MacDonald’s Fairy Tales and Fantasy Novels as a Critique of Victorian Middle-Class Ideology
Osama Jarrar
olkloristsingeneralagreethattheevolutionofthefairytalegenreisindebtedtooneoftheearliestoralstorytellingtraditionsrelatedtothewondertale—Märchen. TheMärchen existedlargelyinEurope.Theywerespokentraditionalnarrativesinthesensethattheyweremeanttobetold,notread;theyweretoldtoadultsbymenandtochildrenbywomen.FromaMarxistviewpoint,theMärchen wereusedtoreflectsocialproblemsandideologicalconcernsinpre-capitalistsocieties.Insocietiesbasedonclassstruggleandexploitation,wondertalesembodiedasubversivepotentialthatreflectedautopianspirit.Thequestioningofnormsupheldbythedominantsocializingprocesswasattheheartofthisspirit;magic,elves,witches,kings,andqueens,weremetaphoricalrepresentationsofossifiedreality.Thedisruptionofsocialrelationshipsinfigurativerepresentationgivesfairytalesaestheticcapacitytorevealthefamiliarworldinanewlight.Inotherwords,wonderinoldfairytales,accordingtoJackZipes,isideological;wondergivesthefairytaleitssubversivepotentialtoevokesurpriseinreaderswhorespondtotheirhiddenmessage.Zipeswrites:
Yet,itisexactlythis disturbancewhichtheliberatingfairytalesseekonbothaconsciousandunconsciouslevel.Theyinterferewiththecivilizingprocessinhopeofcreatingchangeandanewawarenessofsocialconditions.Thisprovocationiswhyitismoreimportantforcriticstorecognizetheupsettingeffectofemancipatorytalesandtostudytheiruncannyinstitutionsforoldandyoungreaders.(Fairy Tales 191;emphasisintheoriginal)
BythetimewritersliketheBrothersGrimm(JacobandWilhem)andCharlesPerraultcollectedandeditedwondertalesforthepurposeofthesocializationofchildren,wondertaleshadbecomewhatisnowknownasfairytales.AccordingtoKatharineBriggs,theGrimm’sMärcheninspiredmanyEnglishcollectorsandpavedthewaytotheemergenceofliteraryfairytalesinEngland.Shearguesthat
TheGrimmBrothers’methodofworkingwasaninspirationtocollectors,andaftertheirtimetheconscientiousreproductionoftalesastheyweretoldbeganinEngland.MostoftheMärchen
North Wind 30 (2011): 13-24
F
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aremoretalesofenchantmentandstrangehappeningsthanofrealfairies,butwherefairiesoccur...theyareverymuchaftertheEnglishpattern.AsfarastheGermanfairiesalteredtheEnglishtraditionitwastostrengthentheimageofthehobgoblins,pixiesandhagsandrathertooverlaythememoryofthefairyladiesoftheRomances.FromthetimeoftheGrimmsonwardourownstoriesbegantobecollected.(179)
Theliteraryfairytale,however,isdifferentfromthefairytaleinthesensethattheformeriswrittenbyanidentifiableauthor.ManyliteraryfairytalewritersincorporatesomeofthethemesandmotifsoftheMärchentoaddcomplexitytothelanguageandtoenrichtheirfantasynovels.Thelanguageofthefairytaleandthefantasyembodiesideologicalmessagesthateithersubvertorstabilizevaluesandnormsofmainstreamculture.Thecombinationofideologyandlanguageinchildren’sfictioniskeyelementbecauseitmirrorstheideologytheauthorswanttopassontochildreaderswhetherconsciouslyorunconsciously.AccordingtoJohnStephens:
Ifachildistotakepartinsocietyandactpurposivelywithinitsstructures,heorshewillhavetomasterthevarioussignifyingcodesusedbysocietytoorderitself.Theprincipalcodeislanguage,sincelanguageisthemostcommonformofsocialcommunication,andoneparticularuseoflanguagethroughwhichsocietyseekstoexemplifyandinculcateitscurrentvaluesandattitudesistheimaginingandrecordingofstories.(8)
Althoughsometheoristsdonotdifferentiatebetweenthefairytaleandthefantasyandincludetheminthesamediscussion,fantasyseemsmoresophisticatedliteraryworkofartthanafairytale.Fantasyincludesmoreliteraryfeaturesthanafairytale,primarilyinitslength,theme,settingandnarrativesequentiality. GeorgeMacDonaldisanineteenth-centuryBritishwriterwhousesbothformsofmagicnarrative—thefairytaleandthefantasynovel.MacDonalduseshisfairytalesandfantasiestoquestionmiddle-classideologyoffamilyandsocialhierarchyinEngland.MacDonald’salternativeideologycontradictsthehierarchicalstructureoftheVictoriansocialscalethatisbasedonhereditaryprivilege,andarguesinfavorofgeneticnobility.
Class and Family in MacDonald’s Eyes TheVictorianmiddle-class,inMacDonald’seyes,hadinternalizedafalse
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notionofgentlenessandnobility,believingthatnobilityofcharacterwasexclusivetopeopleofhighrank.Thisideawasbasedonatraditionalhierarchy,whichnecessitatedthepresenceofwealthandhighsocialrank.ThismeantthatthepoorwereexcludedfromtheprivilegedstructureoftheVictoriansocialscale.Middle-classpeoplerationalizedthisexclusionbytheirbeliefintheincontrovertiblelawsofhumanbehavior,inthesensethatthepoorwillalwaysremaininferiortotherich.RichardDAltick, inhis Victorian People and Ideas: A Companion for Modern Readers of Victorian Literature,assertsthat
thebeliefthatthehierarchicalstructurebasedonhereditaryprivilegehadsomethingsacredaboutitsurvivedintoanageofincreasingsocialfluidity....InVictorianEnglandtheconceptof“deference”—willingacknowledgmentthatthepeopleintheclassesaboveone’sownwerejustlyentitledtotheirsuperiority—wassostrongthatitwasproofagainstallthesubversiveanddisintegratingforceswhichwerebroughttobearagainstit.(18)
Victoriansocietywasinfluencedbytheupheavalsoftheindustrializationprocess.Thefamily,oneofthecornerstonesofVictoriansociety,wassubjectedtocontinuoussocialandculturalchanges.Oneofthesechangeswasthatthefamilywasnolongerbasedonasolidorganicstructure. Psychological,social,andeconomictensionsaffectedtheVictorianfamily,bringingaboutsomeofthemostdrasticchangesinnineteenthcenturysocialhistory.In A Prison of Expectations: The Family in Victorian Culture,StevenMintzarguesthatsocialhistoriansoftendescribetheVictorianmiddle-classfamilyasa“walledgarden”(12),partlybecauseVictorianparentsbelievedthatthematerialisticupheavalsoftheIndustrialRevolutionmightcorrupttheirfamilies.Thus,theytendedtoisolatetheprivatefamilyspherefromthepublicsphere.Inotherwords,thestereotypicalmiddle-classfamilywassomewhatsimilartowhatisknowntodayasthenuclearfamily.Mintzwrites:
Bythebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,however,themiddle-classfamilywasthoughtofinanewway—asisolatedfromlargerkinshipstructuresandtheworldofwork.Conceivedofasaninward-turning,self-containedunit,theconjugalfamilywasregardedasconnectedtotheextendedkingroupandtheoutsidesocietyonlyonthebasisofeconomicself-interestandvoluntaryconsent.(14)
Theisolationofthe“conjugalunit”oftheVictorianmiddle-classfamilyhelpeddefinethesocialrelationbetweenfamilymembers;establishedpositionsforboys,girls,women,andmenemerged.Broadlyspeaking,girlsandboys,accordingtoMintz,wereemotionallyandfinanciallydependenton
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theirparents.Victoriansmaintainedthetraditionalattitudetogirlsasfuturemothersandhousewivesoncetheygotmarried;menwereconsideredanabsoluteauthorityinthehome;andparentsprolongedthechildhoodstageoftheirchildren.Thuschildrenweresubjectedtoastrictcodeofbehaviorthatmadethemcomplywiththemiddle-classideology.Inotherwords,“theincreasingisolationofthemiddle-classfamilyfrombroaderstructuresofkinshipandworkplacedextraordinarypsychologicalburdensonthehome”(21). MacDonald’snonconformitystemsfromthefactthathechallengesthesupposedhereditarygentlenessofmiddle-classideology,andrationalizeshisassumptionsonthegroundsthatnobilityofcharacterisgenetic,andthatthiskindofnobilitycontributestotheorganicstructureoftheextendedfamily.ToelaborateonhowMacDonaldcontradictstheideologyoftheVictorianmiddle-classaboutsocialhierarchy,IwouldliketoquoteKnowlesandMalmkjær:“InVictoriansociety,nobilityofbirthwasbecomingundervaluedincomparisonwithpurelyfinancialstatus,andMacDonaldcanappeartobeconcernedtoreturntoapre-industrializedsocialorder.However,hismainconcernistoestablishnobilityasamoral,ratherthanasocial,concept”(171).Thepoorweregentleandmorallysuperiortotherichbecausenobility,inMacDonald’sview,wasnotboundtoaspecificsocialclass.Thushereditarygentlenesswasnothierarchical.OneshouldbeawarethatMacDonaldwasaCongregationalministerandbecauseheexpressedhisheterodoxviewsaboutsalvationfromthepulpit,hecameintoconflictwithhiscongregationwhichforcedhimtoresign.AccordingtotheCalvinistfaithonlytheelectwillbesaved.
MacDonaldopposedthisdoctrinebecausehebelievedthatanyone,young,old,richorpoor,couldattainsalvationbythecultivationoftheinnergoodnessoftheheartandsoul(Carpenter76;KnowlesandMalmkjær164).SoitisnoaccidentthatMacDonald’sfairytalesandfantasynovelspicturepoorcharactersasnoble.Asanonconformistanddissenter,MacDonaldadheredtothosewhoweremoreconcernedwiththenobilityofsoul.Buthewasfarfromaloneinthis.MillandDickensacknowledgedtheinherentqualitiesofthepoorandwroteinfavorofanobilityofcharacterthatworkedinharmoniousinteractionwiththerichnessofmoralsandethics.InOn Liberty: The Subjection of Women (1859)JohnMillquestionedtheCalvinisttheorythatunderestimatedtheinnergoodnessofhumansandstressedoriginalsin:“Humannaturebeingradicallycorrupt,thereisnoredemptionforanyoneuntilhumannatureiskilledwithinhim”(360).LikeMill,Dickenstoodirectedhisattentiontothefreedomoftheindividualwill,regardlessofwealthorsocialrank.
The Princess and the Goblin, The Princess and Curdie, and North Wind contradictVictoriannotionsaboutclass,poverty,andthefamilyand
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introduceinterrogativeassumptionsthataimatmakingchildrencomplywithanewprocessofsocialization.InThe Princess and the Goblinthenurserevealshermiddle-classassumptionsaboutsocialhierarchywhensheunderestimatesCurdieandtreatshimasinferiortotheprincess.ThisisclearlyseenwhenCurdieprotectsIrenefromthegoblinsandthusshepromiseshimakiss:thenurserelatesthat“there’snooccasion;he’s[Curdie]onlyaminer-boy”(48).ThiscommentisjuxtaposedbyIrene,whorepliestothenursethatCurdieis“agoodboy,andabraveboy,andhehasbeenverykindtous”(48).Goodness,braveryandkindnessarepartofthemoralscalebywhichIrenejudgesCurdie.Thenurse,however,doesnotcareabouttheinnergoodnessofCurdieandjudgeshimbyasocialscale,partlybecauseshehasinternalizedamiddle-classnotionof“dignity.”Asacounterviewtothesocialstandardsofthenurse,thenarratorintroducesmoralones:
HereIshouldliketoremark,forthesakeofprincesandprincessesingeneral,thatitisalowandcontemptiblethingtorefusetoconfessafault.Ifatrueprincesshasdonewrong,sheisalwaysuneasyuntilshehashadanopportunityofthrowingthewrongnessawayfromherbysaying,“Ididit;andIwishIhadnot;andIamsorryforhavingdoneit.”So you seethereissomegroundforsupposingthatCurdiewasnotamineronly,butaprinceaswell.Many suchinstanceshavebeenknownintheworld’s history.(198;emphasisadded)
Thephrase“soyousee”isindeedarationalizationofthefactthatCurdieisaprinceofinnergoodnessandofhumblemanners;theconjunction“not...only”privilegesCurdieasaminerboyandthereforethenarratornegatesthesocialstandardswhichareusedbythenurse;andtheuseof“manysuch”and“world’shistory”isahistoricizationthatstressestheexistenceoflimitlesscasessimilartothatofCurdie’s.Whatisbeingrationalizedandhistoricizedisthatnobilityisgeneticandthehierarchicalstructure,basedonhereditaryprivilege,isafalsenotionbecausehistoryprovesitso.ThenonconformityofMacDonald’sassumptionsisrevealedattheleveloflanguage.However,thenarratorinThe Princess and Curdiealso makestheideologicalassumptionsclearanddirect,andthishelpsthereadertounderstandtheprevailingideologyinthetext.
ThisisseenwhenCurdieandhisfather,Peter,returninghomefromthemines,comeacrossIrene’sgrandmother.Shetransformsherselfintoabeautifulyoungladywhileshetalkstothem:Peterissurprised,primarilybecauseheisapoorminerandtheladyisofahighsocialrank.TheladyrefutesPeter’sassumptionsandsaysthatsheconsidershimandhisfamilyasnobleasherself.TheladyaddressesPeterthus:
Youhavegottothankmethatyouaresopoor,Peter....Thingscometothepoorthatcan’tgetinatthedooroftherich.
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Theirmoneysomehowblocksitup.Itisagreatprivilegetobepoor....Hadstthoubeenrich,myPeter,thouwouldstnothavebeensogoodassomerichmenIknow.(60-61)
Theimplicationofthequotationcitedaboveistwo-fold.First,povertyisnotasinbutaprivilegethatthepoorpossessandtherichlack.ItisnotaccidentalthatMacDonaldconsidersrichesanobstacletorenunciationandmysticism,becausehisthoughtsarebasedonChristianphilosophyoftheinnergoodnessofpeople.Therefore,materialrichesarenotpartofMacDonald’svisionaryinsights.IfPeterhadbeenrich,thepossibilityofhis“goodness”wouldhavebeenlimited.Second,nobilityofcharacterisnotboundtoadefinitesocialclassbecausethepoorcanalsobenobleandtheirnobilityisjudgedbytheirgoodness.Inthiscasegentlenessisjudgedbyspiritualandemotionalstandards,notbymaterialandphysicalones.ItisinterestingtonotethattheideasinthequotationcitedabovearealsorecurrentthemesinNorth WindandinThe Princess and Curdie.
Forexample,thenarratorinNorth Wind,directsthereader’sattentiontotwosocialconditionsthatpeopledislike—thefirstispovertyandthesecondisdishonesty,bothlinkedtowhatthenarratorcalls“value.”Thenarratorcommentsthat“Povertywillnotmakeamanworthless—hemaybeworthagreatdealmorewhenheispoorthanhewaswhenhewasrich”(106).Thisimpliesthatpovertyisfavoredaboverichespartlybecauseofthe“value”thatmakespovertyaprivilegenotacurse.Theimageofpovertyiscontinuallyjuxtaposedwiththatofdishonesty;dishonestyisindeedacursethattakestheinnergoodnessoutofmanandleaveshimwithoutmoralvalues.Thenarratormaintains:“butdishonestygoesveryfarindeedtomakeamanofnovalue—athingtobethrownoutinthedust-holeofthecreation,likeabitofbrokenbasin,oradirtyrag”(106).Theideologicalmessagebehindthisisthatpeopleshouldbejudgedbymoralstandardsnotbyasocialhierarchy.
InThe Princess and CurdieIrene’sgrandmothergivesCurdiethegiftofimaginativeperceptionandsheputsitinCurdie’shands.ThisgiftgivesCurdiethepowertosensewhetherapersonhasinnergoodnessorinnerwickedness.Curdietriesthegiftonhismotherbytouchingherhandsanddiscoversthathismotherisalady,butthelatterrefusestobelievehim.ThenarrativeisfocalizedthroughthevoiceofPeterwhenherationalizesCurdie’sclaims.Peter’srevolutionaryviewsofnobilityareclearlyseenwhenheasserts:
AndIamsuretheboyspeakstrue,saidPeter.HeonlysaysaboutyourhandwhatIhaveknowneversolongaboutyourself,Joan.Curdie,yourmother’sfootisasprettyafootasanylady’sintheland,andwhereherhandisnotsoprettyitcomesofkillingitsbeautyforyouandme,myboy.AndI
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cantellyoumore,Curdie,Idon’tknowmuchaboutladiesandgentlemen,butIamsureyourinside mother mustbealady.(89;emphasisadded)
DespitethefactthatJoan’shandsarecoarseandcracked;despitethefactthatherbodyisshabbyandweary,her“inside”valueassureshergoodnessandidentifiesheras“alady.”Theideologybehindthisepisodeisthatitpraisesworkandunderminesplay,becauseJoan’sbeautyisconsumedbyworkforherfamily:“True,herhandswerehardandchappedandlarge,butitwaswithworkforthem”(98).Thefatherjustifieshisclaimsaboutthenobilityofhiswifebystatingthedifferencebetweena“pretended”gentlemananda“real”gentleman.Themajordifferencebetweenthetwoisaroundthenotionsofworkandplay,seemingandbeing:
Thisishow:whenIforgetmyselflookingatherasshegoesaboutherwork—andthathappensoftenerasIgrowolder—IfancyforamomentortwothatIamagentleman;andwhenIwakeupfrommylittledream,itisonlytofeelthemorestronglythatImustdoeverythingasagentlemanshould.IwilltrytotellyouwhatImean,Curdie.Ifagentleman—Imeanarealgentleman,notapretendedone,ofwhichsorttheysaythereareamanyaboveground—ifarealgentlemanweretoloseallhismoneyandcomedownintheminestogetbreadforhisfamily—doyouthink,Curdie,hewouldworklikethelazyones?Wouldhetrytodoaslittleashecouldforhiswages?Iknowthesortofthetruegentleman—prettynearaswellashedoeshimself.(89;emphasisadded)
Peter’sjustificationnegatesthehierarchicalVictoriannotionofgentlemanliness.AsAveryandBullassert,“AlongwiththiscomplexityofemotionssurroundingtheVictorianuseoftheword‘gentleman’wentthefeelingthatgentlemanlyvirtueswerehereditary,thattherulingclassesweremorallysuperiortothosebelowthem”(198).Theproximityoftheconnotations“pretended”and“real”exposetherealmeaningofnobility:realnobilityisequatedwithgoodness,work,andfamilysolidarity,whilepretendednobilityisequatedwithlaziness,play,andexternalappearance.ThefatheragreeswithCurdiethathismotherisatruelady:“Andmywife,that’syourmother,Curdie,she’sa true lady,youmaytakemywordforit,forit’sshethatmakesmewanttobea true gentleman.Wife,theboyisintherightaboutyourhand”(89;emphasisadded).Theconceptofatruelady,inVictorianmind,stressedthatwomenweretobesubmissive,fragile,inferior,andpowerless,whileinPeter’seyestheconceptdesignatesstrength,
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mutuallove,andunderstanding.Thus,thefathercontradictsoneofthemostcherisheddoctrinesofVictorianmentality—the“PerfectLady.”BauerandRittarguethat:
ifthewomanofthelowerclasseshadbeendowngradedtothestatusofamerefemale,theuppermiddle-classwomanhadbeenelevatedinthesocialscalesothattheterm“woman”nolongersufficedtodescribeher.Theself-imageofthemodelVictorianwomannowdemandedthatshebeconsiderednotmerelyawoman,butalady,aconceptionthateffectivelyplacedheroutsideandbeyondtheworldofherhumbleworking-classsister.(1-2;emphasisadded)
North Windintroducesanotherradicalandsubversivepictureofnobility.DespitethefactthatNannyisverypoor,miserable,andatthebottomofthesocialladder,she“wassosweet,andgentle,andrefinedthatshemighthavehadaladyandgentlemanforafatherandmother”(214-215).NorthWind refersseveraltimestothethemeofthenobilityofworking-classpeopleandsherationalizestheirnobilityonmoralgrounds,notonsocialones.Diamondandhisfatheraregentlemenandtheirgentlenessgivesthemsocialacceptanceamongpeopledespitethefactthattheyarepoor.Diamond’sgentlenessisacknowledgedbyNorthWind:
“ButI’mnotagentleman,”saidDiamond,scratchingawayatthepaper.“Ihopeyouwon’tsaysotenyearsafterthis.”“I’mgoingtobeacoachman,andacoachmanisnotagentleman,”persistedDiamond.“Wecallyourfatheragentlemaninourhouse,”saidNorthWind.“Hedoesnotcallhimselfone,”saidDiamond.“That’sofnoconsequence:everymanoughttobeagentleman,andyourfatherisone.”(26)
Indeed,“everymanoughttobeagentleman”inMacDonald’smoralscale,whichmakesadistinctionbetweenphysicalappearanceandspiritualgoodness.Forexample,whiledriving,Diamondloseshiswaysosome“idlers”blockhispathandbotherhim.Luckily,“apale-facedman,inveryshabbyclothes,butwiththelookofagentlemansomewhereabouthim,cameup,andmakinggooduseofhisstick,drovethemoff”(206).Theappearanceofthegentlemancreatestwocontradictorypicturesthataremanifestedthroughtheadjectives“pale-faced”and“shabby,”andthenoun“look.”Thefirstunderminesthephysicalappearanceofthemanbutthesecondhighlights
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hisgentlemanlylook.IfMacDonaldgivesaplentitudeofpicturesthateverymanoughtto
beagentleman,healsogivesthecounterviewthateverygentlemanisnotanobleman.Thenarrator,in“LittleDaylight”, mocksthewickednessofthenoblesbecauseitbringsaboutdestructionforeveryoneinthecountry.Thenarratorcomments:
Aboutthistimeinaneighbouringkingdom,inconsequenceofthewickedness of thenobles,aninsurrectiontookplaceuponthedeathoftheoldking,thegreaterpartofthenobilitywasmassacred,andtheyoungPrincewascompelledtofleeforhislife,disguisedlikeapeasant…butwhenhegotintothat[country]ruledbythePrincess’sfather,andhadnolongeranyfearofbeingrecognized,hefaredbetter,forthepeople were kind.(225;emphasisadded)
Noblesarenotexemptfromwickedness,whichisasymptomoftheircruelinnerintentions.Thewickednessofthenoblesisjuxtaposedbythekindnessofpeopleintheneighboringkingdom.Ononeoccasion,thenarratorinNorth Windassuresthechildreaderthat“allemperorsarenotgentlemen,andallcooksarenotladies—norallqueensandprincessesforthatmatter,either”(15).Similarly,Curdie,inThe Princess and Curdie,issurprisedthatIrene’sgrandmotherappearstohimindifferentshapes.Heasksherhowshecantransformherselfintosomanyshapes,towhichshereplies:“shapesareonlydresses,Curdie,anddressesareonlynames.Thatwhichisinsideisthesameallthetime”(61-62),andmaintainslaterthat
manyalady,sodelicateandnicethatshecanbearnothingcoarserthanthefinestlinentotouchherbody,ifshehadamirrorthatcouldshowhertheanimalsheisgrowinginto,asitlieswaitingwithinthefairskinandthefinelinenandthesilkandthejewels,wouldreceiveashockthatmightpossiblywakeherup.(81)
MacDonald’sreversalofthethemeofnobilityisdeliberatebecauseitquestions,andevensubverts,theestablishedideologyoftheappearanceofnoblemenandestablishesanalternativeideologythatacknowledgestheinnergoodnessofthepoor.Everyonehasthepotentialtobeagentlemanandthecultivationoftheinnergoodnessofheartplacestheoneatthetopofthesocialhierarchyregardlessofwealthorrank.
MacDonaldalsodiscussesnobilitywithinthefamily.ThisisseeninThe Princess and Curdie when Irene’sgrandmotherstressesthenobility
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ofPeter’sfamilyandaimsatcultivatingitthroughCurdie.SheaddressesPeter:“You,Peter,andyourwifehaveboththe blood of the royal familyinyourveins.Ihavebeentryingtocultivateyourfamilytree,everybranchofwhichisknowntome,andIexpectCurdietoturnoutablossomonit”(61;emphasisadded).Theidealfamily,inMacDonald’seyes,islikeatree:thestems,theleaves,andthetrunkworkinharmoniousinteractionthatensuresthetree’s(thefamily’s)survival.Thesimileoftree/familydualrelationshipisarecurrentthemeinMacDonald’snarratives.ThenarratorfurtherarguesthatPeterandJoan
werethehappiestcoupleinthatcountry,becausetheyalwaysunderstoodeachother,andthatwasbecausetheyalwaysmeantthesamething,andthatwasbecausetheyalwayslovedwhatwasfairandtrueandrightbetter—notthananythingelse,butthaneverythingelseputtogether.(42)
ItisapparentthatthecausesofhappinessinCurdie’sfamilyarethemutualunderstandingandrespectofthefamilymembers.AccordingtoMacDonaldtheidealfamilyisbuiltoncompanionship,trust,commitment,andlove. Differentepisodesinhisfairytalesandfantasynovelshighlightsuchidealism.ThefamilysolidaritybetweenCurdieandhisfamily,andDiamondandhisfamily,createsamicrocosmicunitythatensuresthestabilityoftheirfamilies.Likewise,therelationshipbetweenCurdieandhismotherissimilartothatofIrene’swithhergrandmother.ThenarratorarguesthatCurdie’smotherisverykindandonereasonforherkindnessishercareforCurdieandherhusband:“Idoubtiftheprincesswasverymuchhappiereveninthearmsofherhuge-great-grandmotherthanPeterandCurdiewereinthearmsofMrs.Peterson”(98).WhenCurdieinThe Princess and the Goblinproveshimselfhonest,loyal,andbravethekingdecidestotakeCurdiewithhim,butthelatterfeelsthathisdutytowardhisfatherandmotherismoreimportant.Curdietellstheking:“Icannotleavemyfatherandmother,”eventhoughtheparentstrytoconvinceCurdiethattheycangetalongwithouthim.But,filledwithasenseofcareandcommitmenttowardhisparents,Curdiesays:“Ican’tgetonverywellwithoutyou”(235).Whereas,theparentsinThe Princess and CurdieshownoobjectiontolettingCurdiefulfillhismissionandrescuethekingandIrenefromthewickedpeople,becausetheytrustCurdie’shonestyandcourage.Besides,Curdieexpresseshiswillingnesstogo,andthereforefavorsserviceforthecommongoodtothesolidarityofhisfamily:hebelievesthatthecommoninterestofthecountryisnotdifferentfromtheinterestofhisfamily.
Inotherwords,thenuclearfamilyisaminiatureoftheextendedfamily,eachofwhichconsistsofindividualsthatcomplementeachother
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inharmoniousinteractiontowardswhatMacDonaldcallsthe“familytree.”KnowlesandMalmkjærsuggest:
MacDonald’s noble family is wider than the nuclear. It is, in fact, universal, a family of human and beast, grounded in the divine guardian of all nature whom we meet in The Princess and the Goblin and The Princess and Curdie.There,wealsocometounderstandthatawell-turnednuclearfamilyisamicrocosmoftheuniversalfamilyandthatthechildbecomessocializedintobothasitgrowsupwithitsmotherandfather.(174;emphasisintheoriginal)
ThecriticsbasetheirassumptionsonthegroundsthatMacDonaldemphasizessolidarityamongfamilymembersontheonehand,andamongpeopleingeneral,ontheother.DifferentepisodesinMacDonald’sfairytalesandfantasynovelsillustratewhatImean.Forexample,inThe Princess and the GoblinthenursepreventsIrenefromgoinguptothemountainsandtalkingtotheminers’children.Indeliberatecontrasttothenarrow-mindednessofthenurse,thenarratorarguesthat“thetruestprincessisjusttheonewholovesallherbrothersandsistersbest,andwhoismostabletodothemgoodbybeinghumbletowardsthem”(197-198).Curdieignorestheingratitudeandimpertinenceofthenurseandhetakeshertolivewithhisfamily;DiamondtakesNannytolivewithhisfamilywheresheenhancesthefamilialrelationshipsofthefamilymembers.“Curdielikedmostofthem[theminers,]andwasafavouritewithall”(19);allcabdriverslikeDiamondandtheywishthattheyhadasonlikehim.Inaddition,thefamilyrelationshipexceedstheboundariesofthehumanspheretoincludeanimalsthathavethepotentialofhumancompanionship.Forexample,Lina[ananimalcreature]isasourceofhelpforCurdieandshecontributestovictoryofthekingagainstthewickedpeople;andoldDiamond[thehorse]contributestotheexpensesofDiamond’sfamily.
Inconclusion,MacDonaldcontradictsthehierarchicalstructureoftheVictoriansocialscalethatisbasedonhereditaryprivilege,andarguesinfavorofgeneticnobility.InMacDonald’smoralscalethepoorarealsonobleandtheirnobilityensurestheirsocialacceptanceamongthedifferentsocialdivisions.Thus,MacDonaldreversesthethemeofnobilitytoexposethefalsemeaningof“gentlemanly”andtoestablishanalternativeideologythatseesinnobilityastepforwardtofamilysolidarity.Thisstemsfromthefactthatthefamilyisoneofthemainagentsofsocializationandthustheidealfamily,inMacDonald’seyes,isamicrocosmicunitythatcomplementsthemacrocosmicrelationshipsbetweenpeopleinallclassdivisions.InthissenseMacDonald’sidealfamilyisnotdifferentfromhisidealgovernmentbecause
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botharebuiltonteamwork,notontheutilitarianspiritoftheVictorianmiddle-class.
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