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LiteraryLab
Pamphle
SarahAllisonRyanHeuser
MathewJockersFrancoMorettiMichael
Witmore
Quaniaive Formalism:
an Experimen
1
AB
January 15, 2011
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Pamphles of he SanfordLiteraryLab
IISSN 2164-1757 (online version)
IISSN 2164-3431 (prin version)
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Sarah Allison
Ryan Heuser
Mathew Jockers
Franco Moreti
Michael Wimore
Quaniaive Formalism: an Experimen
This paper is he repor o a sudy conduced by ve people our a Sanord, and one
a he Universiy o Wisconsin which ried o esablish wheher compuer-generaed
algorihms could recognize lierary genres. You ake David Coppereld, run i hrough a
program wihou any human inpu unsupervised, as he expression goes and ... can
he program gure ou wheher is a gohic novel or a Bildungsroman? The answer is,
undamenally, Yes: bu a Yes wih so many complicaions ha i is necessary o look a he
enire process o our sudy. These are new mehods we are using, and wih new mehods
he process is almos as imporan as he resuls.
1. Prologue: Docuscope Reads Shakespeare
During he Fall o 2008, Franco Moreti was visiing Madison, where Michael Wimore in-
roduced him o work he and Jonahan Hope had been doing on Shakespeares dramaic
genres, using a ex agging device known as Docuscope, a hand-curaed corpus o sev-
eral million English words (and srings o words) ha had been sored ino grammaical,
semanic and rheorical caegories.1
1 See Jonahan Hope and Michael Wimore, The Very Large Texual Objec: A Prosheic Reading o Shakespeare,
Early Modern Literary Studies9.3 (January, 2004): 6.1-36; Wimore and Hope, Shakespeare by he Numbers: On he
Linguisic Texure o he Lae Plays in Early Modern Tragicomedy, eds. Subha Mukherji and Raphael Lyne (London:Boydell and Brewer, 2007), 133-53; Hope and Wimore, The Hundredh Psalm o he Tune o Green Sleeves:
Digial Approaches Shakespeares Language o Genre, Shakespeare Quarterly61.3, Special Issue: New Media
Approaches o Shakespeare, ed. Kaherine Rowe (Fall 2010): 357-90; and Wimores blog, www.winedarksea.org.
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Docuscope is essenially a smar dicionary: i consiss o a lis o over 200 million pos-
sible srings o English, each assigned o one o 101 uncional linguisic caegories called
Language Acion Types (LATs).2 When Docuscope reads a ex, i does so by looking
or words, and srings o words, ha i can recognize ha is o say, ha i can mach o
one o is 101 LATs. When his happens, he associaed LAT is credied wih one appear-
ance. For example, since Docuscope assigns I and me o he LAT FirsPerson, heiroccurrence in a ex is recorded as an appearance o he LAT FirsPerson.3
Based on hese couns, Hope and Wimore used unsupervised acor analysis a acor,
here, being a patern ha includes some caegories, in variable proporions, and excludes
ohers o creae porrais o received genre disincions such as hose made by he edi-
ors o he Firs Folio (Heminges and Condell), and o he genre o lae romances ha was
rs idenied in he nineeenh cenury. Mulivariae analyses and clusering echniques
made groupings o he plays ha corresponded no only o convenional genre group-
ings, bu also picked ou exs ha criics had idenied as ouliers. 4 Thus, in clusering
Shakespeares Folio plays, he program managed o ake Henry VIIIou o he Hisory playscluser and place i near oher lae plays, a re-adjusmen rom he iniial Folio designa-
ions ha laer criics have advocaed as well. One can see his grouping patern in gure
1 below, aken rom an early complee linkage clusering o he plays.
Aer seeing hese resuls, Moreti asked Wimore wheher he would consider clusering nov-
elisic genres. Wimore agreed, and a meeing was planned or February 2009 a Sanord.
2 For Docuscope, see David Kauer, Suguru Ishizaki, Brian Buler, Je Collins, The Power o Words: Unveiling the
Speaker and Writers Hidden Cra (Lawrence Erlbaum Associaes: New Jersey and London, 2004). A ascinaing
discussion o how he program came o be designed and an early prcis o is caegories can be ound a: htp://
www.beterwriing.ne/projecs/ed01/dsc_ed01.hml, accessed 3 March 2010.
3 Because o he way hey are used in he program, LATs mus be given names wihou spaces. Obviously he char-
acerizaion o he words ha are conained in each o hese caegories is a mater o inerpreaion, as is he choice
o hose words hemselves, which ook place over he course o almos a decade o hand-coding. In general, Wi-
more and Hope use he caegories or LATs o ideniy saisical paterns, hen move rom he caegories o concree
exual insances in order o see how paricular words are uncioning in conex.
4 They discovered, or insance, ha Shakespeares lae romances were disinguished, linguisically, rom hose
ha wen beore hem by word paterns ha allowed speakers o narrae pas acion while highlighing heir own
emoional sance wih respec o hose acions (a process hey called ocalized rerospecion). Specic linguisic
eaures o hese plays were responsible or his eec, or example (1) cerain ypes o subordinaed conjuncion
(a comma, ollowed by he word which) and (2) pas ense verb orms inroduced by a pas ense auxiliary orm o
he verb o be. Comedies and hisories were also shown o be signicanly disinc rom one anoher, wih comedy
possessing a high degree o rs and second person pronouns (classed under he LATs FirsPerson and DirecAd-
dress), a high degree o language expressing uncerainy (he LAT Uncerainy); an absence o nouns and verbs
used o reer o moion, he properies o sensed objecs, and sensed changes in objecs (LATs labeled Moions,
SensePropery, SenseObjec); an absence o rs person plural pronouns (he LAT Inclusive); and an absence owords indicaing social eniies or expecaions ha mus be shared or muually acknowledged (he LAT Common-
Auhoriy).
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3 12 9 13 6 32 29 14 2 7 25 26 2 128 3 6 31 3 4 2 10 8 1 33 4 7 11 5 15 17 20 1 6 22 23 18 1 9 24 3035
Cluster Analysis of Folio Plays
Observations
A Midsummer Nights Dream (3)
Twelh Night (12)
Much Ado About Nothing (9)
Two Gentlemen (13)
Measure for Measure (6)
Othello (32)
Julius Caesar (29)
The Winters Tale (14)
Cymbeline (27)
Antony and Cleopatra (25)
Coriolanus (26)
Henry VIII (21)
Hamlet (28)
Troilus and Cressida (36)
Macbeth (31)
Timon of Athens (34)
Alls Well That Ends Well (2)
Taming of the Shrew (10)
Merry Wives of Windsor (8)
A Midsummer Nights Dream (1)
Romeo and Juliet (33)
Comedy of Errors (4)
Merchant of Venice (7)
The Tempest (11)
Loves Labours Lost (5)
1 Henry IV (15)
2 Henry IV (17)
Henry V (20)
1 Henry VI (16)
King John (22)
Richard II (23)
2 Henry VI (18)
2 Henry VI (19)
Richard III (24)
King Lear (30)
Titus Andronicus (35)
Figure 1: Dendrogram illusraing clusering o Shakespeare plays raed on Docuscopes Language Acion Types
(LATs) produced in 2003. Clusering mehod: complee linkage, Euclidean disances. Noice he presence o
comedies in he rs and hird columns, lae plays and ragedies in he second, and hisories in he ourh and
h. Incorrec classicaions such as Othelloand Loves Labours Lost are discussed on Wimores blog, www.
winedarksea.org.
2. February 2009: Docuscope Recognizes Novelisic Genres
The saring poin o he sudy was a corpus o 250 19h cenury Briish novels rom he
Chadwick-Healey collecion.5 Working wih exising genre bibliographies, Moreti pu
ogeher a sample o 36 exs loosely comparable o he Shakespeare corpus o he rs
Docuscope experimen, which comprised 12 genre ses, divided ino wo groups o 6. The
rs group (ses 1 hrough 6) included 4 gohic novels, 4 hisorical novels, 4 naional ales,
4 indusrial novels, 4 silver-ork novels, and 4 Bildungsromane. O he 6 ses in he second
group, 3 were also presen in he rs (ses 8, 9, and 12: 2 exs each rom indusrial novels,
gohic novels, and Bildungsromane), whereas he oher 3 were no (ses 7, 10, and 11: 2
exs each rom ani-Jacobin, evangelical, and Newgae novels). Docuscopes ask was o
nd and mach he 3 ses rom he second group ha were also presen in he rs.6
5 We limied ourselves o his daabase because mos oher exs available on he web in 2006-8 appeared oo
unreliable or our purposes. Today, our assessmen would be dieren, and a new iniial pool would probably modiy
imporan aspecs o our research.
6 This is he complee lis o he exs: se 1 (gohic novels): A Sicilian Romance, The Old Manor House, The Monk,and Melmoth the Wanderer; se 2 (hisorical novels): Waverley, Ivanhoe, The Entail, and Valperga; se 3 (naional
ales): Castle Rackrent, The Wild Irish Girl, The Absentee, and Marriage; se 4 (indusrial novels): Shirley, Alton
Locke, Hard Times, and North and South; se 5 (silver-ork novels): Glenarvon, Vivian Grey, Pelham, and Mrs Ar-
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To be sure he wouldn unconsciously il his work on Docuscopes resuls in a pre-deer-
mined direcion, Wimore asked o be old nohing abou he exs he was receiving; ile-
pages were removed rom he les (hey oen provide giveaway clues ha are less iner-
esing han he microlinguisic moves ha ge made in he ex), and he lierally walked
ino he meeing wihou knowing how Docuscope had perormed. He was hoping ha
Docuscope would ail a his es, he emailed us a ew days beore he meeing, since Ihave a sake in arguing ha i is maerial consrains on perormance (in plays) ha allows
Docuscope o make inelligible genre discriminaions when i comes o Shakespeare. I
Docuscope urns ou o be good a picking genres o novels as well, I am going o have o
expand my noion o maerial consrain in is relaionship o language pracices. (Laer,
hough, he seemed pleased a how well Docuscope had done.)
Wimore used a variey o measures o mach he genres rom he wo groups. For ex-
ample, he assessed he degree o which mulivariae saisical analysis could produce
acors ha would pry apar pairs rom one anoher a acor being a patern o having
cerain LATs and lacking cerain ohers.7
He also compared each pairing agains a col-lecion o exs called he Frown Corpus (early 1990s American English) o see when hey
boh exhibied idenical elevaed and depressed scores on LATs in comparison wih he
average score rom Frown.8 By combining hese echniques, Wimore came up wih he
ollowing maches: 2:9 (wih 1:9 a close second), 4:8, and 6:12. When he curain was lied,
i urned ou ha Docuscopes only misake consised in mis-maching group 9 (gohic
novels) wih group 2 (hisorical) raher han 1 (gohic): a mix-up mos lierary hisorians
would consider venial, or maybe even ineviable, given he porous borders beween hese
wo genres. (And hen, as Wimore wroe in his presenaion, he correc 1-9 pairing was
indeed a close second.)
mytage, or Female Domination; se 6 (Bildungsromane): Jane Eyre, The History o Pendennis, David Coppereld,
and Daniel Deronda; se 7 (ani-Jacobin novels): Mordaunt, and Adeline Mowbray; se 8 (indusrial novels): The Lie
and Adventures o Michael Armstrong,the Factory Boy, and Mary Barton; se 9 (gohic novels): The Mysteries o
Udolpho, and Zofoya, or, The Moor; se 10 (evangelical novels): Coelebs in Search o a Wie, and Sel-Control; se
11 (Newgae novels): Eugene Aramand Jack Sheppard; se 12 (Bildungsromane): Great Expectationsand Middle-
march.
Rerospecively, his lis is odd and awed in wo opposie ways. Firs, he 36 exs were chosen so as o maxi-
mize variaion wihin each given genre. Alhough quie wrong as a way o selec a sample rom a populaion, his
choice was mean o increase he severiy o he es: Docuscope had o prove i could recognize a genre even
when given a quie disparae bundle o specimens. I his increased he difculy o he enerprise, a second deci-
sion did he exac opposie: insead o giving Wimore 36 exs o be assigned o various generic classes, Moreti
gave him discree groups ha were already subdivided ino genres. This, clearly, made maters much easier, as he
inernal variaion wihin any given genre could be averaged ou by looking a he group as a whole.
These odd, aniheical decisions show how unprepared we were as a group or should we say: as a discipline?
or his ype o research. The idea o a random sample, or insance, never really crossed our minds...
7 One can hink o a acor as a recipe or describing recurring paterns o variaion in a larger collecion o iems. I
each novel is a sack o cards, Docuscope examines all o he decks and couns wha is in hem. Then acor analy-
sis goes hrough all o he conens o each sack and says, whenever I see los o red sixes, I see very ew ours and
ves o any kind. These recipes o presences and absences can hen be esed agains imposed groups o hose
sacks (genres) o see i he acors reliably disinguish iems rom each.
8 Use o a reerence corpus seemed like a good idea, and since Frown had been used o es Docuscope in is
developmen, hose comparisons were buil ino he ool and so available or ready use. I urned ou ha he Frown
comparisons were he mos accurae in predicing lierary criical genre judgmens.
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As he meeing was nearing is end, John Bender asked he hard quesion ha was hang-
ing in he air: Sriking as hese resuls were, did we hink hey had produced new knowl-
edge? The answer, o course, was No: Docuscope had corroboraed wha lierary scholars
already knew or a leas were convinced o i.e. ha cerain exs belonged o he same
class. No new knowledge here. Bu ha human judgmen and unsupervised saisical
analysis would agree on genre classicaion his wasa novely ha had emerged romhe es. Jus as Docuscope had corroboraed exising scholarship, he later had proven
Docuscopes reliabiliy. We waned o know wheher i could replicae is Shakespeare
resuls in unamiliar erriory, and i could; ha rs experimen had no been a uke. A
compuer could classiy lierary exs. And when Wimore in passing, and almos as an
aerhough showed an old, unpublished char rom his Shakespeare sudy, he pos-
sibiliy seemed even richer in implicaions.
3. March 2009: Mos Frequen Words Recognize Novelisic Genres
Docuscope had passed he es. Was i he only program ha could do so? Mathew Jock-
ers, who had been working on auhorship sudies or a while, waned o see wheher he
mehods he had been developing could be applied o genre recogniion as well. In many
ways, genre classicaion is akin o auhorship atribuion. Bu here is one imporan di-
erence. Wih auhorship problems, one atemps o exrac a eaure se ha excludes
conex-sensiive eaures rom he analysis, he consensus being ha a se made up
primarily o requen, or closed-class, word eaures yields he mos accurae resuls. For
genre classicaion, however, one would inuiively assume ha conex words say:
casle in gohic novels would be criical. Ye, Jockerss preliminary resuls suggesed
ha an equally disinc genre signal may be deeced rom a small se o high-requency
eaures.
Using jus 44 word and puncuaion eaures which we evenually ended up calling Mos
Frequen Words, or MFW Jockers was able o classiy he novels in he corpus as well
as Wimore had done wih Docuscope (and is ar more complex eaure se). 9 Using he
dis and hclus uncions in he open-source R10 saisics applicaion, Jockers clus-
ered he exs in he dendrogram o gure 3.1:
9 To derive his eaure se, Jockers lowercased he exs, couned and convered o relaive requencies he vari-
ous eaure ypes, and hen winnowed he eaure se by choosing only hose eaures ha have a mean relaive
requency o .03% or greaer. This resuled in a marix consising o he ollowing 44 eaures (he prex p_ in-
dicaes a puncuaion oken ype insead o a word oken): a, all, and, as, a, be, bu, by, or, rom,
had, have, he, her, him, his, i, in, is, i, me, my, no, o, on, p_apos, p_comma, p_exlam,
p_hyphen, p_period, p_ques, p_quoe, p_semi, said, she, so, ha, he, his, o, was, which,wih, you.
10 htp://www.r-projec.org/
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National
Industrial1
Industrial2
Newgate
Silver-Fork
Bildungsroman1
Bildungsroman2
Evangelical
AntiJacobin
Gothic2
Gothic1
Historical
Plot Created: Feb. 9, 2009
By: mjockers
Novelistic Genres
Using Euclidean Distance with Complete Linkage and 42 Features
Figure 3.1: Cluser Dendrogram o novel genres using Mos Frequen Words (MFW).
Aer Jockers shared his resuls wih Wimore, Wimore suggesed esing his mehodol-
ogy on he Shakespeare corpus. Once again, MFW accuraely clusered he majoriy o
Shakespeares plays ino he ragedies, comedies, hisories, and lae plays o gure
3.2.
Quaniaive Formalism, reads he ile o his aricle. Formalism, because all o us, in one
way or anoher, were ineresed in he ormal convenions o genre; and quaniaive, be-
cause we were looking or more precise ideally, measurable ways o esablish generic
dierences. So, we really waned Docuscope and MFW o do well. Bu so well, no one had
hough possible: no only were genre signals quie srong hey were equally srong a
wholly diferen exual levels: jus as recognizable by Docuscopes mix o grammar and
semanics, as by he handul o uncion words o MFW. The convergence was so clear, i
was almos spooky: i suggesed ha he logic o genre reached a deph ha no one had
imagined, and no one really knew how o explain. The requency o aricles and conjunc-
ions which allowed he idenicaion o Newgae novels or Bildungsromanein ex aer
ex could his really be essenial o he uncioning o a genre? Why?
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Comedy_AllsWell
Comedy_Merchant
Comedy_Measure
Comedy_AsYouComedy_MuchAdo
Comedy_Errors
Comedy_Two Gentlemen
Comedy_TwelhNight
Tragedy_Othello
Comedy_MerryWives
Comedy_Taming
History_JOHN
History_1HENRYVI
History_RICHARDII
History_HENRYV
History_2HENRYIV
History_HENRYIV
Late_HenryVIII
Tragedy_Hamlet
Tragedy_Titus
History_RICHARDIII
History_2HENRYVIIHistory_3HENRYVI
Tragedy_Macbeth
Tragedy_Coriolanus
Late_Cymbeline
Late_Winters
Comedy_LoveLabours
Comedy_Midsummer
Tragedy_Julius
Tragedy_Romeo
Tragedy_Troilus
Late_Tempest
Tragedy_Timon
Tragedy_Antony
Tragedy_Lear
Plot Created: Feb. 4, 2009
By: mjockers
Shakespeare Plays
Using Euclidean Distance with Complete Linkage and 37 Features
Figure 3.2: Dendrogram o Shakespeare Firs Folio plays using Mos Frequen Words wih major clusers highligh-
ed. Here Jockers used he 37 eaures rom he Shakespeare plays ha had a mean relaive requency o greaer han
or equal o .03%. Noe he similariy beween his ree and Docuscopes diagram in g. 1.1, wih he close pairings o
Winters Taleand Cymbeline; 2 Henry VIand 3 Henry VI, and he proximiy oCoriolanuso he Cymbeline-Winters
Talepair.
As soon as school was over, we me again.
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4. June 2009: Forking Pahs
Our nex meeing, a Sanord, began wih Wimore showing a page ha Docuscope had
isolaed as he mos gohic o he enire corpus ha is o say, he one which presened
an exremely high number o ypically gohic eaures (gure 4.1):
Figure 4.1: Docuscope screensho o okens diereniaing he gohic rom several oher genres, drawn rom Ann
Radclie, A Sicilian Romance(1790). These diereniaing bundles o LATs were idenied hrough acor analysis
and ANOVA, wih acors winnowed hrough he Tukey es.
I was an ineresing momen; no jus because he idea o a genres ypical page was un-
usual and inriguing, bu because, as Sarah Allison immediaely poined ou, he gohic o
Docuscope appeared o be quie dieren rom ha o Humanscope (as she called i): i
was no he same gohic wesaw. For us, ha page was gohic because o he subdued er-
ror and he archway, he ruin and apprehension and he limbs ha rembled no because
o he he him his had was sruck he and heard he which caugh Docuscopesatenion. Beween he wo approaches, here seemed o be nohing in common. Or per-
haps, more precisely: nohing in common, in erms o heir unis o analysis;bu everyhing
in common in erms o resuls: wheher via banditi and blood, or utered he and covered
him, Humanscope and Docuscope agreed ha his page belonged o he gohic, and o
no oher genre. And a his poin, he idea ha had rs conusedly crossed our minds a
ew monhs earlier crysallized once and or all: genres, like buildings, possess disincive
eaures a every possible scale o analysis: morar, bricks, and archiecure, as Ryan Heus-
er, pu i: he morar, he grains o sand, o Mos Frequen Words, he bricks o Docuscopes
lexico-grammaical caegories, and he archiecure o hemes and episodes ha readers
recognize. The hree layers were no even overlapping; heir signals were largely disincrom each oher. Dieren as he hree layers were among hemselves, hough, hey were
also dieren rom he corresponding layers o oher genres: he gohic morar oally
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unlike he morar o he naional ale, or he ani-Jacobin novel; he gohic bricks unlike
he bricks used by oher genres, and he same or he more visible archiecural shapes.
We will reurn o he concepual quesions posed by hese observaions owards he end
o his aricle. On ha day in June, hough, somehing else seemed even more inspiring:
he char we briey menioned a he end o secion 2, which displayed all o Shakespeare
plays along wo orhogonal axes (gure 4.2: Shakespeares Plays)
AD
DA
A
A
A
AA
B DD
DA
AD
BB
B
DDB
B D DBCC A
A
D
BA
C
B
Shakespeares Plays
PC2
PC1
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2 -1 0 1 2
Figure 4.2: Scaterplo marix in which Shakespeares plays are raed on heir rs wo principal componens aer
having been couned by Docuscope and analyzed in erms o aggregaes o LATs. PCA perormed on he covari-ance marix, unscaled daa. Iem key: A = comedy, B = Hisory, C = Lae Plays, D = Tragedies. Noe how he wo
componens place comedies in he upper righ quadran, hisories in he lower le, and several lae plays in he
lower righ (whereas ragedies, or some reason, are dispersed all over he eld).
Wimore and Hope had abandoned he idea o publishing his diagram in a scholarly book
o radiional lierary criicism: hey el i would be more eecive o make heir poin en-
irely wih words. Bu he group saw in he char he promise o an inuiive, synheic view
o he lierary eld, wih each genre placed in relaion o all he ohers. Moreti, in paricular,
was sruck by he similariy beween he char and he principal componens chars ha
Cavalli-Sorza (e.al.), in The Hisory and Geography o Human Genes, had used o racerelaionships among human populaions.11 Could narraive genres be similarly reduced o
wo basic variables? And would he ensuing disribuion correlae wih, say, Bourdieus
11 See L. Luca Cavalli-Sorza, Paolo Menozzi, and Albero Piazza, The History and Geography o Human Genes,
Princeon UP 1994, especially pp. 39. Principal componen analysis is a procedure, similar o acor analysis, which
reduces he variance exising wihin a group o objecs -- in our case, he linguisic-sylisic dierence among lier-
ary exs -- o wo orhogonal axes, called Principal Componen 1 and 2 (PC1 and PC2). Principal Componen 1 is he
combinaion o eaures ha expresses he maximum amoun o variance available o a single componen; Principal
Componen 2 displays a urher increase o variance orhogonally wih respec o PC1. Taken ogeher, PC1 and PC2
are a very economical way o represening as much variance as i is possible on wo dimensions; however, heynever express he oal amoun o variance wihin a sysem, bu, raher, a rade-o beween high inuiive visibiliy
and a (limied) loss o precision.
Shakespeares Plays
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sociological (bu highly subjecive) map o he French lierary eld? Could we acually
map morphology over social disincion?
Wimores char seemed perec or all his. Even he ac ha i wasn perec wih hose
ragedies udging he more orderly paterns o he oher genres seemed a sign o reli-
abiliy, as hisory is isel never perec. So, we decided o repea he atemp wih novelis-
ic genres. I he resuls were good, wo urher developmens would become imaginable.
Firs, he sysem o genres migh urn rom a hodge-podge o unrelaed caegories12 o
a single marix o inerconneced ormal variables. And, second, i migh become pos-
sible o char he Grea Unread he vas, unexplored archive ha lies underneah he
narrow canon o lierary hisory. One could give Docuscope and MFW housands o exs
o unknown generic afliaion, and see where hey would all in he graviaional eld o
beter-known genres. One could envisage generaion-by-generaion maps o he lierary
universe, wih galaxies, supernovae, black holes ...
Wih hese quesions running hrough our heads, we re-deployed he February and March
daa along he lines o gure 4.2. The rs visualizaion, produced by MFW gure 4.3 urned ou o be perecly ambiguous: promising and perplexing in equal measure. There
was cerainly less clariy han in he Shakespeare case; bu, we were charing wice as many
genres, and over a much longer period. And hen, some paterns werevisible: wih a ew
excepions, gohic and hisorical novels lay on he negaive side o principal componen
1 (he le side o he horizonal axis), while he Bildungsromanand indusrial novels were
clearly on is posiive side. For us, his was boh good and bad news. Good, because a
patern is wha one always looks or, in exploraory work. Bu bad, because he patern was
chronological, more han ormal: one generaion, hen a second, more conused one, and
hen a hird. Was principal componen 1 capuring genresignals hen or hisorical ones?
The later seemed more likely, especially given how poorly hose genres ha ourished
in he same years (gohic/hisorical; silver-ork/Newgae; indusrial/Bildungsroman) were
separaed. Hisory seemed deniely sronger han orm.
Bu here were also some daa ha conradiced he hisorical alignmen: in he crowded
cenral secion, which conained genres rom wo dieren generaions, he verical axis
o PC2 which separaed ani-Jacobin and evangelical novels rom Newgae sories
migh be capuring genre signals aer all.13 Would i be possible o isolae such signals,
and magniy hem?
12 Righ now, he very names o novelisic genres are a elling even maddening sign o caegorical conusion
highlighing now he novels medium (he episolary novel), now is conen (hisorical, indusrial), syle (nauralis),
proagonis (picaresque, pasoral), all he way o more or less anciul meaphors (gohic, silver-ork).
13 Then again, wih only wo exs each or hese genres, his could easily be he resul o chance. Or no.
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11
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
E
E
G
G G
G
G
G
H
H
H
H
I
I
I
I
I
N
N
N
N
K
K
S
S
S
S
3 2 1
2
1
PC1
PC2
All Novels Using 51 Features
0
1
2
0 1 2
Figure 4.3: A graphical represenaion o he rs wo principal componens in a PCA analysis o he Mos FrequenWords (MFW). Each leter represens a single ex (A=ani-Jacobin novels, B=Bildungsromane, E=evangelical nov-
els, G=gohic novels, I=indusrial novels, K=Newgae novels, N=naional ales, S=silver-ork novels).
5. June-Sepember 2009: Dead End
From June o Sepember, Wimore and Jockers kep looking or ways o improve he early
resuls o PC analysis. Firs, hey segmened he exs o see wheher smaller unis would
improve diereniaion. All exs were divided ino en equal pars bu he resuls did nochange much. Then, noicing ha he segmens disribuion was oen very uneven as
in gure 5.1, where abou one hird o hem udge an oherwise good separaion beween
gohic and hisorical novels we decided o label all he segmens: Hisorical.8.1 would
indicae he rs segmen o Windsor Casle(which happened o be he eighh hisorical
novel in our corpus); Gohic.1.10 he enh segmen o Vahek(which was he rs gohic
ex), and so on. The overlap among dieren genres migh urn ou o be limied o spe-
cic porions o he exs (beginnings, or endings); i ha were so, and genres became
more disincive more hemselves, as i were a specic momens in he plo, hen one
could ocus on hose momens and magniy heir separaion. I was a plausible, perhaps
even an ingenious hypohesis. Bu no. Some novels were mos disincive early on; oh-ers, lae in he plo; or in he middle; or nowhere in paricular.
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+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
++
++
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
++
+
+++
+++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
++ + +
+
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
++
+
+
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Group
Gothic
Historical
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
PC2
PC1
36 Novels
Figure 5.1: 8000-word segmens o he rs wo groups o 36 novels, raed by Docuscope on rs wo principal
componens. In all PCA analyses below, daa are scaled (i.e., PCA is perormed on he correlaion marix o percen-
age scores).
Nex, we urned o he composiion o our corpus: as explained in oonoe 6, he iniial
collecion o 36 exs ended o exaggerae variaion wihin each genre, making lie unnec-
essarily hard or Docuscope and MFW. We reurned o he Chadwyck-Healey daabase
and added o he iniial corpus all hose exs ha exising bibliographies had assigned o
specic genres; included wo new genres (Jacobin and sensaion novels); and repeaed
all he calculaions on he new corpus o 106 exs.14
Nohing.
14 This second corpus also included a ew exs, mosly rom minor genres, scanned or us by he Sanord librar-ies. Since however he Chadwyck-Healey daabase remained he major source, canonical exs sill predominaed:
o 28 hisorical novels, or insance, 14 were by Scot.
36 Novels
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13
Maybe rying o char eigh decades a once was oo much. We divided he corpus ino
hree generaions;15 hough o course less crowded, he new chars were jus as indeci-
sive. By he end o summer, i was clear ha he resuls were no longer changing.
6. November 2009: Auhors vs. Genres
In November, in he course o a eleconerence which included he ve auhors and a ew
Sanord grad sudens, we looked again a he 3 generaional maps, which now included
all individual exs (gures 6.1-3), and all o a sudden realized how srong he auhor sig-
nal was. Remember, we didn wan auhors; we waned genres. Bu i was impossible no
o noice ha Docuscope and MFW clusered he ormer much beter han he later. Wih
Dickens, Bron, and Elio, or insance who had all writen boh indusrial novels and Bil-
dungsroman he pull o he auhor in gure 6.3 was clearly much sronger han ha o
he genre; and he same was rue or Bulwer-Lytons Las Days o Pompeii, Eugene Aram,and Pelham, closely clusered ogeher in gure 6.2, despie he ac ha hey belonged o
he raher dieren genres o hisorical, Newgae, and silver-ork cion.
PC1
PC2
4
2
0
2
4 2
Genres
Five Genres in PCA Space
Anti-Jacobin
Evangelical
GothicJacobinNational
0 2 4
ShelleySmith
RadcliffeInchbald
Morgan
Edgeworth
Figures 6.1-3: Generaional analysis o original 36 novels as raed by Docuscope on rs wo principal componens.
Noice he proximiy among he exs by Inchbald, Smih, Radclie, Shelley, Morgan, and Edgeworh in 6.1; by Ain-
sworh, Porer, Lyton, Gal, and o course Scot, in 6.2; by Gaskell, Dickens, Bron, Collins and Elio in 6.3.
15 The rs generaion (ca. 1790-1820) included gohic, Jacobin, ani-Jacobin, naional ales, and evangelical nov-els; he second (ca. 1815-1850) hisorical, silver-ork, and Newgae novels; he hird (ca. 1845-1875) indusrial, Bil-
dungsroman, and sensaion novels.
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14
GenresHistorical
Newgate
Silver Fork
Three Genres in PCA Space
PC1
PC2
4
2
0
2
4
4 2 0 2 4
Porter
Lyon
Ainsworth
Sco
Figure 6.2: (see capion above)
GenresBildungsroman
Industrial
Sensation
Three Genres in PCA Space
PC1
PC2
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
2
Collins
Eliot
Bronte
Dickens
Gaskell
0 2 4
Figures 6.2-3: (See capion or 6.1)
Why should auhors be so much more recognizable han genres? Probably, because
Docuscope and MFW are very good a capuring somehing all wriers do, wheher heyknow i or no: using impercepible linguisic paterns ha provide an unmisakable sy-
lisic signaure. Genres also have such sylisic signaures, o course; bu genres have a
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15
narraivesignaure oo heir plo which is a leas as imporan. The episodes ha so
powerully ideniy he Bildungsromanor insance discussions wih old menors and
young riends, alse sars, disappoinmens, he discovery o ones vocaion ... all his
has no equivalen in a sensaion novel; jus as a sensaion novels myseries and murders
would make no sense in an indusrial novel, and so on. So, wha happens when he same
wrier moves rom one genre o anoher when, say, Dickens moves rom he indusrialnovel Hard Timeso he urban muliplo o Litle Dorri, he hisorical Tale o Two Ciies, or
he Bildungsromano Grea Expecaions wha happens is ha his plos change, buhis
syle doesn. Or no as much. The sories o Cokeown, London, or Paris are much more
dieren han he words Dickens uses o narrae hem. His language remains basically he
same.
Why did Docuscope and MFW recognize auhors so well, hen and genres less well? Be-
cause hey had been designed o recognize language, bu no plo.16 They were probably
doing he bes ha could be done in separaing genres on he sole basis o heir language
and syle; bu language and syle are jus no enough o delimi a genre rom anoher. Andaer all, why should hey be? In addressing heir readers, genres use boh syle and plo
(in he nineeenh cenury, probably, more plo han syle): our programs were missing
hal o he srucure, and i made sense ha hey should be only hal successul. Hal suc-
cessul does no mean un-successul. Bu i does sugges ha an analyical ool capable
o quaniy plo is sill missing.17 And as long as ha is he case, he generic disribuion
eeced by Docuscope and MFW was oo random o suppor a good lierary axonomy,
le alone an exploraion o he archive. The Grea Unread would, or he ime being, remain
unread.
7. December 2009: 220 Chars
In December, Allison, Heuser, and Moreti urned o a new se o visualizaions: wo series
o chars ha included all possible pairings among he 11 genres o he enlarged cor-
pus (gohic/Jacobin, gohic/ani-Jacobin, gohic/naional ale, and so on, all he way o
he oher end o he chronological specrum). These chars came in wo orms; he rs
showed he disribuion o wo genres based on MFW (gure 7.1) and Docuscope (g-
ure 7.2). These were our basic ools, allowing us o inuiively grasp wheher wo specic
genres separaed well as gohic and sensaion novels in gures 7.1-2 or no. (MFW andDocuscope, incidenally, urned ou o be equally able or unable, as he case may be o
separae genres rom each oher.)
16 They can cerainly see how acions are described: wih simple or complex senences, sressing subjecive mood
or objecive resuls, surprise or rerospecion. Bu hey can hardly see wha acions consis o: a sorys chrono-
logical (and semanic) chain largely eludes hem.
17 This nding cheered Wimore, since i suggess ha in novelisic represenaion, plo provides an avenue o
generic diereniaion ha has to beless visible o Docuscope because i does no have o be ied o he physical
limis o he medium, whereas Renaissance drama consanly grappling wih he difculy o elling sories wihreal bodies in a ew hours migh have his exra-sylisic avenue oreclosed, leading o more legible (because
maerially consrained) generic syles a he level o he senence.
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16
PC1
PC2
4
2
0
2
4
Genres
Gothic
Sensation
5 0 5
Two Genres in PCA Space
Figure 7.1: Mos Frequen Word scater plo. Here, and in all oher PCA chars, each poin (circle or riangle) on he
plo sands or one segmen (one enh) o a ex.
PC1
PC2 Genres
Gothic
Sensation
Two Genres in PCA Space
2
0
2
4
6
6 4 2 0 2 4
Figure 7.2: Docuscope scater plo.
The second ype o char re-deployed he circles and riangles o gures 7.1-2 add-
ing wo urher eaures. Firs, i agged each segmen, making explici which (par o
which) ex i came rom: he circles in he lower righ corner o gure 7.1, or insance,
urned ou in gure 7.3 o belong o Vahek, hus bringing o ligh he cenraliy
or eccenriciy, as he case may be o each ex wihin is genre (an issue which
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17
may have proound consequences or our knowledge o genre, and which we plan
o invesigae in he uure). And hen, gures 7.3-4 also indicaed which rais o he
wo principal componens conribued o he specic shape o a genres disribu-
ion: which words, or Docuscope Dimensions exered a sronger pull in separaing
gohic rom sensaion novels. So, or insance, he lower righ quadran o gure 7.3
highlighs he denie aricle as an imporan dierenial eaure o he gohic in MFWanalysis (compare wih gure 7.1); in gure 7.4, a similar role is played, in he lower le
quadran, by Narraive VP, Pronouns, and Reporing Evens (compare wih gure
7.2).18
5
5
0
5
PC1
PC2
Goth_01_1_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_10_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_2_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_3_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_4_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_5_1786_Beckf_VathekTranGoth_01_6_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_7_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_8_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_9_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_02_1_1788_Smith_EmmelinethGoth_02_10_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_2_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_3_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_4_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_5_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_6_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_7_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_8_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_9_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_03_1_1790_Radcl_AS
Goth_03_10_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_2_1790_Radcl_ASicilianRGoth_03_3_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_4_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_5_1790_Radcl_A
Goth_03_6_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_7_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_8_1790_Radcl_ASicilianRGoth_03_9_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_04_1_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_10_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_2_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_3_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_4_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_5_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_6_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_7_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_8_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_9_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_05_1_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_10_1794_Radcl_TheMysteriGoth_05_2_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_3_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_4_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_5_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_6_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_7_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_8_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_9_1794_Radcl_TheMysteriGoth_06_1_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_10_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_2_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_3_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_4_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_5_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_6_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_7_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_8_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_9_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_07_1_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_10_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_2_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_3_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_4_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_5_1797_Radcl_TheItalianGoth_07_6_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_7_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_8_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_9_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_08_1_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_10_1799_Godwi_StLeonATalGoth_08_2_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_3_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_4_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_5_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_6_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_7_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_8_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_9_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_09_1_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_10_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_2_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_3_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_4_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_5_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_6_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_7_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_8_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_9_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_10_1_1810_Shell_ZastrozziAGoth_10_10_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_2_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_3_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA Goth_10_4_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_5_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_6_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_7_1810_Shell_ZastrozziAGoth_10_8_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_9_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_11_1_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_10_1820_Matur_MelmoththeGoth_11_2_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_3_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_4_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_5_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_6_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_7_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_8_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_9_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_12_1_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_10_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_2_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_3_1818_Shell_FrankensteGoth_12_4_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_5_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_6_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_7_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_8_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_9_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_13_1_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_10_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_2_1793_Smith_TheOldManoGoth_13_3_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_4_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_5_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_6_1793_Smith_TheOldManoGoth_13_7_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_8_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_9_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Sens_01_1_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_01_10_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_01_2_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_01_3_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_01_4_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_01_5_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_01_6_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_01_7_1862_Bradd_LadyAudleySens_01_8_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_01_9_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley
Sens_02_1_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
Sens_02_10_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
Sens_02_2_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
Sens_02_3_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
Sens_02_4_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
Sens_02_5_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
Sens_02_6_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
Sens_02_7_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
02_8_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
_02_9_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto
Sens_03_1_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_03_10_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_03_2_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_03_3_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_03_4_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_03_5_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_03_6_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
ns_03_7_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_03_8_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_03_9_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy
Sens_04_1_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_04_10_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_04_2_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_04_3_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_04_4_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_04_5_1859_Colli_TheWomaninSens_04_6_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_04_7_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_04_8_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_04_9_1859_Colli_TheWomanin
Sens_05_1_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
Sens_05_10_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
Sens_05_2_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
Sens_05_3_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
Sens_05_4_1861_WoodH_EastLynneBSens_05_5_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
Sens_05_7_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
Sens_05_8_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
Sens_05_9_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
a
all
an
andas
at
be
but
by
for
from
hadhave
he
her
him
his
i
if
in
is
it
memy
no
not
of
on
or
p_apos
p_comma
p_exlam
p_hyphen
p_period
p_ques
p_quote
p_semi
said
she
so
that
the
they
this
to
was
were
what
when
which
who
will
with
would
you
your
0 5
Figure 7.3: Mos Frequen Word scaterplo (ligh grey iles) and componen loadings (black).
18 As each o he 55 genre pairings appeared in his double orm, we examined 110 chars produced by Docus-
cope, and 110 produced by MFW. The mapping echnique used in gs. 7.3-4, in which dierenial rais becomevisible wihin he disribuion o he daa hemselves, is described in Mick Al, Exploring Hyperspace: A Non-Math-
ematical Explanation o Multivariate Analysis, McGraw-Hill, London-NY 1990, chaper 4.
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18
Goth_01_10_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_1_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_2_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_3_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_4_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_5_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txtGoth_01_6_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_7_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_8_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_9_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_02_10_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txtGoth_02_1_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_2_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_3_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txtGoth_02_4_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_5_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_6_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_7_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_8_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_9_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_03_10_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_1_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_2_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_3_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_4_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_5_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_6_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_7_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_8_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txtGoth_03_9_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_04_10_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_1_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_2_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_3_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txtGoth_04_4_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_5_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_6_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_7_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_8_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_9_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txtGoth_05_10_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_1_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_2_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_3_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_4_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txtGoth_05_5_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_6_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_7_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_8_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txtGoth_05_9_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_06_10_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txtGoth_06_1_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txtGoth_06_2_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_3_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_4_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_5_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txtGoth_06_6_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_7_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_8_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_9_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txtGoth_07_10_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txtGoth_07_1_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txtGoth_07_2_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_3_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_4_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_5_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_6_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txtGoth_07_7_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_8_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_9_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_08_10_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_1_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_2_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txtGoth_08_3_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_4_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_5_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_6_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_7_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_8_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_9_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_09_10_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_1_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_2_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_3_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_4_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_5_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_6_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txtGoth_09_7_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_8_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_9_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_10_10_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
h_10_1_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_2_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_3_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
h_10_4_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_5_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_7_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_8_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_11_10_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_1_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_2_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_3_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_4_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_5_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_6_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_7_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_8_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_9_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_12_10_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txtGoth_12_1_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_2_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_3_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_4_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_5_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_6_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_7_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_8_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txtGoth_12_9_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_13_10_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_1_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_2_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_3_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_4_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_5_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_6_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_7_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_8_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_9_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Sens_01_10_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_01_1_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_01_2_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_01_3_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txtSens_01_4_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_01_5_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_01_6_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_01_7_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_01_8_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_01_9_1862_Bradd_LadyAudley.txt
Sens_02_10_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_02_1_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_02_2_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_02_3_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_02_4_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_02_5_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_02_6_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_02_7_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_02_8_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txtSens_02_9_1868_Colli_TheMoonsto.txt
Sens_03_10_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_03_1_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_03_2_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_03_3_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_03_4_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txtSens_03_5_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_03_6_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_03_7_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_03_8_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_03_9_1866_Colli_ArmadaleBy.txt
Sens_04_10_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_04_1_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_04_2_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_04_3_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txtSens_04_4_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_04_5_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_04_6_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_04_7_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_04_8_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_04_9_1859_Colli_TheWomanin.txt
Sens_05_10_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txt
Sens_05_1_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txt
Sens_05_2_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txt
Sens_05_3_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txt
Sens_05_4_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txtSens_05_5_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txtSens_05_6_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txtSens_05_7_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txt
Sens_05_8_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txtSens_05_9_1861_WoodH_EastLynneB.txt
Asides
Citation
CommunicatorRoles
Comparing
Constructive_Reasoning
ContingentReasoning
CuriosityRaising
Decisiveness
Defining
Descriptive_Features
DirectAddress
Directives
Excepting
Exemplifying
FirstPerson
FollowingUp
FormalQuery
Future
GeneralizingGeneric_firstPerson_Interior
Give_Feedback
Immediacy
Intenseness
Intimacy
MetaDiscourse
Narrative_Time
Narrative_VP
Negative_Emotion
Negative_Relations
NegativeValues
OppositionalReasoning
Past
PersonRoles
Positive_Relations
PositiveValues
Private_Cognitions
Pronouns
Public_Language Questions
Quotations
Reference_Abstract_Words
Reference_Language
Reporting_Change
Reporting_Events
Reporting_Process
Reporting_States
Requests
Specifying
Subjectivity
Take_Responsibility
Positive_Emotion
5
5
0
5
PC1
PC2
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 5
Figure 7.4: Docuscope scaterplo (ligh grey iles) and componen loadings (black).
As we sudied our chars, i became clear ha hey resed on wo premises ha were
quie dieren rom hose o curren genre heory: hey never looked a a genre per se, in
isolaion, bu always and only in relaion o anoher genre; and hey were no ineresed
in hose eaures ha could add up o a synheic ideal-ype, bu only in hose ha could
difereniaeone genre rom an anoher. This relaional-dierenial emphasis made or a
very realisic approach, reminiscen o Bourdieus posiion-aking: jus like auhors
or schools, genres engage in a sruggle or recogniion: one could almos eel, no jus
he dierence, bu he conico orms in hose rais ha pulled hem in one direcion or
he oher. And ye, his image o genre was clearly also incomplee, because dierenial
eaures may ell us all we need o know in order o demarcae one orm rom anoher,
and ye very litle abou ha orms inner srucure. I all men in an audience wore pink,
and all women blue, he colours would diereniae hem perecly, and ell us nohing
abou hem. Well reurn o his poin a he end o he aricle.
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7/30/2019 Literary Lab Pamphlet 1
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19
GenresNational
Silver Fork
Two Genres in PCA Space
PC1
PC2
6
4
2
0
4
5 0 5
2
Figure 7.5: Mos Frequen Word scaterplo o wo genres raed on rs wo principal componens.
GenresNational
Silver Fork
Two Genres in PCA Space
PC1
PC2
6
4
2
0
4
6 4 2 0 2 4
2
Figure 7.6: Docuscope scaterplo o wo genres raed on rs wo principal componens.
Now, one hing ha he chars made clear was he variabiliyo genre signals: quie srong
in gures 7.1-2, or insance, bu raher weak in abou one ourh o he cases like gures
7.5-6, where neiher MFW nor Docuscope managed o exricae naional ales rom silver-
ork novels. Why some genres should be so hard o separae especially in a case likehis, where he dierence, inuiively, ough o be quie vivid was an inriguing quesion;
bu we decided o leave i or anoher sudy, and ocus insead on a group o chars where
-
7/30/2019 Literary Lab Pamphlet 1
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20
he separaion was raher good, and dependen on a recurring se o rais: he pairings o
gohic novels wih he hree ideological genres Jacobin, ani-Jacobin, and evangelical
novels ha were heir shor-lived conemporaries.19 Since he chars were all similar, we
reproduce here only he gohic/Jacobin pairings: gures. 7.7-8, based on MFW, and gures
7.9-10, based on Docuscope and is Dimensions.
Two Genres in PCA Space
PC2
4
2
0
4
2
PC1
5 50
GenresGothic
Jacobin
Figure 7.7: Mos Frequen Word scaterplo o wo genres raed on rs wo principal componens.
To beter undersand he relaionship beween he wo genresand o begin o pu he
gures ino languagewe looked closely a he eaures ha were paricularly eecive
a separaing gohic rom Jacobin along he rs principal componen (PC1: he x-axis in
gures 7.7-10). A principal componen ranks he likelihood o cerain eaures occurring,
so exs are sored according o he eaures hey lack, as well as by he eaures hey have.
19 One o our problems was ha we had auomaed our comparisons, using only he rs wo (and hereore, mos
powerul) principal componens o pull apar he genres. O course, PCA generaes muliple componens and here
are ways o esablishing (or example, he Tukey es) wheher any given componen sors wo groups. Bu wewaned some raw measure o sorabiliy among pairs, which is wha led us o simply prole all o he pairs on heir
rs wo componens and leave oher poenially quie powerul componens aside.
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7/30/2019 Literary Lab Pamphlet 1
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21
5
0
5
PC1
PC2
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
5 0 5
Goth_01_1_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_10_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_2_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_3_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_4_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_5_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_6_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_7_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_8_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_01_9_1786_Beckf_VathekTran
Goth_02_1_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_10_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_2_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_3_1788_Smith_EmmelinethGoth_02_4_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_5_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_6_1788_Smith_EmmelinethGoth_02_7_1788_Smith_Emmelineth Goth_02_8_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
Goth_02_9_1788_Smith_Emmelineth
th_03_1_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_10_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_2_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_3_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_4_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR_5_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_6_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_7_1790_Radcl_ASicilianRGoth_03_8_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_03_9_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR
Goth_04_1_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_10_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_2_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_3_1791_Radcl_TheRomanceGoth_04_4_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_5_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_6_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_7_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_8_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_04_9_1791_Radcl_TheRomance
Goth_05_1_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_10_1794_Radcl_TheMysteriGoth_05_2_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_3_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_4_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_5_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_6_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_7_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_8_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_05_9_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri
Goth_06_1_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_10_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_2_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARoGoth_06_3_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_4_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_5_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_6_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_7_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_8_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_06_9_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo
Goth_07_1_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_10_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_2_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_3_1797_Radcl_TheItalianGoth_07_4_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_5_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_6_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_7_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_8_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_07_9_1797_Radcl_TheItalian
Goth_08_1_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_10_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_2_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_3_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_4_1799_Godwi_StLeonATalGoth_08_5_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_6_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_7_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_8_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_08_9_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal
Goth_09_1_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_10_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_2_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_3_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_4_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_5_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_6_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_7_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_8_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_09_9_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT
Goth_10_1_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_10_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_2_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_3_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_4_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_5_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_6_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_7_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_8_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_10_9_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA
Goth_11_1_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_10_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_2_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_3_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_4_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_5_1820_Matur_MelmoththeGoth_11_6_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_7_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_8_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_11_9_1820_Matur_Melmoththe
Goth_12_1_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_10_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_2_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_3_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_4_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_5_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_6_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_12_7_1818_Shell_FrankensteGoth_12_8_1818_Shell_FrankensteGoth_12_9_1818_Shell_Frankenste
Goth_13_1_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_10_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_2_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_3_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_4_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_5_1793_Smith_TheOldManoGoth_13_6_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_7_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_8_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Goth_13_9_1793_Smith_TheOldMano
Jaco_01_1_1796_BageR_Hermsprong
Jaco_01_10_1796_BageR_HermsprongJaco_01_2_1796_BageR_Hermsprong
Jaco_01_3_1796_BageR_Hermsprong
Jaco_01_4_1796_BageR_Hermsprong
Jaco_01_5_1796_BageR_Hermsprong
Jaco_01_6_1796_BageR_H
Jaco_01_7_1796_BageR_Hermsprong
Jaco_01_8_1796_BageR_Hermsprong
Jaco_01_9_1796_BageR_Hermsprong
Jaco_02_1_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_02_10_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_02_2_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_02_3_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_02_4_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_02_5_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_02_6_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_02_7_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsThJaco_02_8_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_02_9_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh
Jaco_03_1_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_03_10_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_03_2_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_03_3_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_03_4_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_03_5_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_03_6_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_03_7_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofEJaco_03_8_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_03_9_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE
Jaco_04_1_1792_Holcr_AnnaS
Jaco_04_10_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves
Jaco_04_2_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves
Jaco_04_3_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves
Jaco_04_4_1792_Holcr_Ann
Jaco_04_5_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves
Jaco_04_6_1792_Holcr_Ann
Jaco_04_7_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves
Jaco_04_8_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIvesJaco_04_9_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves
Jaco_05_1_1794_Holcr_TheAdventuJaco_05_10_1794_Holcr_TheAdventuJaco_05_2_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu
Jaco_05_3_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu
Jaco_05_4_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu
Jaco_05_5_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu
Jaco_05_6_1794_Holcr_TheAdventuJaco_05_7_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu
Jaco_05_8_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu
Jaco_05_9_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu
Jaco_06_1_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_10_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_2_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_3_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_4_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_5_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_6_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_7_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_8_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_06_9_1796_Inchb_NatureandA
Jaco_07_1_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto
Jaco_07_10_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto
Jaco_07_2_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto
Jaco_07_3_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto
Jaco_07_4_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto
Jaco_07_5_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto
Jaco_07_6_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto
Jaco_07_7_1791_Inchb_ASimpleStoJaco_07_8_1791_Inchb_ASimpleStoJaco_07_9_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto
Jaco_08_1_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_10_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_2_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_3_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_4_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_5_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_6_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_7_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_8_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_08_9_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo
Jaco_09_1_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_10_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_2_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_3_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_4_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_5_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_6_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_7_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_8_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
Jaco_09_9_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso
a
all
an
and
as
at
be
but
by
for
from
had
have
heher
him
his
i
if
in
is
it
me
my
nonot
of
on
or
p_apos
p_comma
p_exlam
p_hyphen
p_period
p_ques
p_quote
p_semi
said
she
so
thatthe
they
this
to
was
were
what
when
which
who
will
with
would
you
your
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Figure 7.8: Mos Frequen Word scaterplo wih iles (ligh grey) and componen loadings (black).
Roughly speaking, we ound ha he gohic novel averages less alk and more acion han
he Jacobin. Words and phrases ha characerize gohic exs show a marked narraive
inclinaion: pas ense and pronouns; spaial preposiions; and words marked by Docus-
cope as Narraive Time (or example, whils, when he, as he). See in MFW, on he
le side o gure 7.8: was, had, who, she, he, her, his, hey, he ubiquious he, and he
large group o locaive preposiions rom, on, in, a; in Docuscope, on he le side o g-
ure 7.10, see Narraive VP (or example, heard he, reached he, commanded he) and
Pronouns. Markers associaed wih oral discourse, on he oher hand, end no o occur in
gohic novels: a oregrounding o he addressee (you, your), quesions, polemical markers
(bu, no), and verbs ineced in he presen, uure and condiional. In MFW, noe on he
righhand side o gure 7.8 he cluser o you, p_ques [?], bu, i, no, is, will, and would;
in Docuscope, on he righ o gure 7.10, see Quesions, Opposiional Reasoning (no,
bu, however), and, jus below i, Direcives (should, mus, you will soon). Though
Jacobin exs generally ack in his direcion, hey are more scatered han he gohic ones.Wha separaes he genres here seems o be, no so much he absence o narraive in
Jacobin exs, bu he presence o alk, somehing like an argumenaive syle.
-
7/30/2019 Literary Lab Pamphlet 1
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22
Two Genres in PCA Space
PC2
6
4
2
0
2
6
PC1
4 26 0 2 4 6
GenresGothic
Jacobin
Figure 7.9: Docuscope scaterplo o wo genres raed on rs wo principal componens.
-
7/30/2019 Literary Lab Pamphlet 1
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23
5
0
5
PC1
PC2
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.1
0
.2
0.3
5 0 5
Goth_01_10_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_1_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_2_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txtGoth_01_3_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_4_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txtGoth_01_5_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_6_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_7_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_8_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_01_9_1786_Beckf_VathekTran.txt
Goth_02_10_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_1_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_2_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_3_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_4_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txtGoth_02_5_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_6_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_7_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_02_8_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txtGoth_02_9_1788_Smith_Emmelineth.txt
Goth_03_10_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_1_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_2_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_3_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_4_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_5_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_6_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_7_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_03_8_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txtGoth_03_9_1790_Radcl_ASicilianR.txt
Goth_04_10_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_1_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_2_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_3_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_4_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_5_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_6_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_7_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_8_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_04_9_1791_Radcl_TheRomance.txt
Goth_05_10_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_1_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_2_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_3_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_4_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txtGoth_05_5_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txtGoth_05_6_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_7_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_05_8_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txtGoth_05_9_1794_Radcl_TheMysteri.txt
Goth_06_10_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_1_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_2_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_3_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_4_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_5_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txtGoth_06_6_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_7_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txtGoth_06_8_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_06_9_1796_Lewis_TheMonkARo.txt
Goth_07_10_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_1_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_2_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_3_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txtGoth_07_4_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_5_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txtGoth_07_6_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_7_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_8_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_07_9_1797_Radcl_TheItalian.txt
Goth_08_10_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_1_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_2_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_3_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_4_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_5_1799_Godwi_StLeonATalGoth_08_6_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_7_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txtGoth_08_8_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_08_9_1799_Godwi_StLeonATal.txt
Goth_09_10_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_1_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_2_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txtGoth_09_3_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_4_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_5_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_6_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_7_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txtGoth_09_8_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_09_9_1806_Dacre_ZofloyaorT.txt
Goth_10_10_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_1_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_2_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_3_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_4_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_5_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_6_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_7_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_8_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_10_9_1810_Shell_ZastrozziA.txt
Goth_11_10_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_1_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_2_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_3_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_4_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_5_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txtGoth_11_6_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_7_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txtGoth_11_8_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_11_9_1820_Matur_Melmoththe.txt
Goth_12_10_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_1_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_2_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_3_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_4_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_5_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_6_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_7_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_8_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_12_9_1818_Shell_Frankenste.txt
Goth_13_10_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_1_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_2_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txtGoth_13_3_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_4_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_5_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_6_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_7_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_8_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Goth_13_9_1793_Smith_TheOldMano.txt
Jaco_01_10_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txtJaco_01_1_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txt
Jaco_01_2_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txt
Jaco_01_3_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txtJaco_01_4_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txt
Jaco_01_5_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txtJaco_01_6_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txt
Jaco_01_7_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txt
Jaco_01_8_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txt
Jaco_01_9_1796_BageR_Hermsprong.txt
Jaco_02_10_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txt
Jaco_02_1_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txt
Jaco_02_2_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txt
Jaco_02_3_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txt
Jaco_02_4_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txtJaco_02_5_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txt
Jaco_02_6_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txt
Jaco_02_7_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txtJaco_02_8_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txt
Jaco_02_9_1794_Godwi_ThingsAsTh.txt
Jaco_03_10_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_03_1_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txtJaco_03_2_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_03_3_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_03_4_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_03_5_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_03_6_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_03_7_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_03_8_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_03_9_1796_HaysM_MemoirsofE.txt
Jaco_04_10_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves.txt Jaco_04_1_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIv
Jaco_04_2_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves.txt
Jaco_04_3_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves
Jaco_04_4_1792_Holcr_A
Jaco_04_5_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves.txt
Jaco_04_6_1792_Holcr_Ann
Jaco_04_7_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIv
Jaco_04_8_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves.txt
Jaco_04_9_1792_Holcr_AnnaStIves.txt
Jaco_05_10_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txt
Jaco_05_1_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txtJaco_05_2_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txt
Jaco_05_3_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txt
Jaco_05_4_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txt
Jaco_05_5_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txt
Jaco_05_6_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txtJaco_05_7_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txt
Jaco_05_8_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txt
Jaco_05_9_1794_Holcr_TheAdventu.txt
Jaco_06_10_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_06_1_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_06_2_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txtJaco_06_3_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_06_4_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_06_5_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_06_6_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_06_7_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_06_8_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_06_9_1796_Inchb_NatureandA.txt
Jaco_07_10_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_07_1_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txtJaco_07_2_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_07_3_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_07_4_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_07_5_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_07_6_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_07_7_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_07_8_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_07_9_1791_Inchb_ASimpleSto.txt
Jaco_08_10_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_1_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_2_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_3_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_4_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_5_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_6_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_7_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_8_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_08_9_1799_HaysM_TheVictimo.txt
Jaco_09_10_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txt
Jaco_09_1_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txt
Jaco_09_2_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txt
Jaco_09_3_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txt
Jaco_09_4_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txtJaco_09_5_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txt
Jaco_09_6_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txt
Jaco_09_7_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txtJaco_09_8_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txt
Jaco_09_9_1798_Wolls_TheWrongso.txt
Asides
Citation
CommunicatorRoles
Comparing
ConstructiveReasoning
ContingentReasoning
CuriosityRaising
Decisiveness
Defining
scriptive_Features
DirectAddress
Directives
Excepting
Exemplifying
FirstPerson_Interior
F ollowing_Up
Formal_Query
FutureGeneralizing
Generic_First_Person
GiveFeedback
Immediacy
Intenseness
Intimacy
MetaDiscourse
Narrative_Timearrative_VP
Negative_Emotion
Negative_Relations
NegativeValues
OppositionalReasoning
Past
PersonRoles
P ositive_Emotion
Positive_Relations
Positive_Values
Private_Cognitions
Pronouns Public_Language
Questions
Quotations
Reference_Abstract_Words
Reference_Language
Reporting_Change
Reporting_Ev
Figure 7.10: Docuscope scaterplo wih iles (ligh grey) and componen loadings (black).
Such, hen, were he raw daa ha our analyic echniques had placed in ron o us.
Could hey become good inerpreive quesions? We ried. Noicing, or insance, he
high requency o he condiional in he ideological genres where, indeed, possibiliy
is imporan Jockers and Moreti compiled a lis o he (more or less) 13,000 senences
ha included would; looked a he associaed pronouns, adjecives, and adverbs; a he
ypes o verbs involved; a he negaive orms, he pas ense ... A ew resuls sood ou:
would+never occurred wice as oen in he gloomy evangelical novels han elsewhere,
or insance; and he impersonal pronoun i was 50% more requen in Jacobin and ani-
Jacobin novels ull o absrac discussions o principle han anywhere else. Boh nd-
ings made perec sense. Bu were hey also surprising? They cerainly corroboraed and
enriched exising knowledge o he genres in quesion. Did hey also changei?
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8. March 2010: Experimens, Exploraions, Hypoheses
In March, we me or one las rerospecive glance a a year o work. Why had we urned o
Docuscope and MFW in he rs place? Because we were looking or an explici, quani-
able way o assign exs o his or ha genre. I was, in par a leas, a mater o atribuion.
Atribuion ... To race every piece o is real creaor, wries Carlo Ginzburg,
we should no depend () on he mos conspicuous characerisics o a pain-
ing, which are he easies o imiae: eyes raised owards he heavens in he
gures o Perugino, Leonardos smiles, and so on. We should examine, insead,
he mos rivial deails ha would have been inuenced leas by he manner-
isms o he ariss school: earlobes, ngernails, shapes o ngers and o oes.
Earlobes, ngernails ... I is in hese involunary signs, Ginzburg coninues,
in he maerial ries a calligrapher migh call hem ourishes compa-
rable o avorie words and phrases which mos people inroduce ino heir
speaking and wriing uninenionally, oen wihou realizing i, ha Morelli
recognized he sures clue o an ariss ideniy.20
Involunary signs: his is ceranly wha MFW and LATs are. Bu are hey jusha? Because,
clearly, here is a problem wih earlobes and ngernails: good as hey migh be a ideniy-
ing he auhor o a paining, hey are worhless a explaining is meaning. In ac, hey are
good a he one becausehey are bad a he oher: is only because ries have no sruc-
ural uncion, ha auhors le go and wrie uninenionally, wihou realizing i hereby
beraying hemselves. I hose words were imporan, hey would be more careul.
There is somehing paradoxical in hese rais ha classiy so well, and explain so litle.Especially so in our case: because, aer all, MFW and LATs were in a leas one respec
he very opposie o earlobes and ngernails: insead o being rare and peripheral deails,
hey were so requen as o be almos ubiquious. And how could such pervasive rais ell
us nohing abou he srucure o genre? I was possible, o course, ha i was all our aul;
ha, alhough we had managed o isolae he daa, and were probably he rs o see
hem, we jus didn know how o make sense o hem. Possible; and we are ready o place
our daa a he disposal o ohers, who may obain beter resuls.
Bu here is also a simpler explanaion: namely, ha hese eaures which are so eec-
ive a diereniaing genres, and so enwined wih heir overall exure hese eaurescanno oer new insighs ino srucure, because hey aren independen rais, bu mere
consequences o higher-order choices. Do you wan o wrie a sory where each and every
room may be ull o surprises? Then locaive preposiions, aricles and verbs in he pas
ense are bound o ollow. They are he efecso he chosen narraive srucure. And, yes,
once Docuscope and MFW oreground hem, making us ully aware o heir presence, our
knowledge is analyically enriched: we see he space o he gohic, or he link beween
acion verbs and objecs (highlighed by he requency o aricles), wih much greaer
clariy. Bu, or he ime being, he gain seems o be comparaive more han qualiaive:
greaerclariy, raher han clariy o a dieren ype.
20 Carlo Ginzburg, Clues, in Clues, Myths, and the Historical Method, Hopkins UP 1989, pp. 96-7, 118.
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We sared wih an experimen: esing he classiying power o Docuscope in a new and
conrolled seting. The experimen hen urned ino an exploraion: Docuscope and MFW,
charing he eld o novelisic genres, and heir inner composiion. Exploraory Daa
Analysis, as John Tukey has called i: deecive work, ocusing on clues ha lead o new
quesions, and a broader undersanding o he daa. Saisical ndings, said Heuser, made
us realize ha genres are icebergs: wih a visible porion oaing above he waer, and amuch larger par hidden below, and exending o unknown dephs. Realizing ha hese
dephs exis; ha hey can be sysemaically explored; and ha hey may lead o a muli-di-
mensional reconcepualizaion o genre: such, we hink, are solid ndings o our research.
Now, more exploraions are on he horizon: he swich rom unsupervised o supervised
echniques, or insance; or he explici inclusion o semanic daa, which we have so ar
mosly avoided so as o ocus more sricly on he ormal properies o genres. And hen, a
he end o i all, he grea challenge o experimenal work: he consrucion o hypoheses
and models capable o explaining he daa. This sudy is a sep in ha direcion.
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Abou Us
The Sanord Lierary Lab, direced by Mathew Jockers and Franco Moreti, discusses, de-
signs, and pursues lierary research o a digial and quaniaive naure. The Lab is open o
all sudens and aculy a Sanord - and, on a more ad hoc basis, o sudens and aculy
rom oher insiuions.
We envisage a variey o projecs, ranging rom disseraion chapers o courses, individ-
ual or group publicaions, conerence papers and panels, and even shor books. Ideally,
research will ake he orm o a genuine experimen, and exend over a period o one or
wo years. On our websie (lilab.sanord.edu) you will nd a lis o our presen aciviies,
mos o which gaher ogeher several projecs, and are open o urher collaboraion. We
plan o iniiae wo more experimens in 2010-11, and add anoher wo in 2011-12.
A he Lab, all research is collaboraive (even hough some oucomes may end up having
a single auhor). We hold regular group meeings o evaluae he progress o a specic
experimen, he saus o exising hypoheses, and uure research developmens. (I iner-esed in hese meeings, please conac Jockers or Moreti: as a rule, visiors are welcome.)
Occasionally, we will have public presenaions o our research, which will be announced
on our websie under Evens.
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AB