kg/ha (ca. 60 bu/ac) by the year 2044. See next slide for what I predicted back in 1999.
0.44bu/acyear
Jim Specht, Nebraska
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Annual Improvement in Yield
• Technological Innovation– Genetic Technology – continual release & rapid
adoption of the newest, ever-higher-yielding hybrids (corn) or varieties (soybeans).
– Agronomic Technology – periodic development and adoption of more effective crop management practices (with skill & timing!) and equipment.
– Genetic x Agronomic Tech Synergism – yield advantage of modern hybrids & varieties is larger in more productive, highly managed environments.
Jim Specht, Nebraska
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Annual Improvement in Yield
• Other Considerations– Atmospheric CO2 (316 ppm in 1959 to
376 ppm in 2003) – i.e., a rise in “carbon fertilization” of 1.5 ppm yr-1 = ~5 kg ha-1 yr-1
(about 1/12 bu ac-1 yr-1).
Jim Specht, Nebraska
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Genetic Improvement - Goals
• Productivity – increase yield potential per se by optimizing yield response to abiotic factors (i.e., water) in the targeted production environments.
• Protection – minimize the impact of biotic factors via rapid deployment of disease/pest resistance genes to existing and newly developed varieties.
• Quality – enhance the constituent or intrinsic marketplace value of the harvested raw product.
• Other – Transgenics may be used solve the insoluble, or to unlock (un)foreseen opportunities.
Jim Specht, Nebraska
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Soybean - Agronomic Improvements
• Earlier planting
• Narrower rows
• Better weed control
• Lower harvest losses
Specht et al., 1999
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Wheat Yields in France 1900-1999
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1900 1913 1935 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1998
Year
Yie
ld (
metr
ic t
on
s) 50% - genetic improvement
50% - improved management
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Incorporation of semi-dwarfing genes
Day-length insensitivity
Green Revolution and Int'l. Nurseries (CIMMYT)
Adult Plant Resistance (rusts, mildew)
Incorporation of 1B/1R or 1A/1R (pest resistance, adaptation, drought tolerance).
Rapid response to new pests: Russian wheat aphid, Hessian fly, eyespot, FHB
Increased grain yield and quality
D. Van Sanford, Kentucky
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• Improved technology - increased program
size
• Rapid information turnaround - more
precision choosing parents, testing lines
• Enhanced cooperation - excellent access
to germplasm
D. Van Sanford, Kentucky
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Number of entries in USDA Uniform
nurseries has increased greatly
Number of entries in KY variety trial -
1982: 32
2004: 72
D. Van Sanford, Kentucky
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G=S•h2
More varieties, bigger populations -
increased selection intensity
Yet the rate of yield increase has actually dropped off in the last 20 years
D. Van Sanford, Kentucky
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Markers are being used
Short to mid term infrastructure being
developed
What about the long term?
D. Van Sanford, Kentucky
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Have likely accumulated most or all of the major favorable alleles
Need to be able to identify minor alleles
Need to work on the difficult traits
D. Van Sanford, Kentucky
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