Overview – Lecture 7Higher Order Cognitive Functions
• Language– Cognitive Influences– Social Influences
• Intelligence
• Wisdom
• Myth Busting
Overview – Lecture 7Higher Order Cognitive Functions
• Language– Cognitive Influences– Social Influences
• Intelligence
• Wisdom
• Myth Busting
Aging and Language
Language competencecompetence spared in aging
But…
Language performanceperformance differences emerge in aging
Aging and Language
Older adults
Report more expressive and receptive communication difficulties (Ryan, Kwong See, Meneer & Trovato, 1992)
Aging and Language
Older adults
Have more difficulty comprehending, imitating, and producing grammatically complex sentences (e.g., Kemper, 1992; Kwong See & Ryan, 1995)
Left-branching: Harder
• Structures in which the embedded clause interrupts the main clause
– E.g., Because Bill left the party without his coat, John was upset.
Right-branching: Easier
• Structures in which the two clauses are successive
– E.g., John was upset because Bill left the party without his coat.
Aging and Language
Older adults
Remember less after reading or listening to texts (e.g., Kwong See & Ryan, 1995)
Aging and Language
Key Questions:
Why do these performance differences exist?
What is the influence of cognitive factors?
A framework
ModifiedModifiedInformation Processing Framework: LanguageInformation Processing Framework: Language
SensoryProcessing
-auditory-visual
SensoryProcessing
-auditory-visual
ExcitationInhibition
ExcitationInhibition
ProcessingStorage
ProcessingStorage
CentralExecutive
CentralExecutive
EpisodicmemoryEpisodicmemory
SemanticmemorySemanticmemory
ProceduralmemoryProceduralmemory
WORKING
MEMORY
Long Term
Knowledge Base
A simple passage
June, my sister-in-law by marriage to my least favorite brother Sam, was rather cool to April at the barbecue on Saturday.
Working Memory: needed to answer the question who was cool to April?
Inhibition: needed to disambiguate June as a person or a month.
ModifiedModifiedInformation Processing Framework: LanguageInformation Processing Framework: Language
SensoryProcessing
-auditory-visual
SensoryProcessing
-auditory-visual
ExcitationInhibition
ExcitationInhibition
ProcessingStorage
ProcessingStorage
CentralExecutive
CentralExecutive
EpisodicmemoryEpisodicmemory
SemanticmemorySemanticmemory
ProceduralmemoryProceduralmemory
WORKING
MEMORY
Long Term
Knowledge Base
What is the processing (Cognitive) basis of age differences in What is the processing (Cognitive) basis of age differences in language performance?language performance?
• Working Memory Capacity discourse hypothesis
• Inhibitory Efficiency discourse hypothesis
• Speed of Processing discourse hypothesis
Evidence: Working Memory Capacity
Light & Capps (1986)
You hear….
Henry spoke at a meeting while John drove to the beach.
He brought along a surfboard.
Evidence: Working Memory Capacity
Light & Capps (1986)
Henry spoke at a meeting while John drove to the beach.
He brought along a surfboard.
0, 1, or 2 intervening sentences
Evidence: Inhibition
Hamm & Hasher (1992)You read…
Carol was not feeling well and decided to find out what was wrong. She called her friend who was a nurse to ask her for some advice. The friend told Carol what to do. Carol went into town and apprehensively entered the large building hoping to find an answer. She walked through the doors and took an elevator to the third floor. (midtest- Hospital)
Evidence: Inhibition
Hamm & Hasher (1992)You read…
Carol was not feeling well and decided to find out what was wrong. She called her friend who was a nurse to ask her for some advice. The friend told Carol what to do. Carol went into town and apprehensively entered the large building hoping to find an answer. She walked through the doors and took an elevator to the third floor. (midtest- Hospital)
She found a book that seemed relevant to her problem. Carol then went to the main desk and checked out the book for two weeks so that she could read it at home. When she left the building she saw that it had started snowing hard and she hailed a taxi to take her home. (end-test- Library)
Inhibition and Verbosity
• OTV (e.g., Gold et al., 1994)
– More common among the elderly (age associated)
– Only a minority of elderly show OTV– Effects of age on OTV associated with decline
in frontal lobe functioning– Social relations, stress, extraversion,
egocentricism associated with OTV but are independent of age
Communication strategies adopted
• Avoid long and complex sentences
• Use proper names instead of pronouns
• Avoid conversing in background noise
• Speak slower
• Pause and reiterate
• Increase volume
Patronizing Speech or Elderspeak
• Overaccommodation in communication with older people based on stereotyped expectations of incompetence and dependence (e.g., Hummert, 1994; Ryan et al., 1995)
Overview – Lecture 7Higher Order Cognitive Functions
• Language– Cognitive Influences– Social Influences
• Intelligence
• Wisdom
• Myth Busting
ElderspeakElderspeakElderspeakElderspeak
Age-related Age-related
changeschanges
Age-related Age-related
changeschanges
Further Further
declinesdeclines
Further Further
declinesdeclines
Language:Language:Social Aspects of LanguageSocial Aspects of Language
Communication Communication Predicament Model:Predicament Model:
•Patronizing speechPatronizing speech•““Infantilization”Infantilization”•Failure to encourage Failure to encourage independenceindependence
How not to add insult to injury…
Communication Enhancement
Do not let stereotyped expectations guide behavior but instead:
1. Be aware of cues and modify your communication behavior appropriately
2. Be aware of automatic (stereotype driven) overaccommodations
Overview – Lecture 7continued
Higher Order Cognitive Functions
• Language– Cognitive Influences– Social Influences
• Intelligence
• Wisdom
• Myth Busting
Guiding Questions
• What is intelligence?
• Does “intelligence” decline with age?
• Does wisdom come with age?
Piagetian ApproachPiagetian Approach
• Focus on thinking behind the “answer”
• Focus on cognitive structures
• Intellectual changes with age are qualitative
SensorimotorSensorimotorSensorimotorSensorimotor
PreoperationalPreoperationalPreoperationalPreoperationalConcrete operationalConcrete operationalConcrete operationalConcrete operational
Formal operationalFormal operationalFormal operationalFormal operational
Piagetian stagesPiagetian stages
Developmental Trends
• Older adults do less well– on tasks assessing formal operations– tasks assessing earlier stages too
– Hypothesis: cognitive structures being lost• decline in reverse order of acquisition
• interpret with caution as results are mixedinterpret with caution as results are mixed
Extending Piaget: Post-formal operationsExtending Piaget: Post-formal operations
SensorimotorSensorimotorSensorimotorSensorimotor
PreoperationalPreoperationalPreoperationalPreoperationalConcrete operationalConcrete operationalConcrete operationalConcrete operational
Formal operationalFormal operationalFormal operationalFormal operational
Post-formal operational???Post-formal operational???Post-formal operational???Post-formal operational???
Piagetian stagesPiagetian stages
Post-Formal Operational Thinking
Some features
• use thinking to deal with complexities of “life”
• can see when to use formal logic and when not necessary
• dialectical thinking
• “truth” is negotiated and varies by situation
• solutions are relativistic
• no rights and wrongs but rather grays
• recognition that emotion and subjective factors play a role in thinking
Psychometric ApproachPsychometric Approach
• Focus on “how many” you get right as a measure of intelligence
• Intelligence is shown by performance on standardized tests
Historical PerspectivesHistorical Perspectives
Early studies on adult intelligenceEarly studies on adult intelligence
1930’s1930’s1930’s1930’s Studies on Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleStudies on Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleStudies on Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleStudies on Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
•Identified “classic aging pattern”Identified “classic aging pattern”
Historical PerspectivesHistorical Perspectives
Classic Aging Pattern:Classic Aging Pattern:
IQscores Young
adulthoodLater
adulthood
Age
Historical PerspectivesHistorical Perspectives
Current data on adult intelligenceCurrent data on adult intelligence
1950’s-1950’s-presentpresent1950’s-1950’s-presentpresent
Seattle Longitudinal StudySeattle Longitudinal StudySeattle Longitudinal StudySeattle Longitudinal Study
•Initial studies showed no declinesInitial studies showed no declines•Basis for sophisticated Basis for sophisticated developmental research designsdevelopmental research designs
Theoretical PerspectivesTheoretical Perspectives
The concept of “g”The concept of “g”
•General factor of intelligenceGeneral factor of intelligence•High levels of “g” related to high High levels of “g” related to high performance on tests of specific abilitiesperformance on tests of specific abilities
Retrieve eventsfrom long-term memory
Recognize and understand words
Apply numerical concepts
Generate words according to rule
Identify regularities and infer rules
Reason about geometricforms
Addition
Synonyms
Complete series
Spatial rotation
Verbal Verbal MeaningMeaning
NumberNumber
WordWordFluencyFluency
InductiveInductiveReasoningReasoning
SpatialSpatialOrientationOrientation
ABILITYABILITY DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION TESTTEST
Theoretical PerspectivesTheoretical Perspectives
Primary Mental AbilitiesPrimary Mental Abilities
Theoretical PerspectivesTheoretical Perspectives
Fluid-Crystallized TheoryFluid-Crystallized Theory
Primary mental abilitiesPrimary mental abilitiesPrimary mental abilitiesPrimary mental abilities
Verbal Verbal MeaningMeaning
NumberNumber
CRYSTALLIZEDCRYSTALLIZED(Gc)(Gc)
CRYSTALLIZEDCRYSTALLIZED(Gc)(Gc)
Secondary mental abilitiesSecondary mental abilitiesSecondary mental abilitiesSecondary mental abilities
SpaceSpaceReasoningReasoning Word Word FluencyFluency
FLUID (Gf)FLUID (Gf)FLUID (Gf)FLUID (Gf)
Gf
Gc Gc
Gc
Gc
Gc
GcGc
Gc
Gc Gc Gc
Gc
Gc
Gc
Theoretical PerspectivesTheoretical Perspectives
Fluid-Crystallized TheoryFluid-Crystallized Theory
Free-floating
Channeled into learned abilities
Theoretical PerspectivesTheoretical Perspectives
Fluid-Crystallized TheoryFluid-Crystallized Theory
Hypothesized live-span Hypothesized live-span course of Gf and Gccourse of Gf and Gc
Crystallized
Fluid
Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence
Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS)Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS)
•K. Warner Schaie and colleaguesK. Warner Schaie and colleagues•Used PMA testUsed PMA test•Interpret findings in terms of Fluid-Crystallized theoryInterpret findings in terms of Fluid-Crystallized theory•Also studied health and lifestyle patternsAlso studied health and lifestyle patterns
Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence
Least decrease=Least decrease=Verbal MeaningVerbal Meaning
Least decrease=Least decrease=Verbal MeaningVerbal Meaning
MostMost decrease=decrease=Word FluencyWord Fluency
MostMost decrease=decrease=Word FluencyWord Fluency
Longitudinal PatternsLongitudinal Patterns
Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence
Cumulative proportion of decline on PMA’s by ageCumulative proportion of decline on PMA’s by age
Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence
Cross-sectional differences from 1970 and 1991Cross-sectional differences from 1970 and 1991
•Different conclusions would be made in 1970 vs. 1991Different conclusions would be made in 1970 vs. 1991•In 1991, older adults were favored with respect to NumberIn 1991, older adults were favored with respect to Number
•Different conclusions would be made in 1970 vs. 1991Different conclusions would be made in 1970 vs. 1991•In 1991, older adults were favored with respect to NumberIn 1991, older adults were favored with respect to Number
Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence
Cohort gradients from 1889 to 1996 on PMACohort gradients from 1889 to 1996 on PMA
•Increases across Increases across cohorts in VM, cohorts in VM, SO and IRSO and IR
•Number has shown Number has shown downward trenddownward trend
•Only WF is Only WF is stablestable
•Verbal meaning- peak by 50-60 and Verbal meaning- peak by 50-60 and drop by 50% to the age of 80drop by 50% to the age of 80•Numerical ability- peak in middle age, Numerical ability- peak in middle age, detectable drop in 60s (recent cohorts not detectable drop in 60s (recent cohorts not as strong though)as strong though)
Summary of FindingsSummary of Findings
•All drop after late 60sAll drop after late 60s•Younger cohorts relatively favored on SO and IRYounger cohorts relatively favored on SO and IR
Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence
FLUIDFLUIDFLUIDFLUID
CRYSTALLIZEDCRYSTALLIZEDCRYSTALLIZEDCRYSTALLIZED
Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence
Individual differences in PMA patternsIndividual differences in PMA patterns
•Health statusHealth status•Sensory abilitiesSensory abilities•Frontal lobe functioningFrontal lobe functioning•GenderGender•““Life complexity”Life complexity”•Personality flexibility vs. rigidityPersonality flexibility vs. rigidity•Intellectual self-efficacyIntellectual self-efficacy
•Relates to identityRelates to identity
Intelligence:Intelligence:Intervention StudiesIntervention Studies
•People trained in Space improved in that People trained in Space improved in that ability and same for Inductive Reasoningability and same for Inductive Reasoning•Gains held for 7 years with a 5 hour Gains held for 7 years with a 5 hour booster sessionbooster session
Evidence for “plasticity”Evidence for “plasticity”
Lifespan ApproachLifespan Approach
• Lifespan concepts of multidirectionality, plasticity, interindividual variability play a role
• Emphasizes the role of intelligence in adaptation and daily life
Two-Component Model of Life-span Intelligence (e.g., Baltes et al., 1999)
1. Fluid Mechanics
intelligence as basic information
processing
2. Crystallized Pragmatics
intelligence as cultural knowledge
Predictions about development
1. Fluid Mechanics
downward trajectory with age
2. Crystallized Pragmatics
upward trajectory maintained across
adulthood
Intelligence:Intelligence:Implications of Plasticity Implications of Plasticity
Reserve Reserve capacitycapacityReserve Reserve capacitycapacity
•““Testing the limits” produces Testing the limits” produces performance increasesperformance increases
•Selective optimization with Selective optimization with compensationcompensation
PragmaticsPragmatics vs. mechanics vs. mechanicsPragmaticsPragmatics vs. mechanics vs. mechanics
Paradox of AgingParadox of Aging
Overview – Lecture 7continued
Higher Order Cognitive Functions
• Language– Cognitive Influences– Social Influences
• Intelligence
• Wisdom
• Myth Busting
Wisdom
What is it?
Practical knowledge
Insight
Based on life experience(not creativity)
“Age” likely to be necessary for WISDOM but is it sufficient?
WISDOMWISDOM
ASAS
EXPERTEXPERT
KNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGE
FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE
in fundamental
pragmatics of life
PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
in fundamental
pragmatics of life
Knowledge
in CONTEXTS of life and
societal change
Knowledge which
considers
UNCERTAINTIES of life
Knowledge which
considers RELATIVSM
of values and goals
Baltes model of wisdomBaltes model of wisdom
DEFINITION OF WISDOMGOOD JUDGMENT AND ADVICE IN IMPORTANT BUT UNCERTAIN
AREAS OF LIFE
Probe Question
• A 15-year-old girl wants to get married right away. What should she consider and do? (from Baltes & Staudinger, 2000)
Does wisdom come with age?
• No association between age and wise answers (e.g., Baltes & Staudinger, 2000; Staudinger, 1999)
– evidence of wisdom in adults of all ages
– older adults among the top performers though
• Key predictor is having life experience with type of problem given
Overview – Lecture 7continued
Higher Order Cognitive Functions
• Language– Cognitive Influences– Social Influences
• Intelligence
• Wisdom
• Myth Busting
Myth Busting
Myth:
“Verbosity” comes with age.
Reality:
A minority of older people can be characterized as off-topic-verbose.
Myth Busting
Myth:
Intelligence declines with age.
Reality:
There are a number of dimensions to intelligence. Fluid abilities decrease gradually throughout adulthood. Crystallized abilities increase through the 60s and show a decrease only after that point.
Myth Busting
Myth:
Older people are more rigid than younger people.
Reality:
People are stable in the extent to which they are flexible or rigid.